diff --git a/eolss_unl_uwId.txt b/eolss_unl_uwId.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..47c1aaf9ac49ab2b6bf9f71c09bf950f1afe0148
--- /dev/null
+++ b/eolss_unl_uwId.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,281528 @@
+ [D dn="eolss" did="2022-07-06 18:45:41" ]
+
+[S:2]
+{org:en}
+Health problems and their resolution
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100180228:0S.@entry, 105687338:09.@pl)
+mod(105687338:09.@pl, 113923779:02)
+mod(100180228:0S.@entry, 600000020:0M.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3]
+{org:en}
+Yasumoto Magara
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(500323605:0B.@entry, 500324364:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4]
+{org:en}
+Professor of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(110480730:02.@entry, 500323531:0S)
+plc(500003919:1D, 103593222:1M)
+plc(500323531:0S, 500003919:1D)
+plc(500003919:1D, 103593222:1M)
+plc(500323531:0S, 500003919:1D)
+mod(110480730:02.@entry, 106125041:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5]
+{org:en}
+Naoyuki Funamizu
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323138:0A.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6]
+{org:en}
+Associate Professor of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(110480730:0C.@entry, 500323531:12)
+plc(500323531:12, 500003919:1N)
+plc(500323531:12, 500003919:1N)
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+mod(110480730:0C.@entry, 106125041:0P)
+plc(500003919:1N, 103593222:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7]
+{org:en}
+Shosaku Kashiwada
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323061:0A.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8]
+{org:en}
+Research associate, Nicholas School of Environment and Earth Sciences, Duke University, North Carolina, USA
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107284848:0B.@entry, 104146050:0V)
+mod(104146050:0V, 105999797:1R.@pl)
+mod(104146050:0V, 105999797:1R.@pl)
+plc(104146050:0V, 500000411:21)
+mod(107284848:0B.@entry, 100636921:02)
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9]
+{org:en}
+Mitsugu Saito
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115695666:0A.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10]
+{org:en}
+Senior Researcher, Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center, Tokyo, Japan
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(115670073:09.@entry, 100725506:1K)
+mod(100725506:1K, 303162050:0L)
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+plc(100725506:1K, 500003907:1S)
+aoj(301013681:02, 115670073:09.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11]
+{org:en}
+Sombo T. Yamamura
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323158:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12]
+{org:en}
+Visiting Fellow of Institute of Advanced Study, The United Nations University, Tokyo, Japan
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(110083358:0B.@entry, 500323659:1I.@def)
+mod(108407330:0L, 104345028:17)
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+mod(110083358:0B.@entry, 303162905:02)
+mod(110083358:0B.@entry, 108407330:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:13]
+{org:en}
+Katsuyoshi Tomono
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323118:0D.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:14]
+{org:en}
+Senior Engineering Advisor, Tokyo Engineering Consultants, Co., Ltd., Japan
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301013681:02, 109774266:0L.@entry)
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+[W]
+
+[/W]
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+mod(109774266:0L.@entry, 106125041:09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:15]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:16]
+{org:en}
+acute effects and chronic effect, adequate sanitation, appropriate technology, aquaculture, community participation, composting toilet, faeco-oral transmission, fish cultivation, johkasou, open defecation, pit latrine, population growth, primary health ca
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(104644512:BK.@entry, 500323959:BD)
+obj(104644512:BK.@entry, 200737884:BZ)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:17]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:18]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:19]
+{org:en}
+Constrains to improving water and sanitation services
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(202774185:0G, 100098625:19.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:20]
+{org:en}
+Health implications of some major water development projects
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[W]
+
+[/W]
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+
+[S:21]
+{org:en}
+Reclaimed water and health issues
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:22]
+{org:en}
+Aquaculture water reuse and health
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(113923779:0U.@entry, 115689531:0K)
+mod(107935504:0E, 100916147:02)
+mod(115689531:0K, 107935504:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:23]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:24]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:25]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:26]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketches
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:27]
+{org:en}
+Aquaculture water reuse and health
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(113923779:0U.@entry, 115689531:0K)
+mod(107935504:0E, 100916147:02)
+mod(115689531:0K, 107935504:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:28]
+{org:en}
+Fish and other marine products which are captured either from fresh water or seawater are essential protein sources for human being.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:29]
+{org:en}
+Although there are differences between countries, people who live in an area located at easy access to aquatic environments consume more fish than people without this facility.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(202614387:1R, 102735688:22.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:30]
+{org:en}
+Fish generally have a life cycle of egg, larva, adult fish and spawning, and they have a life style specific to each stage.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(200065370:0H, 400041954:07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:31]
+{org:en}
+Therefore, the impact of water pollution on an aquatic organism largely depends on the stage in the life cycle, as well as the type of organism.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:32]
+{org:en}
+Each species and individual in an aquatic environment is not living independently, but has close relations with other species and individuals - the whole comprising an interacting ecosystem.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:02(110203839:3O.@entry.@pl, 105844881:3C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:33]
+{org:en}
+Fish cultivation including artificial hatching needs a great amount of water, and water reuse is a necessary measures for economic reasons and conservation of limited water resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(115689531:2I.@topic, 107935504:2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:34]
+{org:en}
+It is vital, however, to pay attention to water quality, not only for preventing adverse effects on the cultured fish and the ecosystem, but also for protection of the health of the people using cultivated fish as a protein source.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(104809642:2J.@pl, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:35]
+{org:en}
+Effect on physiological function of aquatic life
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100720565:0Q, 100006269:1A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:36]
+{org:en}
+The toxic effects of water pollution are classified into acute effects and long-term chronic effects.
+{/org}
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+Death of aquatic organisms is mainly caused by poisoning, asphyxiation due to oxygen deficit, destruction of epidermal tissue affected by corrosive poison such as acids and alkalis, and so on.
+{/org}
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+[S:39]
+{org:en}
+;;A large number of agents including heavy metals such as copper, cadmium, zinc, led, and chromium, agricultural chemicals, and synthetic chemicals such as phenol and cyanogens, are categorized as toxic agents.A large number of agents including heavy metals such as copper, cadmium, zinc, lead, and chromium, agricultural chemicals, and synthetic chemicals such as phenol and cyanogens, are categorized as toxic agents.
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+Death from suffocation is mainly effected by decrease of dissolved oxygen, caused by excessive organic materials in water systems.
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+[S:41]
+{org:en}
+Fish sometimes suffer from oxygen starvation because turbid components of mud, fibers in pulp mill effluent, or oil, accumulate on the surface of fish gills.
+{/org}
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+[S:42]
+{org:en}
+They often die of suffocation, or their body surface is damaged by corrosive poison such as acid, alkali, organic acid, or hydrogen sulfide.
+{/org}
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+[S:43]
+{org:en}
+One of the methods of estimating the toxicity in water is bioassay that uses responses of captive animals as the judgmental standard.
+{/org}
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+[S:44]
+{org:en}
+Toxicity to fish is represented by HTM1 value (Median Lethal Concentration).
+{/org}
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+
+[S:45]
+{org:en}
+This generally indicates the concentration that results in the death of 50% of test aquatic organisms within a fixed time period-96 hours for fish and 24 hours for HTM1 Daphnia HTM2 were recommended in the OECD guidelines for testing chemicals.
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+{org:en}
+In contrast, for terrestrial mammals, HTM1 (Median Lethal Dose) was used
+{/org}
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+the specific observation period depends on test organism.
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+{org:en}
+The former, however, represents the toxic concentration in the water, while the latter represents the dosage to the body of the test organisms.
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+It should be noted that HTM1 value is a mere index of relative toxicity of specific materials under specific test conditions
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+the value does not indicate the concentration that is considered to be safe or harmless in the contaminated water.
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+
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+{org:en}
+Water quality standards should be maintained so that fish and other aquatic life can live and propagate normally, and fisheries can be managed sustainably.
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+{org:en}
+It should be noted, however, that water for aquatic life cannot be defined in terms of concentration of a single substance.
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+{org:en}
+The quality is affected by the different type of life, differences even within one species, between various environmental conditions, by individuality and seasons, and antagonistic or synergistic effects of coexisting elements.
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+[S:54]
+{org:en}
+General limiting conditions for water quality are given in Table 10.
+{/org}
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+[S:55]
+{org:en}
+Table 10.
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+
+[S:56]
+{org:en}
+Limit concentrations for fish
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+[S:57]
+{org:en}
+Water quality for aquatic life
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+
+[S:58]
+{org:en}
+Although there are some differences between countries, people of island countries such as the United Kingdom and Japan consume a high proportion of animal protein from fish or aquatic products.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:59]
+{org:en}
+Therefore, even though toxic components in the water do not directly harm the physiology and biology of the aquatic organisms, many problems exist from the viewpoint of human beings who regularly eat aquatic organisms.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:60]
+{org:en}
+Bioconcentrated effects on fish from polluted ambient water make the commercially valuable fishes smell.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:61]
+{org:en}
+Odorized fish cause huge damage to the fishing industry.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:62]
+{org:en}
+It is said that the concentration limits to odorize fish are 1.7 ppm for petroleum ether extracts, 0.86 ppm for creosote, 1.89 ppm for fuel oil and 0.89 ppm for waste oil.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:63]
+{org:en}
+It is recognized that 0.01 ppm of oil odorizes water, and the water odorizes the marine fish there within 24 hours.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:64]
+{org:en}
+It is known that petroleum refining waste, phenol-included waste, and pulp mill effluent also odorize aquatic organisms.
+{/org}
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+[S:65]
+{org:en}
+It is clear that the components of the odorant are not single materials, but complexes of several components such as saturated hydrocarbons, unsaturated hydrocarbons, aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons and thiophene compounds.
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+[S:66]
+{org:en}
+Aquatic organisms living in polluted water that contains pathogenic bacteria or toxic components, are a threat to the health of any human beings that may eat them.
+{/org}
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+[S:67]
+{org:en}
+More than 90% of food poisoning caused by eating aquatic products is linked to bacterial contamination.
+{/org}
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+To prevent effluent from aquaculture having serious effects on public health, the reuse of aquaculture water has become a priority.
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+Aquaculture water reuse will then make a positive contribution to the maintenance of human health and convenience.
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+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
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+Assessment 2000
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+[S:90]
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+The Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000, a joint monitoring program by WHO and UNICEF.
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+[S:91]
+{org:en}
+Ciguatera
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+[S:92]
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+A form of human poisoning caused by the consumption of subtropical and tropical marine finfish which have accumulated naturally occurring toxins through their diet.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Ciguatera results from the eating of reef fish affected with ciguatoxin.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:94]
+{org:en}
+Ciguatoxin acts on the sodium channels, thereby causing changes in the electrical potential and permeability of cells.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+Composting
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+
+[S:96]
+{org:en}
+Fermentation process of organic waste to produce fertilizer or soil conditioner.
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+{org:en}
+DID
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+Densely inhabited district.
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+man(202654416:0A.@past, 400299753:02)
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+[S:99]
+{org:en}
+Drainage
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+[W]
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+[/W]
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+[/S]
+
+[S:100]
+{org:en}
+Discarded water, whether it is used or not.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202222318:02.@past, 107935504:0C.@entry)
+obj(201158572:0X, 600000016:0R)
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+man(201158572:0X, 400024073:15)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:101]
+{org:en}
+Eutrophication
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:102]
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+Enrichment by nutrients of a lake and other water body, typically characterized by algal blooms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:103]
+{org:en}
+Blue-green algae such as HTM1 Microcysitis HTM2 produce a toxin that affects aquaculture, animals and human beings.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[W]
+115690514:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:105]
+{org:en}
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+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+:01.@entry
+[/W]
+and:01(114855724:0C.@entry, 115695206:02)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:106]
+{org:en}
+Gappei-shori Johkasou
+{/org}
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+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:107]
+{org:en}
+A Johkasou system which treat all domestic wastewater including human excreta.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:108]
+{org:en}
+Gray water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303162591:02, 107935504:07.@entry)
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+
+[S:109]
+{org:en}
+Domestic wastewater excluding human excreta.
+{/org}
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+[S:110]
+{org:en}
+IDWSSD
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:111]
+{org:en}
+International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:112]
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+[/S]
+
+[S:113]
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+Small-scale wastewater treatment system for individual housing.
+{/org}
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+mod(103546340:1L, 300493460:1A)
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+
+[S:114]
+{org:en}
+Median Lethal Dose-the dose of a compound that causes the death of 50% of test organisms under a specific observation period.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{org:en}
+Median Lethal Concentration that causes death of 50% of test organisms within 24 to 48 hours.
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+qua(:4F, "50%":1F)
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+obj(600000006:21, 105131023:2H.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:116]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is much the same as TLm value
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300355611:0I.@entry, HTM1:02.@topic)
+mod(104979425:0U, 500324320:0Q)
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+man(300355611:0I.@entry, 400053744:0A)
+bas(300355611:0I.@entry, 104979425:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:117]
+{org:en}
+Median Tolerance Limit.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324176:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:118]
+{org:en}
+Night soil
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(109335240:08.@entry, 113983717:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:119]
+{org:en}
+Human excreta transported without flush-water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000043:0S, 107935504:10)
+obj(600000043:0S, 107935504:10)
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+pur(107935504:10, 107439570:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:120]
+{org:en}
+Open Defecation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300036254:02, 113459088:07.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:121]
+{org:en}
+Outdoor excretion usually without any hygienic measure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(302113191:14, 100174412:1D)
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+mod(100174412:1D, 600000052:10)
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+[S:122]
+{org:en}
+Pol Pot regime
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+mod(115669360:0A.@entry, 500323439:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:123]
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+Cambodian communist regime stained with massacre and rule of horror from 1975 to 1979.
+{/org}
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+mod(:01, 103537866:1R)
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+and:01(105846054:1J.@entry, 115695623:16)
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+[S:124]
+{org:en}
+PPWSA
+{/org}
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+500324245:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:125]
+{org:en}
+Phnom Penh Water Supply Agency.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324238:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:126]
+{org:en}
+Reclaimed wastewater
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200383871:02.@past, 115669276:0C.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+Bibliography
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+[/S]
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+[S:143]
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+Almedom A.M., Blumenthal U. and Manderson L.
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+Hygiene Evaluation Procedures, Approaches and Methods for Assessing Water- and Sanitation-Related Hygiene Practices
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+Appraisal of Water Supply Rehabilitation Project in the Republic of the Philippines.
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+Waterborne pathogens HTM1 , Manual of water supply practices, First edition.
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+American Water Works Association, Denver, USA.
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+Chorus I., Ringelbond U., Schlag G. and Schmoll O.
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+[S:155]
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+Water, Sanitation & Health, Resolving Conflicts between Drinking-Water Demands and Pressure from Society's Waste
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+London
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+
+[S:158]
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+IWA Publishing.
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+
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+This is the proceedings of the international conference held in Bad Elster, Germany in 24-28 November 1998
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+[/S]
+
+[S:160]
+{org:en}
+Howard G.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:161]
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+On-site Sanitation and Groundwater
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+
+[S:162]
+{org:en}
+the Art of Balancing Unknown Risks?
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+Waterlines 17.4, On-site Sanitation and Groundwater Quality
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+pp.2-5.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:165]
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+London
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+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:166]
+{org:en}
+Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323842:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:167]
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+This article looks at the concerns on possible risks of on-site sanitation and goes on to point to some possible ways forward
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+[S:168]
+{org:en}
+Kalbermatten J. M., Julius D. S. and Gunnerson C. G.
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+and(500323234:13.@entry, 500323091:0M)
+and(500323091:0M, 500323343:02)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:169]
+{org:en}
+Appropriate Technology for Water Supply and Sanitation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(100949619:0E.@entry, :01:01)
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+[S:170]
+{org:en}
+A Supply of Technical and Economic Options
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+40 pp.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:172]
+{org:en}
+Washington
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:173]
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+Transport, Water and Telecommunications Department, The World Bank.
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+This reports the broad technical, economic, health, and social findings of the research and discusses aspects of program planning necessary for their implementation
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+[S:175]
+{org:en}
+McIntosh, Arthur C. and Yniguez, Cesar E.
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+and(500323512:0Q.@entry, 500323212:02)
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+[S:176]
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+Second Water Utilities Data Book
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+[S:177]
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+Asian and Pacific Region
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+and:01(300760149:0C.@entry, 302968525:02)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:178]
+{org:en}
+An Asian Development Bank publication
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101101958:0S.@entry.@indef, 500323674:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:179]
+{org:en}
+This book contains data on the situation of the water supply utilities in Asia including population served, type of water source, method of treatment, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:180]
+{org:en}
+Pickford J.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323336:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:181]
+{org:en}
+Low-cost Sanitation, A survey of practical experience
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+167 pp.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:183]
+{org:en}
+London
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+[W]
+500008271:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:184]
+{org:en}
+Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd.
+{/org}
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+[W]
+500323842:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:185]
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+This book is a guide to what has been learned about providing sanitation coverage for both rural and urban low-income communities
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:186]
+{org:en}
+Salvato J. A.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323340:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:187]
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+Environmental engineering and sanitation
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+and:01(100254415:0W.@entry, 106125041:0G)
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+[S:188]
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+fourth edition.
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+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:189]
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+John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA.
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+plc(500004836:0P, 500323518:0Z)
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+1418 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(115669681:07.@entry, "1418":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:191]
+{org:en}
+This textbook emphasizes the practical application of sanitary science and engineering theory and principles to comprehensive environmental control.
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+
+[S:192]
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+In addition, empirical formulas, rule of thumb, experience, and good practice are identified and applied when possible to illustrate the best possible solution under the particular circumstances.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:02.@entry, 400535244:02)
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+
+[S:193]
+{org:en}
+Tchobanoglous G. and Burton F. L.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323282:0N.@entry, 500323297:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:194]
+{org:en}
+Wastewater Engineering, Treatment, Disposal and Reuse
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115689531:1E.@entry, 100043609:11)
+mod(106125041:0D, 115669276:02)
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+and(100043609:11, 100658082:0Q)
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+[S:195]
+{org:en}
+Third edition
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106590446:08.@entry, "3":02.@ordinal)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:196]
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+{unl}
+qua(115669681:07.@entry, "1334":02)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:197]
+{org:en}
+New York
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500004836:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:198]
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+McGraw Hill, Inc.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:199]
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+This is a comprehensive textbook widely used in collages and universities and by practicing engineers in both the public and the private sectors
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:200]
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+WHO (1985).
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+tim(115669126:02.@entry, "1985":07.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:201]
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+The International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, Review of mid-decade progress
+{/org}
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+218 pp., World Health Organization, Geneva
+{/org}
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+plc(108302724:0C.@entry, 500004419:13)
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+[S:203]
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+Switzerland.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500004416:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:204]
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+This document presents data on the water supply and sanitation services in the six regions of the World Health Organization in December 1985.
+{/org}
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+[S:205]
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+WHO and UNICEF
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323746:0A.@entry, 115669126:02)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:206]
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+Global water supply and sanitation assessment 2000 report
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:208]
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+World Health Organization, Geneva
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:209]
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+Switzerland and United Nations Children's Fund
+{/org}
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+[S:210]
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+New York
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500004836:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:211]
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+USA.
+{/org}
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+Winblad U. and Kalama W.
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+From 1994 to 1995, he worked for the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California at Davis as Visiting Scholar.
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+From 1996 to 2000 Dr Kashiwada worked for an environmental consulting company in Japan researching the influences of endocrine-disruption chemicals on medaka fish, "Development of Bioassays Evaluating Biological and Environmental Risk of Chemicals".
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+Mitsugu Saito HTM1 is Senior Researcher at Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center, Japan.
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+He continued his study at Graduate School of Environmental Science.
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+Obayashi Corporation, from 1984 to 1997 as a mechanical engineer on building service works.
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+From 1997, he enrolled to Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers (JOCV), in the frameworks of Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).
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+He obtained a PhD in 2003 for his dissertation entitled "Appropriate technology of domestic wastewater management for low-income urban communities."
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+{org:en}
+Sombo T. Yamamura HTM1 is visiting fellow of the Institute of Advanced Studies at The United Nations University, where he has been on faculty since 2001.
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+He was admitted to Kyoto University and received the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Sanitary Engineering in 1974.
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+Then, he continued his study at the Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo and was conferred Master of Engineering in 1976.
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+;;Since 1992, he developed his carrier at several national and international organizations.Since 1992, he developed his career at several national and international organizations.
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+Katsuyoshi Tomono HTM1 is Senior Engineering Adviser of Environmental Planning Institute, Tokyo Engineering Consultants, Co., Ltd., where he has worked since 1999.
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+{org:en}
+ANALYSIS OF WATER QUALITY
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+{org:en}
+ANALYSIS OF WATER QUALITY
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:300]
+{org:en}
+Yurii A. Klyachko
+{/org}
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+[W]
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+[/S]
+
+[S:301]
+{org:en}
+Deceased
+{/org}
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+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:302]
+{org:en}
+Faculty of analytical chemistry in the All-Russia research and development institute of a food-processing industry, Russia
+{/org}
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+[S:303]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
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+[W]
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+[/W]
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+[/S]
+
+[S:304]
+{org:en}
+potable water, waste water, organoleptic properties, hardness, turbidity, color index, coli-index, pycnometry (specific gravity determination), suspended matter, element composition, hydrogen index, chemical oxygen demand, biological oxygen demand, organic carbon, heavy metals, extraction.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:305]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:306]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:307]
+{org:en}
+General methods of waste water analysis
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:308]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
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+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:309]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
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+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:310]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:311]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:312]
+{org:en}
+Summary
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+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:313]
+{org:en}
+The most important criteria and parameters of quality of potable water and waste water are considered in this article, and methods for determination of content of various substances affecting water quality are discussed.
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+Also, the most important physical and chemical parameters of water used in various spheres of human activity are described.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:315]
+{org:en}
+The basic methods for quality control are described for waste water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:316]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:317]
+{org:en}
+Water quality, as in general the quality of any item or phenomenon, is the combination of properties (of water in this case) that are manifested in relation to human, other living creatures, items and substances.
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+
+[S:318]
+{org:en}
+The exclusive position of water on our planet as a whole was expressed most objectively by the one of the outstanding Russian scientist of the twentieth century, V.I. Vernadsky
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+
+[S:319]
+{org:en}
+There is not any natural body that could be compared { HTM1 with water HTM2 } by its influence of the course of the fundamental and most colossal geological processes.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:320]
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+Not only earth surface, but deeper parts of the planet (in the scale of the biosphere) are determined in the most important of their manifestations by its existence and its properties
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+{org:en}
+Due to the diversity of the natural forms of the existence of water and diversity of forms of water using by humans (biological and technical), the vast multiplicity of water properties was explored (physical, chemical, biological, and technological).
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+Correspondingly, different classifications of natural waters (e.g. for consumption) were developed.
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+In essence, every specific sort of water requires a special method of quality analysis.
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+However, in practice, general methods of analysis of large groups of water are used
+{/org}
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+obj(100634276:17, 100031264:1P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:325]
+{org:en}
+natural water for potable water supply, industrial for use in the production processes, and waste water for discharge into water basins or for further use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:326]
+{org:en}
+The following is a classification of "working" water arranged according to the limitations of its utilization
+{/org}
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+household and potable water and also water for the food and fermentation industry
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:328]
+{org:en}
+cooling water (for elements of cooling systems of condensers and for systems of freezing products in refrigerators)
+{/org}
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+mod:01(105868954:0L.@pl, 104377057:15.@pl)
+obj:01(104377057:1Z.@entry.@pl, 103748886:2J.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:329]
+{org:en}
+water for use in the steam energetic plants
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(107935504:02.@entry, 100947128:0C)
+aoj(300873603:0T, 100017222:13.@pl)
+aoj(300873603:0T, 100017222:13.@pl)
+mod(100017222:13.@pl, 115055181:0N.@def)
+plc(100947128:0C, 100017222:13.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:330]
+{org:en}
+technical water for use in certain manufacturing processes (textile works, pulp and paper plants, tanneries, etc.)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(107935504:0C.@entry, 100947128:0M)
+and:01(105308950:25, 100575741:1Y.@pl)
+mod(100029677:1F.@pl, 115668887:11)
+cnt(100029677:1F.@pl, :02.@parenthesis)
+mod:02(100017222:2K.@pl, :01)
+and:01(105308950:25, 100575741:1Y.@pl)
+mod(100029677:1F.@pl, 115668887:11)
+cnt(100029677:1F.@pl, :02.@parenthesis)
+mod:02(100017222:2K.@pl, :01)
+scn(100947128:0M, 100029677:1F.@pl)
+and:02(104390759:2S.@pl, 100017222:2K.@pl)
+aoj(300484070:02, 107935504:0C.@entry)
+mod:01(100575741:1Y.@pl, 303124541:1Q)
+and:02(115689145:33.@entry, 104390759:2S.@pl)
+mod:01(100575741:1Y.@pl, 303124541:1Q)
+and:02(115689145:33.@entry, 104390759:2S.@pl)
+aoj(300309740:0T, 100029677:1F.@pl)
+and:01(106255613:2E.@entry, 105308950:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:331]
+{org:en}
+irrigation water, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115689145:0K.@entry, 107935504:0D)
+mod(107935504:0D, 100695448:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:332]
+{org:en}
+Depending on the field of application of the water, the specific requirements are presented for its quality along predetermined parameters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200772967:2C.@entry, 202664234:02.@progress)
+obj(100036061:0S, 107935504:1B.@def)
+obj(600000105:32, 105859071:3M.@pl)
+pur(200772967:2C.@entry, 104723816:2U)
+obj(202664234:02.@progress, 101097119:0J.@def)
+obj(100036061:0S, 107935504:1B.@def)
+obj(600000105:32, 105859071:3M.@pl)
+pur(200772967:2C.@entry, 104723816:2U)
+obj(202664234:02.@progress, 101097119:0J.@def)
+man(200772967:2C.@entry, 600000105:32)
+aoj(301099951:1M, 115669633:1V.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200772967:2C.@entry, 115669633:1V.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303161763:38, 105859071:3M.@pl)
+aoj(303161763:38, 105859071:3M.@pl)
+mod(104723816:2U, 600000016:2Q)
+mod(101097119:0J.@def, 100036061:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:333]
+{org:en}
+Several requirements are established for potable water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200636888:0R.@entry, 115669633:0A.@topic.@pl)
+mod(115669633:0A.@topic.@pl, 600001406:02)
+mod(115669633:0A.@topic.@pl, 600001406:02)
+aoj(303160899:17, 107935504:1F)
+pur(200636888:0R.@entry, 107935504:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:334]
+{org:en}
+Temperature
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105011790:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:335]
+{org:en}
+Turbidity, not more than HTM1
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(104703932:02.@entry, 400099341:0H.@not)
+bas(400099341:0H.@not, HTM1:0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:336]
+{org:en}
+Color index (degrees of specially introduced scale)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(105567381:08.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj:01(200706693:10.@past, 101902877:1B)
+obj:01(200706693:10.@past, 101902877:1B)
+mod:01(105094565:0F.@entry.@pl, 101902877:1B)
+mod(105567381:08.@entry, 104674968:02)
+man:01(200706693:10.@past, 400502710:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:337]
+{org:en}
+Odor and aftertaste (points), not more than 2
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(:01.@entry, 400099341:10.@not)
+bas(400099341:10.@not, "2":1A)
+bas(400099341:10.@not, "2":1A)
+and:01(105936300:0B.@entry, 104980008:02)
+cnt(:01.@entry, 103974215:0N.@parenthesis.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:338]
+{org:en}
+Transparency (on type), not more than 30 cm
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(400099341:0U.@not, 104702127:02.@entry)
+bas(400099341:0U.@not, 115669285:17)
+bas(400099341:0U.@not, 115669285:17)
+obj:01(600000036:0I.@entry, 104504486:0J)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 104702127:02.@entry)
+qua(115669285:17, "30":14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:339]
+{org:en}
+Total hardness (mg-equiv.), not more than 7
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(104710588:08.@entry, 400099341:0Y.@not)
+bas(400099341:0Y.@not, "7":18)
+bas(400099341:0Y.@not, "7":18)
+cnt(104710588:08.@entry, 115694046:0I.@parenthesis)
+qua(104710588:08.@entry, 303160907:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:340]
+{org:en}
+Coli-index (number of bacteria HTM1 Escherichia coli HTM2 in 1000ml of water), not more than 3
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(115690585:02.@entry, 400099341:2D.@not)
+plc:01(101368338:12, 107935504:21)
+cnt:01(115689384:0O.@entry.@pl, HTM1:0X)
+mod:01(115668729:1V, "1000":1R)
+plc:01(101368338:12, 107935504:21)
+cnt:01(115689384:0O.@entry.@pl, HTM1:0X)
+mod:01(115668729:1V, "1000":1R)
+mod:01(115689384:0O.@entry.@pl, 101368338:12)
+qua:01(107935504:21, 115668729:1V)
+cnt(115690585:02.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+cnt:01(101368338:12, HTM2:1J)
+cnt:01(101368338:12, HTM2:1J)
+qua:01(115689384:0O.@entry.@pl, 103835412:0E)
+bas(400099341:2D.@not, "3":2N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:341]
+{org:en}
+Coli-titer (the smallest volume of water containing one bacterium HTM1 Escherichia coli HTM2 ), 300 ml
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115690889:02.@entry, 115668729:2U)
+aoj:01(202701210:17.@progress, 107935504:11)
+aoj:01(301391351:0I, 104990220:0R.@entry.@def)
+mod:01(115689384:1M, 600000089:1I)
+aoj:01(202701210:17.@progress, 107935504:11)
+aoj:01(301391351:0I, 104990220:0R.@entry.@def)
+mod:01(115689384:1M, 600000089:1I)
+mod:01(104990220:0R.@entry.@def, 107935504:11)
+mod:01(101368338:21, 115689384:1M)
+cnt(115690889:02.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj:01(202701210:17.@progress, 101368338:21)
+obj:01(202701210:17.@progress, 101368338:21)
+man:01(301391351:0I, 400536271:2U)
+qua(115668729:2U, "300":2Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:342]
+{org:en}
+Total oxidizing capability (oxygen on the potassium iodate)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(105202497:0I.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+plc:01(114648100:0U.@entry, 115693923:1I.@def)
+plc:01(114648100:0U.@entry, 115693923:1I.@def)
+obj(200238867:08.@progress, 105202497:0I.@entry)
+qua(105202497:0I.@entry, 303160907:02)
+mod:01(115693923:1I.@def, 114650807:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:343]
+{org:en}
+Containing some elements
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202701210:02.@state.@entry, 105868954:0I.@pl)
+qua(105868954:0I.@pl, 600000034:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:344]
+{org:en}
+lead not more than 0.1
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(101256270:02.@entry, 400099341:0B.@not)
+bas(400099341:0B.@not, "0.1":0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:345]
+{org:en}
+arsenic not more than 0.05
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(114629149:02.@entry, 400099341:0E.@not)
+bas(400099341:0E.@not, "0.05":0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:346]
+{org:en}
+fluorine not more than 1.5
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(114637507:02.@entry, 400099341:0F.@not)
+bas(400099341:0F.@not, "1.5":0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:347]
+{org:en}
+copper not more than 3.0
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(102282385:02.@entry, 400099341:0D.@not)
+bas(400099341:0D.@not, "3.0":0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:348]
+{org:en}
+zinc not more than 3.0
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(114661977:02.@entry, 400099341:0B.@not)
+bas(400099341:0B.@not, "3.0":0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:349]
+{org:en}
+iron not more than 0.3
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(103584829:02.@entry, 400099341:0B.@not)
+bas(400099341:0B.@not, "0.3":0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:350]
+{org:en}
+residual active chlorine (relating to potassium iodide) 0.3 - 0.5
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 114634591:0I.@entry)
+mod:01(114922371:1E, 114650807:14)
+qua(114634591:0I.@entry, "0.3 - 0.5":1M)
+mod:01(114922371:1E, 114650807:14)
+qua(114634591:0I.@entry, "0.3 - 0.5":1M)
+aoj(300031974:0B, 114634591:0I.@entry)
+mod(114634591:0I.@entry, 302835654:02)
+obj:01(202774437:0S.@entry.@progress, 114922371:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:351]
+{org:en}
+phenol (absence of chlorophenol odor) 0.001
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(114989545:02.@entry, "0.001":14)
+mod:01(104980008:0Y, 115694933:0L)
+mod:01(104980008:0Y, 115694933:0L)
+obj:01(101234345:0A.@entry, 104980008:0Y)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 114989545:02.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:352]
+{org:en}
+Hydrogen index (characteristic of the active reaction, acidity), pH 6.6
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(105567381:0B.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+qua(105039106:1V.@entry, "6.6":1Y)
+mod:01(104731497:0I, 100202816:1B.@def)
+qua(105039106:1V.@entry, "6.6":1Y)
+mod:01(104731497:0I, 100202816:1B.@def)
+and:01(105039526:1L.@entry, 104731497:0I)
+mod(105567381:0B.@entry, 114640434:02)
+aoj:01(300031974:14, 100202816:1B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:353]
+{org:en}
+Maximum permissible level of radioactivity for potable water on the HTM1
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301760944:03, 105093890:0F.@entry)
+obj(600000036:1K, HTM1:1R.@def)
+pur(115693023:0O, 107935504:1E)
+obj(600000036:1K, HTM1:1R.@def)
+pur(115693023:0O, 107935504:1E)
+aoj(600000036:1K, 115693023:0O)
+mod(105093890:0F.@entry, 115693023:0O)
+aoj(303160899:16, 107935504:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:354]
+{org:en}
+emitters HTM1 or HTM2
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(103283827:02.@entry.@pl, :01)
+or:01(HTM2:0J.@entry, HTM1:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:355]
+{org:en}
+The data listed are related to relatively pure, unpolluted potable water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774437:0M.@entry, 108462320:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+man(300361125:18, 400160834:0X)
+mod(107935504:1X, 303163853:1E)
+man(300361125:18, 400160834:0X)
+mod(107935504:1X, 303163853:1E)
+aoj(300361125:18, 107935504:1X)
+gol(202774437:0M.@entry, 107935504:1X)
+obj(200945853:0B, 108462320:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200945853:0B, 108462320:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303160899:1P, 107935504:1X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:356]
+{org:en}
+However, even natural waters are characterized by different specific features of their composition and properties depending on their origin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202697950:0Z.@entry, 115689188:0O.@topic)
+aoj(301335708:0G, 115689188:0O.@topic)
+aoj(202664234:38.@progress, :01)
+aoj(300490413:1G, 103325769:1Z.@pl)
+obj(202664234:38.@progress, 104923743:3R)
+aoj(301335708:0G, 115689188:0O.@topic)
+aoj(202664234:38.@progress, :01)
+aoj(300490413:1G, 103325769:1Z.@pl)
+obj(202664234:38.@progress, 104923743:3R)
+mod(103325769:1Z.@pl, :01)
+man(400017639:0B, 600000070:02)
+and:01(104012260:2X.@entry.@pl, 103081660:2H)
+aoj(202697950:0Z.@entry, 103325769:1Z.@pl)
+man(301335708:0G, 400017639:0B)
+mod(:01, 600000020:2B.@pl)
+man(301335708:0G, 400017639:0B)
+mod(:01, 600000020:2B.@pl)
+aoj(301099951:1Q, 103325769:1Z.@pl)
+mod(104923743:3R, 600000020:3L.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:357]
+{org:en}
+That means that some supplements for cited content of the investigated parameters of potable water are required.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200708840:07.@entry, 600000030:02.@topic)
+mod(105809192:18, 105859071:20.@def.@pl)
+pur(105110772:0M.@pl, 105809192:18)
+obj(200785962:1N.@past, 105859071:20.@def.@pl)
+mod(105809192:18, 105859071:20.@def.@pl)
+pur(105110772:0M.@pl, 105809192:18)
+obj(200785962:1N.@past, 105859071:20.@def.@pl)
+obj(202774169:2W, 105110772:0M.@pl)
+mod(105859071:20.@def.@pl, 107935504:2M)
+obj(200708840:07.@entry, 202774169:2W)
+obj(202775887:12.@past, 105809192:18)
+obj(202775887:12.@past, 105809192:18)
+qua(105110772:0M.@pl, 600000034:0H)
+aoj(303160899:2E, 107935504:2M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:358]
+{org:en}
+Characteristics of waste water are increased considerably, depending on its origin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:11.@entry, 104731497:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104731497:02.@topic.@pl, 115669276:0L)
+obj(202663848:1P.@progress, 104923743:26)
+mod(104731497:02.@topic.@pl, 115669276:0L)
+obj(202663848:1P.@progress, 104923743:26)
+man(200153263:11.@entry, 400535299:1B)
+man(200153263:11.@entry, 202663848:1P.@progress)
+mod(104923743:26, 600000016:22)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:359]
+{org:en}
+This is why the maximum list of presently accepted parameters for investigating the composition and properties of waste water covers the whole range of possible methods discussed below.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+man:02(106481320:0Q.@topic.@def, 600000097:0A)
+obj:02(202774210:4R.@past, 105660268:4J.@pl)
+mod:02(:01, 115669276:38)
+mod:02(104053218:41.@def, 105660268:4J.@pl)
+man:02(200668805:18.@past, 400048268:0Y)
+pur:02(106481320:0Q.@topic.@def, 200785962:1W.@progress)
+man:02(106481320:0Q.@topic.@def, 600000097:0A)
+obj:02(202774210:4R.@past, 105660268:4J.@pl)
+mod:02(:01, 115669276:38)
+mod:02(104053218:41.@def, 105660268:4J.@pl)
+man:02(200668805:18.@past, 400048268:0Y)
+pur:02(106481320:0Q.@topic.@def, 200785962:1W.@progress)
+obj:02(200048633:3K.@entry, 104053218:41.@def)
+obj:02(200668805:18.@past, 105859071:1H.@pl)
+man:02(202774210:4R.@past, 400079866:51)
+aoj:02(200048633:3K.@entry, 106481320:0Q.@topic.@def)
+mod:02(106481320:0Q.@topic.@def, 303161017:0I)
+aoj:02(301821266:4A, 105660268:4J.@pl)
+mod:02(106481320:0Q.@topic.@def, 303161017:0I)
+aoj:02(301821266:4A, 105660268:4J.@pl)
+and:01(104012260:2U.@entry.@pl.@def, 103081660:2E.@def)
+mod:02(104053218:41.@def, 300514884:3V)
+obj:02(200785962:1W.@progress, :01:01)
+mod:02(106481320:0Q.@topic.@def, 105859071:1H.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:360]
+{org:en}
+The best versions of these methods will be presented here.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200772967:19.@entry.@will, 101267901:0B.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(105660268:0T.@pl, 600000017:0N)
+aoj(300227507:06, 101267901:0B.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(105660268:0T.@pl, 600000017:0N)
+aoj(300227507:06, 101267901:0B.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(101267901:0B.@topic.@def.@pl, 105660268:0T.@pl)
+man(200772967:19.@entry.@will, 400536275:1J)
+man(300227507:06, 400536271:1M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:361]
+{org:en}
+General methods of waste water analysis
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105660268:0A.@entry.@pl, 100634276:0X)
+mod(100634276:0X, 115669276:0L)
+aoj(300487198:02, 105660268:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:362]
+{org:en}
+Organoleptic properties
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161155:02, 104012260:0F.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:363]
+{org:en}
+Color of water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104674968:02.@entry, 107935504:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:364]
+{org:en}
+The color of water is determined by the measurement of optical density (absorptivity) on a spectrophotometer at various wavelengths of the passing light.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0O.@entry, 104674968:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(302861859:1L, 104941453:1T)
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+The wavelength of the light that is maximally absorbed by water is the characteristic of its color (see Table 1).
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+The water under investigation should first be filtered to eliminate possible turbidity.
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+The visible water color is supplementary to the absorbed color measured by spectrophotometer.
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+{org:en}
+The value of optical density (absorptivity) is a measure of the color intensity.
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+[S:369]
+{org:en}
+Table 1.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:370]
+{org:en}
+Wavelength of the spectrum and corresponding colors.
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+and:01(104674968:1B.@entry.@pl, 105128219:0K.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:371]
+{org:en}
+The rules and regulations on the discharge of waste water into water basins require that the water in the water basins should not possess visible color in a layer with thickness of 10 cm.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:372]
+{org:en}
+This is why the degree of dilution of waste water is determined in practice, at which the water color becomes negligible.
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+[S:373]
+{org:en}
+To determine the degree of dilution, three glass cylinders with diameter 20 to 25 mm are taken and placed on a paper sheet.
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+[S:374]
+{org:en}
+The waste water is poured into one of them to form a layer with a thickness 10 cm.
+{/org}
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+obj(600000019:1P, 115669285:29)
+obj(200144850:1C, 101463259:1J.@indef)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:375]
+{org:en}
+The same volume of distilled water is placed in the second cylinder.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(104990220:0B.@topic.@def, 600000237:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:376]
+{org:en}
+The same waste water diluted a few times consecutively with pure water is placed into the third cylinder.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+gol(200659776:24.@entry, 103156279:2Q.@def)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:377]
+{org:en}
+The operation of diluting is repeated until the water in the third cylinder becomes colorless, like the distilled water in the second cylinder.
+{/org}
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+mod(103156279:3S.@def, "2":3L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:378]
+{org:en}
+The water sample to be analyzed should be filtered and analyzed two hours after take-off by the measuring on the spectrophotometer in a few wave lengths of transmitted light.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua(103665366:4P, 103656231:43)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:379]
+{org:en}
+An older visual method of determination of color index of water is used in fieldwork.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:1X.@entry, 105660268:0I.@topic.@indef)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:380]
+{org:en}
+Quantitative determination of the water color (called water color index) is carried out by colorimetric analysis, i.e. cobalt solutions (potassium chloroplatinate HTM1 mixed with cobalt chloride HTM2 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:26.@entry, 100151497:0F.@topic)
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+cnt:02(115693459:45.@entry, HTM1:4L)
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+cnt:02(115016852:52, HTM2:5B)
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+[W]
+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:381]
+{org:en}
+The primary reference solution is prepared as a mixture of 1.246 g of platinum salt with 1.009 g of crystalline cobalt chloride hexahydrate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:382]
+{org:en}
+These amounts of salts are dissolved in 100 ml of distilled water
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100033615:08.@pl, 600000017:02)
+qua(115668729:1A, "100":16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:383]
+{org:en}
+100 ml of hydrochloric acid with specific density 1.19 HTM1 is added to this solution, and its volume is adjusted to 1.0 l with distilled water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200150287:2Z.@entry, 200182406:1T)
+obj(200150287:2Z.@entry, 104990220:2P.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:384]
+{org:en}
+The color index of the obtained solution is taken as HTM1, because it contains 500 g of pure platinum per HTM2 ml of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200523095:1A.@entry, 105567381:0C.@topic.@def)
+man(200523095:1A.@entry, HTM1:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:385]
+{org:en}
+Standard solutions are prepared from various amount of the primary solution
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201754271:0P.@entry, 100190783:0B.@topic.@pl)
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+mod(100033615:1B.@pl, 303160904:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:386]
+{org:en}
+distilled water
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:387]
+{org:en}
+4 ml of primary solution are diluted with distilled water to a volume of 200 ml
+{/org}
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+qua(115668729:27, "200":23)
+obj(200068467:18.@past, 107935504:1I)
+qua(115668729:04, "4":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:388]
+{org:en}
+as reference solution No. 2, but prepared of 8 ml of primary solution
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000032:02.@entry, 100190783:0F)
+qua(100190783:1R, 115668729:1D)
+mod(107205104:0O, "2":0S)
+qua(100190783:1R, 115668729:1D)
+mod(107205104:0O, "2":0S)
+mod(100190783:0F, 107205104:0O)
+qua(115668729:1D, "8":1B)
+mod(100190783:0F, 101264050:05)
+mod(100190783:1R, 300699521:1J)
+mod(100190783:1R, 300699521:1J)
+obj(201754271:0Z.@past.@entry, 100190783:1R)
+man(201754271:0Z.@past.@entry, 600000098:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:389]
+{org:en}
+as reference solution No. 2, but prepared of 12 ml of primary solution
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201754271:0Z.@past.@entry, 600000098:0X)
+mod(100190783:1S.@entry, 300699521:1K)
+mod(100190783:1S.@entry, 300699521:1K)
+qua(100190783:1S.@entry, 115668729:1E)
+obj(201754271:0Z.@past.@entry, 100190783:1S.@entry)
+qua(115668729:1E, "12":1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:390]
+{org:en}
+as reference solution No. 2, but prepared of 16 ml of primary solution
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201754271:0Z.@past.@entry, 600000098:0X)
+mod(100190783:1S.@entry, 300699521:1K)
+mod(100190783:1S.@entry, 300699521:1K)
+qua(100190783:1S.@entry, 115668729:1E)
+obj(201754271:0Z.@past.@entry, 100190783:1S.@entry)
+qua(115668729:1E, "16":1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:391]
+{org:en}
+Further reference solutions are prepared by analogy till the solution
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201754271:0X.@entry, 100190783:0K.@topic)
+mod(100190783:0K.@topic, 300443988:02)
+mod(100190783:0K.@topic, 300443988:02)
+agt(201754271:0X.@entry, 100651176:19)
+tmt(201754271:0X.@entry, 100190783:1Q.@def)
+mod(100190783:0K.@topic, 101264050:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:392]
+{org:en}
+as reference solution No. 2, but prepared of 32 ml of primary solution
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000032:02.@entry, 100190783:0F)
+qua(100190783:1S, 115668729:1E)
+mod(107205104:0O, "2":0S)
+qua(100190783:1S, 115668729:1E)
+mod(107205104:0O, "2":0S)
+mod(100190783:0F, 107205104:0O)
+qua(115668729:1E, "32":1B)
+mod(100190783:0F, 101264050:05)
+obj(300699521:1K, 100190783:1S)
+obj(300699521:1K, 100190783:1S)
+obj(201754271:0Z.@entry.@past, 100190783:1S)
+man(201754271:0Z.@entry.@past, 600000037:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:393]
+{org:en}
+The water under investigation is compared with the reference solutions using a set of similar cylinders made of colorless glass, and so its color index is determined.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200699815:4D.@entry.@past, 200652900:0Z)
+mod(100625699:29.@indef, 103156279:2O.@pl)
+man(200652900:0Z, 600000018:18)
+mod(107935504:06.@topic.@def, 600000009:0C)
+mod(105567381:44, 104674968:3Y)
+aoj(301409581:2G, 103156279:2O.@pl)
+mod(100190783:1R.@def.@pl, 101264050:1H)
+mod(100625699:29.@indef, 103156279:2O.@pl)
+man(200652900:0Z, 600000018:18)
+mod(107935504:06.@topic.@def, 600000009:0C)
+mod(105567381:44, 104674968:3Y)
+aoj(301409581:2G, 103156279:2O.@pl)
+mod(100190783:1R.@def.@pl, 101264050:1H)
+mod(105567381:44, 600000016:3U)
+obj(200012267:2Y, 103156279:2O.@pl)
+agt(201158572:21.@progress, 100190783:1R.@def.@pl)
+obj(200699815:4D.@entry.@past, 105567381:44)
+mod(103156279:2O.@pl, 103438257:3G)
+obj(600000018:18, 100190783:1R.@def.@pl)
+mod(103156279:2O.@pl, 103438257:3G)
+obj(600000018:18, 100190783:1R.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000009:0C, 100633864:0I)
+obj(200652900:0Z, 107935504:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300404202:36, 103438257:3G)
+obj(201158572:21.@progress, 100625699:29.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:394]
+{org:en}
+The color index of the natural water depends on the presence of humic acids in the soil, on biological processes (water florescence), and on pollutants of various origin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:13.@entry, 105567381:0C.@topic.@def)
+plc:02(114909120:1U.@pl, 109335240:2D.@def)
+aoj:02(303160904:4D, 104923743:4L)
+and:02(114857278:3Z.@entry.@pl, 100029677:2X.@pl)
+aoj(301335708:0P, 107935504:0X.@def)
+aoj:02(301405904:2M, 100029677:2X.@pl)
+plc:02(114909120:1U.@pl, 109335240:2D.@def)
+aoj:02(303160904:4D, 104923743:4L)
+and:02(114857278:3Z.@entry.@pl, 100029677:2X.@pl)
+aoj(301335708:0P, 107935504:0X.@def)
+aoj:02(301405904:2M, 100029677:2X.@pl)
+plc(101233802:1I.@def, :02:02)
+mod(105567381:0C.@topic.@def, 104674968:06)
+cnt:02(100029677:2X.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj(202663848:13.@entry, 101233802:1I.@def)
+mod(105567381:0C.@topic.@def, 107935504:0X.@def)
+and:02(100029677:2X.@pl, 114909120:1U.@pl)
+mod(105567381:0C.@topic.@def, 107935504:0X.@def)
+and:02(100029677:2X.@pl, 114909120:1U.@pl)
+mod:02(114857278:3Z.@entry.@pl, 104923743:4L)
+mod:01(115695236:3E.@entry, 107935504:38)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:395]
+{org:en}
+This latter factor is decisive for waste water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300684480:0O.@entry, 105858317:0E.@topic)
+mod(105858317:0E.@topic, 301047561:07)
+mod(105858317:0E.@topic, 301047561:07)
+mod(105858317:0E.@topic, 600000017:02)
+pur(300684480:0O.@entry, 115669276:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:396]
+{org:en}
+Odor of water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104980008:02.@entry, 107935504:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:397]
+{org:en}
+Two groups of odors are differentiated in water and wastes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200119074:0Q.@entry, 100031264:06.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100031264:06.@topic.@pl, 104980008:0G.@pl)
+mod(100031264:06.@topic.@pl, 104980008:0G.@pl)
+and:01(100742645:1I.@entry.@pl, 107935504:18.@pl)
+plc(200119074:0Q.@entry, :01:01)
+qua(100031264:06.@topic.@pl, "2":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:398]
+{org:en}
+These groups differ one from another, and are designated in different ways in the protocols of odor investigations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201030132:1C.@entry, 202666239:0F)
+mod(105668915:2C.@def.@pl, 100633864:2U.@pl)
+man(201030132:1C.@entry, 100172710:20.@pl)
+man(202666239:0F, 400536078:0M)
+mod(105668915:2C.@def.@pl, 100633864:2U.@pl)
+man(201030132:1C.@entry, 100172710:20.@pl)
+man(202666239:0F, 400536078:0M)
+plc(201030132:1C.@entry, 105668915:2C.@def.@pl)
+aoj(202666239:0F, 100031264:08.@topic.@pl)
+obj(201030132:1C.@entry, 100031264:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100633864:2U.@pl, 104980008:2P)
+mod(100633864:2U.@pl, 104980008:2P)
+aoj(300490413:1Q, 100172710:20.@pl)
+mod(100031264:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:399]
+{org:en}
+Unnatural odors are designated by the Latin letter S. Odors of natural origin are separated into two groups
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201030132:0M.@entry, 104980008:0C.@topic.@pl)
+gol(201458973:2C.@entry, 100031264:2V.@pl)
+cnt(106624161:1A.@def, 106833112:1H.@def)
+aoj(301335708:1T, 104923743:21)
+gol(201458973:2C.@entry, 100031264:2V.@pl)
+cnt(106624161:1A.@def, 106833112:1H.@def)
+aoj(301335708:1T, 104923743:21)
+aoj(303080101:14, 106624161:1A.@def)
+mod(104980008:1K.@topic.@pl, 104923743:21)
+agt(201030132:0M.@entry, 106833112:1H.@def)
+qua(100031264:2V.@pl, "2":2R)
+qua(100031264:2V.@pl, "2":2R)
+aoj(301570470:02, 104980008:0C.@topic.@pl)
+obj(201458973:2C.@entry, 104980008:1K.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:400]
+{org:en}
+non-putrefactive odors are designated by the Latin letter R (odors of flowers, wood bark, earth, hay, moss, etc.), and putrefactive odors are designated by Latin letter G (putrefactive odors of decay of organic compounds, odors of spoiled eggs, fecal and musty odors).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201030132:40.@entry, 201030132:0T)
+cnt(106833004:1O, :02.@parenthesis)
+mod:04(104980008:68.@pl, 101460457:6P.@pl)
+aoj(302115034:06.@not, 104980008:0J.@topic.@pl)
+cnt(106624161:4K.@def, 106831819:4R)
+and:01(111537506:2W, 107802026:2R)
+aoj:04(301093142:5P, 103081859:5X.@pl)
+cnt(106831819:4R, :04.@parenthesis)
+mod:02(104980008:1R.@entry.@pl, :01)
+aoj:04(302115034:4U, 104980008:57.@pl)
+and:03(303155700:75.@entry, 303162208:6V)
+cnt(106833004:1O, :02.@parenthesis)
+mod:04(104980008:68.@pl, 101460457:6P.@pl)
+aoj(302115034:06.@not, 104980008:0J.@topic.@pl)
+cnt(106624161:4K.@def, 106831819:4R)
+and:01(111537506:2W, 107802026:2R)
+aoj:04(301093142:5P, 103081859:5X.@pl)
+cnt(106831819:4R, :04.@parenthesis)
+mod:02(104980008:1R.@entry.@pl, :01)
+aoj:04(302115034:4U, 104980008:57.@pl)
+and:03(303155700:75.@entry, 303162208:6V)
+and:01(102793199:2E, 111669335:20.@pl)
+agt(201030132:0T, 106833004:1O)
+agt(201030132:40.@entry, 106831819:4R)
+cnt(106624161:1H.@def, 106833004:1O)
+mod:04(104980008:57.@pl, 111444643:5G)
+aoj:04(:03, 104980008:7B.@entry.@pl)
+and:01(108562067:2K, 102793199:2E)
+obj(201030132:0T, 104980008:0J.@topic.@pl)
+obj(201030132:40.@entry, 104980008:3Q.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303080101:1B, 106624161:1H.@def)
+aoj:04(301138902:6H, 101460457:6P.@pl)
+and:04(104980008:7B.@entry.@pl, 104980008:68.@pl)
+aoj(303080101:1B, 106624161:1H.@def)
+aoj:04(301138902:6H, 101460457:6P.@pl)
+and:04(104980008:7B.@entry.@pl, 104980008:68.@pl)
+and:01(107802026:2R, 108562067:2K)
+aoj(302115034:3D, 104980008:3Q.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303080101:4E, 106624161:4K.@def)
+and:01(115689145:32.@entry, 111537506:2W)
+obj:04(111444643:5G, 103081859:5X.@pl)
+and:04(104980008:68.@pl, 104980008:57.@pl)
+mod:01(102793199:2E, 104597066:29)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:401]
+{org:en}
+The odor of waste waters is determined by the diverse sources of their formation (household, industrial, agricultural, atmospheric, etc.) and by the products of interaction of their components.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0V.@entry, 104980008:06.@topic.@def)
+mod:02(115669720:2D.@entry, :01)
+mod:03(103081021:55.@pl, 600000020:4Z.@pl)
+mod:03(103748886:48.@entry.@def.@pl, 100039021:4K)
+and:01(302790222:30, 301188648:2O)
+cnt:03(100925207:22, :02.@parenthesis)
+mod:02(115669720:2D.@entry, :01)
+mod:03(103081021:55.@pl, 600000020:4Z.@pl)
+mod:03(103748886:48.@entry.@def.@pl, 100039021:4K)
+and:01(302790222:30, 301188648:2O)
+cnt:03(100925207:22, :02.@parenthesis)
+and:03(103748886:48.@entry.@def.@pl, 104263614:1L.@def.@pl)
+and:01(302831736:3E, 302790222:30)
+aoj:03(302067491:1D, 104263614:1L.@def.@pl)
+aoj(200699815:0V.@entry, :03)
+and:01(115689145:3R.@entry, 302831736:3E)
+mod:03(104263614:1L.@def.@pl, 100925207:22)
+and:01(115689145:3R.@entry, 302831736:3E)
+mod:03(104263614:1L.@def.@pl, 100925207:22)
+obj:03(100039021:4K, 103081021:55.@pl)
+mod(104980008:06.@topic.@def, 115669276:0E.@pl)
+mod:03(100925207:22, 600000041:1W.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:402]
+{org:en}
+The odor of potable water is often determined by the substances used for its preliminary treatment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:11.@entry, 104980008:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100658082:2K, 600000016:24)
+obj(201158572:1U.@past, 100019613:1J.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303160899:0E, 107935504:0M)
+mod(100658082:2K, 600000016:24)
+obj(201158572:1U.@past, 100019613:1J.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303160899:0E, 107935504:0M)
+aoj(200699815:11.@entry, 100019613:1J.@def.@pl)
+mod(104980008:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0M)
+man(200699815:11.@entry, 400059547:0V)
+aoj(300878086:28, 100658082:2K)
+aoj(300878086:28, 100658082:2K)
+pur(201158572:1U.@past, 100658082:2K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:403]
+{org:en}
+Determination of odor
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100151497:02.@entry, 104980008:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:404]
+{org:en}
+The odor is determined "in the cold" (at HTM1 ) or "on heating" ( HTM2 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0E.@entry, 104980008:06.@topic.@def)
+obj:01(600000245:14.@entry, HTM1:15)
+or(113491876:1O.@single_quote, 105015117:0W.@def.@single_quote)
+obj:01(600000245:14.@entry, HTM1:15)
+or(113491876:1O.@single_quote, 105015117:0W.@def.@single_quote)
+met(200699815:0E.@entry, 113491876:1O.@single_quote)
+plc(200699815:0E.@entry, 105015117:0W.@def.@single_quote)
+cnt(113491876:1O.@single_quote, HTM2:24.@parenthesis)
+cnt(113491876:1O.@single_quote, HTM2:24.@parenthesis)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 105015117:0W.@def.@single_quote)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:405]
+{org:en}
+The water to be analyzed (100 ml) is placed into a clean Erlenmeyer flask of 300 ml capacity, closed with glass stopper, and the flask is heated in a thermostat or water bath to the necessary temperature.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200371264:3W.@entry, 200659776:13)
+obj(200371264:3W.@entry, 103359566:3N.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:406]
+{org:en}
+The water is agitated by circular movements of the flask.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201419473:0F.@entry, 107935504:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300676271:0R, 100279835:10.@pl)
+aoj(300676271:0R, 100279835:10.@pl)
+obj(100279835:10.@pl, 103359566:1H.@def)
+agt(201419473:0F.@entry, 100279835:10.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:407]
+{org:en}
+Then the stopper is opened and the water is smelled at the very inlet of the flask.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200589469:1A.@entry, 200539936:0M)
+man(303162244:1U, 400031899:1P)
+mod(:34.@def, 103359566:27.@def)
+man(303162244:1U, 400031899:1P)
+mod(:34.@def, 103359566:27.@def)
+plc(200589469:1A.@entry, :34.@def)
+obj(200539936:0M, 104327825:0B.@topic.@def)
+obj(200589469:1A.@entry, 107935504:11.@topic.@def)
+man(200539936:0M, 400117620:02)
+man(200539936:0M, 400117620:02)
+aoj(303162244:1U, :34.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:408]
+{org:en}
+The results are recorded in the following order
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200998399:0I.@entry, 115698567:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300127815:0Y, 104698656:18.@def)
+plc(200998399:0I.@entry, 104698656:18.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:409]
+{org:en}
+method of determination fulfillment - in the cold (recorded as C) or on heating (recorded as H)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105660268:02.@entry, 100062451:0Q)
+obj:02(600000023:2K, 106831926:2N)
+cnt(113491876:22, :02)
+man:01(200998399:1H.@entry, 600000023:1Q)
+obj:02(600000023:2K, 106831926:2N)
+cnt(113491876:22, :02)
+man:01(200998399:1H.@entry, 600000023:1Q)
+obj(400535968:1Z.@entry, 113491876:22)
+cnt(105015117:1B.@def, :01)
+mod(100062451:0Q, 100151497:0C)
+obj(600000051:14, 105015117:1B.@def)
+obj(600000051:14, 105015117:1B.@def)
+man:02(200998399:2B.@entry, 600000023:2K)
+obj:01(600000023:1Q, 106831391:1T)
+or(400535968:1Z.@entry, 600000051:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:410]
+{org:en}
+group of odor according to the scale (see Table 2)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100031264:02.@entry, 104980008:0B)
+mod:01(104379243:18, "2":1E)
+pur(:01.@parenthesis, 101902877:0X.@def)
+mod:01(104379243:18, "2":1E)
+pur(:01.@parenthesis, 101902877:0X.@def)
+obj(600000111:0G, 101902877:0X.@def)
+aoj(600000111:0G, 104980008:0B)
+obj:01(200662589:14.@entry, 104379243:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:411]
+{org:en}
+;odor intensity in pointsodor intensity in point
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105036394:07.@entry, 104980008:02)
+aoj(400535898:0K, 105036394:07.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:412]
+{org:en}
+Table 2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "2":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:413]
+{org:en}
+Scale of odor (Russian) and the symbols of its designation in the abbreviated form (Russian version).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105765415:0Y.@entry.@def.@pl, 101902877:02)
+mod(101902877:02, 104980008:0B)
+mod(100152018:1D, 600000016:19)
+mod(101902877:02, 104980008:0B)
+mod(100152018:1D, 600000016:19)
+plc(100152018:1D, 103384535:28.@def)
+mod(105765415:0Y.@entry.@def.@pl, 100152018:1D)
+aoj(302957276:0H.@parenthesis, 104980008:0B)
+aoj(302957276:0H.@parenthesis, 104980008:0B)
+aoj(301436432:1W, 103384535:28.@def)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:414]
+{org:en}
+In addition to quality characteristics, estimations of odor intensity must be carried out using a special organoleptic scale.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:28.@entry, 105803379:16.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301678729:2S, 101902877:3D.@indef)
+mod(105036394:1Q, 104980008:1L)
+mod(104731497:0P.@pl, 104723816:0H)
+aoj(301678729:2S, 101902877:3D.@indef)
+mod(105036394:1Q, 104980008:1L)
+mod(104731497:0P.@pl, 104723816:0H)
+obj(105803379:16.@topic.@pl, 105036394:1Q)
+obj(600000099:02, 104731497:0P.@pl)
+man(202774207:28.@entry, 201158572:2K.@progress)
+aoj(303161155:30, 101902877:3D.@indef)
+aoj(303161155:30, 101902877:3D.@indef)
+obj(201158572:2K.@progress, 101902877:3D.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:415]
+{org:en}
+This scale has six categories in its structure, and the intensity of water odor is classified on a five points scale (Table 3).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200654625:2D.@entry, 200065370:0D)
+obj(200065370:0D, 105838765:0L.@pl)
+mod(105036394:1M.@topic.@def, 104980008:25)
+mod(101902877:35.@indef, 103974215:2Y.@pl)
+mod(101902877:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+obj(200065370:0D, 105838765:0L.@pl)
+mod(105036394:1M.@topic.@def, 104980008:25)
+mod(101902877:35.@indef, 103974215:2Y.@pl)
+mod(101902877:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+man(200654625:2D.@entry, 101902877:35.@indef)
+mod(104931965:13, 600000016:0Z)
+mod(104980008:25, 107935504:1Z)
+obj(200654625:2D.@entry, 105036394:1M.@topic.@def)
+qua(105838765:0L.@pl, "6":0H)
+qua(105838765:0L.@pl, "6":0H)
+qua(103974215:2Y.@pl, "5":2T)
+plc(200065370:0D, 104931965:13)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:416]
+{org:en}
+The test for odor intensity is also carried out both by cold (C) and heating (H) methods.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:12.@entry, 100791078:06.@topic.@def)
+and:01(113491876:1Z.@entry, 300096815:1M)
+man(202774207:12.@entry, 400047534:0X)
+pur(100791078:06.@topic.@def, 105036394:0K)
+and:01(113491876:1Z.@entry, 300096815:1M)
+man(202774207:12.@entry, 400047534:0X)
+pur(100791078:06.@topic.@def, 105036394:0K)
+man(202774207:12.@entry, 600000074:1E)
+cnt:01(300096815:1M, 106831391:1S.@parenthesis)
+agt(202774207:12.@entry, 105660268:2B.@pl)
+cnt:01(113491876:1Z.@entry, 106831926:28.@parenthesis)
+cnt:01(113491876:1Z.@entry, 106831926:28.@parenthesis)
+mod(105660268:2B.@pl, :01)
+mod(105036394:0K, 104980008:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:417]
+{org:en}
+Table 3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "3":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:418]
+{org:en}
+Determination of the intensity of odor of potable water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100151497:02.@entry, 105036394:0N.@def)
+aoj(303160899:18, 107935504:1G)
+aoj(303160899:18, 107935504:1G)
+mod(104980008:10, 107935504:1G)
+mod(105036394:0N.@def, 104980008:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:419]
+{org:en}
+Taste of water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100882702:02.@entry, 107935504:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:420]
+{org:en}
+The taste of water is determined by the presence in it of substances of natural character (depending on their origin) or substances utilized in its treatment processes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0O.@entry, 100882702:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(200699815:0O.@entry, 101233802:16.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:421]
+{org:en}
+Groundwater usually contains salts as taste-forming admixtures (chlorides and carbonates of iron, magnesium, sodium, potassium, etc.).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:0M.@entry, 115669379:02.@topic)
+and:02(114655371:33, 114644249:2S)
+aoj(200144850:1A.@progress, 102681084:1I.@pl)
+aoj(600000032:11, 105717342:0V.@pl)
+and:02(115689145:3M.@entry, 114650807:3B)
+and:02(114655371:33, 114644249:2S)
+aoj(200144850:1A.@progress, 102681084:1I.@pl)
+aoj(600000032:11, 105717342:0V.@pl)
+and:02(115689145:3M.@entry, 114650807:3B)
+man(202701210:0M.@entry, 400535718:0E)
+and:01(114798450:28.@entry.@pl, 115016852:1U.@pl)
+obj(202701210:0M.@entry, 105717342:0V.@pl)
+and:02(114644249:2S, 103584829:2M)
+obj(200144850:1A.@progress, 100882702:14)
+and:02(114644249:2S, 103584829:2M)
+obj(200144850:1A.@progress, 100882702:14)
+obj(600000032:11, 102681084:1I.@pl)
+and:02(114650807:3B, 114655371:33)
+mod(:01.@entry.@parenthesis, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:422]
+{org:en}
+The waste water brings into the potable water aftertastes of diverse organic substances.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200135857:0I.@entry, 115669276:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(302067491:1R, 100019613:27.@pl)
+aoj(303160899:0Y, 105936300:1C.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302067491:1R, 100019613:27.@pl)
+aoj(303160899:0Y, 105936300:1C.@def.@pl)
+mod(105936300:1C.@def.@pl, 100019613:27.@pl)
+gol(200135857:0I.@entry, 105936300:1C.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:1Z, 100019613:27.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:1Z, 100019613:27.@pl)
+mod(105936300:1C.@def.@pl, 107935504:16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:423]
+{org:en}
+The taste of water is determined by the organoleptic method (preferably by a group of people without any defects of taste perception).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0O.@entry, 100882702:06.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(105708432:3G, 100882702:3A)
+aoj:01(600000043:2N, 100031264:27.@entry.@indef)
+aoj(303161155:16, 105660268:1J.@def)
+mod:01(105162642:2Z.@pl, 105708432:3G)
+mod:01(105708432:3G, 100882702:3A)
+aoj:01(600000043:2N, 100031264:27.@entry.@indef)
+aoj(303161155:16, 105660268:1J.@def)
+mod:01(105162642:2Z.@pl, 105708432:3G)
+aoj(200699815:0O.@entry, 105660268:1J.@def)
+obj:01(600000043:2N, 105162642:2Z.@pl)
+man(200699815:0O.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod(100882702:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0F)
+mod:01(100031264:27.@entry.@indef, 107942152:2G)
+mod(100882702:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0F)
+mod:01(100031264:27.@entry.@indef, 107942152:2G)
+man:01(100031264:27.@entry.@indef, 400115554:1R)
+mod:01(105162642:2Z.@pl, 600000052:2V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:424]
+{org:en}
+Four basic tastes of the water are differentiated
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200119074:11.@entry, 100882702:0D.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300026168:07, 100882702:0D.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300026168:07, 100882702:0D.@topic.@pl)
+qua(100882702:0D.@topic.@pl, "4":02)
+qua(107935504:0R.@def, 100882702:0D.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:425]
+{org:en}
+salt, sweet, sour, and bitter with different variations and possible aftertastes (metal, alkaline, mint, etc.).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000019:0W, :01.@entry)
+and:03(301751609:2T, 300025728:2J)
+and:02(105936300:1Z.@entry.@pl, 100194969:1B.@pl)
+and:01(105716577:08, 105717342:02)
+cnt(:02, :03.@parenthesis)
+and:03(301751609:2T, 300025728:2J)
+and:02(105936300:1Z.@entry.@pl, 100194969:1B.@pl)
+and:01(105716577:08, 105717342:02)
+cnt(:02, :03.@parenthesis)
+and:01(105716744:0F, 105716577:08)
+aoj:02(300490413:11, 100194969:1B.@pl)
+and:01(105717115:0P.@entry, 105716744:0F)
+and:03(300025728:2J, 303162029:2C)
+aoj:02(301821266:1Q, 105936300:1Z.@entry.@pl)
+and:03(300025728:2J, 303162029:2C)
+aoj:02(301821266:1Q, 105936300:1Z.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000019:0W, :02)
+and:03(115689145:2Z.@entry, 301751609:2T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:426]
+{org:en}
+The taste is determined at the water temperature at the moment of sampling, at room temperature, and at an approximate temperature of 40 HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0F.@entry, 100882702:06.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(105011790:2E, 104105893:29)
+mod(106022509:1M.@def, 100161888:1W)
+plc(200699815:0F.@entry, 105011790:13.@def)
+aoj:01(300448130:31, 105011790:3D.@entry.@indef)
+mod:01(105011790:2E, 104105893:29)
+mod(106022509:1M.@def, 100161888:1W)
+plc(200699815:0F.@entry, 105011790:13.@def)
+aoj:01(300448130:31, 105011790:3D.@entry.@indef)
+tim(200699815:0F.@entry, 106022509:1M.@def)
+mod:01(105011790:3D.@entry.@indef, HTM1:3V)
+plc(200699815:0F.@entry, :01:01)
+and:01(105011790:3D.@entry.@indef, 105011790:2E)
+and:01(105011790:3D.@entry.@indef, 105011790:2E)
+mod(105011790:13.@def, 107935504:0X)
+qua:01(HTM1:3V, "40":3S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:427]
+{org:en}
+To do this, the examiner takes in the mouth 10 to 15 ml of water, holds it in the oral cavity for few seconds without swallowing, and then spits it out.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(:02.@entry, 110067968:0I.@def)
+pur(:02.@entry, 201619014:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:428]
+{org:en}
+The taste and aftertaste of water can be estimated at the same scale as odor.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200672433:17.@entry.@ability, :01:01)
+mod(:01, 107935504:0U)
+aoj(300355611:1O, 101902877:1T)
+mod(:01, 107935504:0U)
+aoj(300355611:1O, 101902877:1T)
+aoj(600000032:1Z, 101902877:1T)
+plc(200672433:17.@entry.@ability, 101902877:1T)
+and:01(105936300:0G.@entry.@topic.@def, 100882702:06.@topic.@def)
+and:01(105936300:0G.@entry.@topic.@def, 100882702:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000032:1Z, 104980008:22)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:429]
+{org:en}
+Physical properties of water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104012260:0B.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0P)
+aoj(300627004:02, 104012260:0B.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:430]
+{org:en}
+Transparency (light transmission)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(104702127:02.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(100121366:0M.@entry, 103665366:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:431]
+{org:en}
+The transparency of water depends on its color and turbidity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0S.@entry, 104702127:06.@topic.@def)
+and:01(104703932:1H.@entry, 104674968:17)
+and:01(104703932:1H.@entry, 104674968:17)
+mod(:01, 600000016:13)
+obj(202663848:0S.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(104702127:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:432]
+{org:en}
+It is approximately determined by the thickness of the water layer, through which it is yet possible to see a white board of predetermined size or to read type of a predetermined style with letters 3.5 mm high.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0M.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+man(200699815:0M.@entry, 400007015:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:433]
+{org:en}
+The results should be represented by the thickness of the water layer in centimeters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200825447:0O.@entry.@should.@past, 115698567:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(101463259:1U.@def, 113658828:23.@pl)
+plc(101463259:1U.@def, 113658828:23.@pl)
+mod(104936403:17.@def, 101463259:1U.@def)
+agt(200825447:0O.@entry.@should.@past, 104936403:17.@def)
+mod(101463259:1U.@def, 107935504:1O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:434]
+{org:en}
+Turbidity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+104703932:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:435]
+{org:en}
+The turbidity of water is caused by the presence of insoluble and colloidal particles of inorganic and organic origin, being different for various types of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201645601:0S.@entry, 104703932:06.@topic.@def)
+pur(300490413:3J.@state, 104504486:45.@pl)
+mod(106326406:26.@pl, 104923743:35)
+aoj(:01, 106326406:26.@pl)
+mod(104703932:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0J)
+pur(300490413:3J.@state, 104504486:45.@pl)
+mod(106326406:26.@pl, 104923743:35)
+aoj(:01, 106326406:26.@pl)
+mod(104703932:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0J)
+obj(101233802:16.@def, 106326406:26.@pl)
+aoj(303160904:3X, 104504486:45.@pl)
+and:02(301093142:2X.@entry, 301679244:2J)
+aoj(201645601:0S.@entry, 101233802:16.@def)
+mod(104504486:45.@pl, 107935504:4E)
+aoj(:02, 104923743:35)
+mod(104504486:45.@pl, 107935504:4E)
+aoj(:02, 104923743:35)
+and:01(302903946:1W.@entry, 301230728:1I)
+aoj(300490413:3J.@state, 101233802:16.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:436]
+{org:en}
+The turbidity can be determined by few methods.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0M.@entry.@ability, 104703932:06.@topic.@def)
+qua(105660268:14.@pl, 600000106:10)
+aoj(200699815:0M.@entry.@ability, 105660268:14.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:437]
+{org:en}
+The simplest one is a method for determination of water transparency as measured in centimeters thickness of water layer, through which it is possible to see a mark on a white board or typed pattern (see above).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105660268:0O.@entry.@indef, 600000027:0F.@topic)
+aoj:02(300243180:4S, 102856463:4Y.@indef)
+mod(104936403:2Q, 101463259:39)
+mod(104702127:1M, 107935504:1G)
+obj(200662589:4C, 104676064:4I.@indef)
+aoj(301793812:06, 600000027:0F.@topic)
+man(301821266:40, 600000026:6Z)
+obj(200647094:22.@past, 104936403:2Q.@entry)
+aoj:02(300243180:4S, 102856463:4Y.@indef)
+mod(104936403:2Q, 101463259:39)
+mod(104702127:1M, 107935504:1G)
+obj(200662589:4C, 104676064:4I.@indef)
+aoj(301793812:06, 600000027:0F.@topic)
+man(301821266:40, 600000026:6Z)
+obj(200647094:22.@past, 104936403:2Q.@entry)
+obj:02(200618682:57.@past, 105938795:5D)
+man(301793812:06, 400536271:5V)
+mod(101463259:39, 107935504:33)
+obj(600000635:1Z, 200647094:22.@past)
+or:02(105938795:5D, 102856463:4Y.@indef)
+pur(105660268:0O.@entry.@indef, 100151497:0Z)
+obj(600000026:6Z, 101463259:39)
+aoj(600000635:1Z, 104702127:1M)
+obj(600000026:6Z, 101463259:39)
+aoj(600000635:1Z, 104702127:1M)
+plc(104676064:4I.@indef, :02:02)
+obj(100151497:0Z, 104702127:1M)
+aoj(301821266:40, 200662589:4C.@topic)
+plc(200647094:22.@past, 113658828:2E.@pl)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:438]
+{org:en}
+Methods of determination with the use of optical instruments have a more specific character.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:1R.@entry, 105660268:02.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:0R, 100151497:0D)
+man(301099951:23, 400099341:1Y)
+aoj(302861859:17, 100173761:1F.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:0R, 100151497:0D)
+man(301099951:23, 400099341:1Y)
+aoj(302861859:17, 100173761:1F.@pl)
+aoj(301099951:23, 104616916:2C.@indef)
+obj(100947128:10.@def, 100173761:1F.@pl)
+obj(200065370:1R.@entry, 104616916:2C.@indef)
+obj(600000019:0R, 100947128:10.@def)
+obj(600000019:0R, 100947128:10.@def)
+mod(105660268:02.@pl, 100151497:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:439]
+{org:en}
+A photometer is utilized for measuring the transparency of analyzed waters containing coarse particles, and a nephelometer is employed for investigating water containing colloidal pollutants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202774279:3K.@entry, 200161872:0I)
+mod(104702127:19.@def, 115689188:1Y)
+obj(202701210:4H.@progress, 114857278:52.@pl)
+obj(200785962:3X.@progress, 107935504:4B)
+obj(202701210:25.@progress, 106326406:2N.@pl)
+pur(200161872:0I, 200647094:0V.@progress)
+mod(104702127:19.@def, 115689188:1Y)
+obj(202701210:4H.@progress, 114857278:52.@pl)
+obj(200785962:3X.@progress, 107935504:4B)
+obj(202701210:25.@progress, 106326406:2N.@pl)
+pur(200161872:0I, 200647094:0V.@progress)
+pur(202774279:3K.@entry, 200785962:3X.@progress)
+obj(200643197:1P.@past, 115689188:1Y)
+obj(200161872:0I, 103926876:04.@topic.@indef)
+obj(202774279:3K.@entry, 115669409:34.@indef)
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+aoj(202701210:25.@progress, 115689188:1Y)
+aoj(302903946:4S, 114857278:52.@pl)
+agt(202701210:4H.@progress, 107935504:4B)
+aoj(301950198:2G, 106326406:2N.@pl)
+obj(200647094:0V.@progress, 104702127:19.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:440]
+{org:en}
+It is convenient to express the results directly in values of absorptivity (optical density).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300604617:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+mod(104979425:1I, 105010062:1R)
+obj(200940384:0M, 115698567:0Y.@def.@pl)
+mod(104979425:1I, 105010062:1R)
+obj(200940384:0M, 115698567:0Y.@def.@pl)
+plc(200940384:0M, 104979425:1I)
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+obj(300604617:08.@entry, 200940384:0M)
+cnt(105010062:1R, :01.@parenthesis)
+cnt(105010062:1R, :01.@parenthesis)
+man(104979425:1I, 400051848:16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:441]
+{org:en}
+However, it is commonly accepted that the results of measurement should be compared with the turbidity of specially prepared reference water, made turbid by the addition of pure silica ( HTM1 ) in the form of a commercially available material, Treiel.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200668805:0Q.@entry, 400027384:02)
+man(300183053:6A, 400077497:5X)
+obj(200012267:40, 107935504:3T)
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+aoj(300361125:4V, 115041277:50)
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+obj(100363788:4J.@def, 115041277:50)
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+aoj(300183053:6A, 103729951:6K.@indef)
+obj(200668805:0Q.@entry, 200652900:25.@entry.@topic)
+agt(200012267:40, 100363788:4J.@def)
+obj(201754271:3A.@past, 107935504:3T)
+obj(600000154:5G, 103729951:6K.@indef)
+man(200668805:0Q.@entry, 400516615:0H)
+cnt(300183053:6A, 500324324:6M)
+gol(200012267:40, 303161434:45)
+mod(104703932:2N.@def, 107935504:3T)
+cnt(300183053:6A, 500324324:6M)
+gol(200012267:40, 303161434:45)
+mod(104703932:2N.@def, 107935504:3T)
+aoj(600000154:5G, 115041277:50)
+bas(200652900:25.@entry.@topic, 104703932:2N.@def)
+cnt(115041277:50, HTM1:59.@parenthesis)
+man(201754271:3A.@past, 400502710:30)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:442]
+{org:en}
+The reference samples are prepared from distilled water by addition of predetermined amounts of HTM1 (preferably with concentrations of 1.0, 0.1, and 0.01 mg per 1 ml).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201754271:0S.@entry, 105821775:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj:02(600000025:4G, 100375071:3C.@pl)
+obj(100363788:1P, 100033615:2F.@pl)
+qua:02(115668729:4M, "1":4K)
+src(201754271:0S.@entry, 107935504:1G)
+and:01("0":48.@entry, "1.00.1":3Z)
+man:02(600000018:37.@entry, 400115554:2W)
+aoj:02(600000025:4G, 100375071:3C.@pl)
+obj(100363788:1P, 100033615:2F.@pl)
+qua:02(115668729:4M, "1":4K)
+src(201754271:0S.@entry, 107935504:1G)
+and:01("0":48.@entry, "1.00.1":3Z)
+man:02(600000018:37.@entry, 400115554:2W)
+agt(201754271:0S.@entry, 100363788:1P)
+qua:02(115669302:4D, :01:01)
+aoj(303161763:21, 100033615:2F.@pl)
+man(201754271:0S.@entry, :02.@parenthesis)
+mod:02(100375071:3C.@pl, 115669302:4D)
+mod(100033615:2F.@pl, HTM1:2Q)
+mod:02(100375071:3C.@pl, 115669302:4D)
+mod(100033615:2F.@pl, HTM1:2Q)
+mod(105821775:0G.@topic.@def.@pl, 101264050:06)
+obj(200068467:16.@past, 107935504:1G)
+obj:02(600000025:4G, 115668729:4M)
+obj:02(600000018:37.@entry, 100375071:3C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:443]
+{org:en}
+The comparison is carried out by visual technique or with the use of a photometer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:0K.@entry, 100142665:06.@topic.@def)
+obj:01(600000065:0W, 105665146:16)
+obj:01(600000018:1J.@entry, 100947128:1S.@def)
+obj:01(600000065:0W, 105665146:16)
+obj:01(600000018:1J.@entry, 100947128:1S.@def)
+or:01(600000018:1J.@entry, 600000065:0W)
+man(202774207:0K.@entry, :01)
+aoj:01(303161921:0Z, 105665146:16)
+aoj:01(303161921:0Z, 105665146:16)
+obj:01(100947128:1S.@def, 103926876:21.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:444]
+{org:en}
+The turbidity of the analyzed water is equated to the turbidity of the corresponding suspension.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202633534:15.@entry, 104703932:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(200643197:0N.@past, 107935504:0W.@def)
+mod(100209132:2F.@def, 301974451:21)
+obj(200643197:0N.@past, 107935504:0W.@def)
+mod(100209132:2F.@def, 301974451:21)
+mod(104703932:1K.@def, 100209132:2F.@def)
+gol(202633534:15.@entry, 104703932:1K.@def)
+mod(104703932:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0W.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:445]
+{org:en}
+The results are expressed in units of HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200940384:0I.@entry, 115698567:06.@topic.@def)
+cnt(105869857:0V.@pl, HTM1:14)
+man(200940384:0I.@entry, 105869857:0V.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:446]
+{org:en}
+Measurement of water density
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100996969:02.@entry, 104941453:0N)
+mod(104941453:0N, 107935504:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:447]
+{org:en}
+One of the important characteristics of water, characterizing its quality and status, is its density (specific gravity).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104941453:2L.@entry, 600000027:02.@topic)
+cnt(104941453:2L.@entry, :02.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:448]
+{org:en}
+Its determination is very important in applications that involve mixing water with other solvents.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301275562:0S.@entry, 100151497:06)
+man(200401538:1N, 200184117:1V.@progress)
+mod(100151497:06, 600000016:02)
+obj(600000018:28, 115047313:2J.@pl)
+man(200401538:1N, 200184117:1V.@progress)
+mod(100151497:06, 600000016:02)
+obj(600000018:28, 115047313:2J.@pl)
+scn(301275562:0S.@entry, 100036061:15.@pl)
+obj(200184117:1V.@progress, 107935504:22)
+man(301275562:0S.@entry, 400031899:0N)
+gol(200184117:1V.@progress, 600000018:28)
+gol(200184117:1V.@progress, 600000018:28)
+aoj(200401538:1N, 100036061:15.@pl)
+mod(115047313:2J.@pl, 600000031:2D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:449]
+{org:en}
+It is also important in a series of other technological processes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301275562:0D.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj(302084979:18, 100029677:1M.@pl)
+qua(100029677:1M.@pl, 600000577:0Q)
+aoj(302084979:18, 100029677:1M.@pl)
+qua(100029677:1M.@pl, 600000577:0Q)
+man(301275562:0D.@entry, 400047534:08)
+scn(301275562:0D.@entry, 100029677:1M.@pl)
+mod(100029677:1M.@pl, 600000031:12)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:450]
+{org:en}
+Simultaneous determination of the density and refraction index of water is often used.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:2B.@entry, 100151497:0F.@topic)
+mod(105567381:1N.@def, :01)
+aoj(303162343:02, 100151497:0F.@topic)
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+aoj(303162343:02, 100151497:0F.@topic)
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+and:01(111503287:1C.@entry, 104941453:10)
+mod(105567381:1N.@def, 107935504:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:451]
+{org:en}
+Both methods facilitate determination of precise characteristic of water samples using fine modern instruments and taking temperature into account.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200518395:0F.@entry, 105660268:07.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(201158572:2B.@progress, 100173761:2T.@pl)
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+aoj(301837744:17, 104731497:1F)
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+and:01(202774261:3S.@entry.@progress, 201158572:2B.@progress)
+mod(105660268:07.@topic.@pl, 600000323:02)
+man:01(300414354:2M, 113301328:2H)
+mod(105821775:23.@pl, 107935504:1X)
+obj(200518395:0F.@entry, 100151497:0Q)
+aoj:01(300414354:2M, 100173761:2T.@pl)
+agt(:01, 105821775:23.@pl)
+aoj:01(300414354:2M, 100173761:2T.@pl)
+agt(:01, 105821775:23.@pl)
+mod(104731497:1F, 105821775:23.@pl)
+obj:01(202774261:3S.@entry.@progress, 105011790:3G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:452]
+{org:en}
+This can be illustrated by data on dependence of water density on temperature (Table 4).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201668421:0E.@entry.@ability, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(104941453:1L, 107935504:1F)
+mod(114001348:11, 104941453:1L)
+mod(104941453:1L, 107935504:1F)
+mod(114001348:11, 104941453:1L)
+plc(108462320:0T.@pl, 114001348:11)
+mod:01(104379243:29.@entry, "4":2F)
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+cnt(105011790:1W, :01.@parenthesis)
+cnt(105011790:1W, :01.@parenthesis)
+plc(104941453:1L, 105011790:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:453]
+{org:en}
+Table 4.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "4":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:454]
+{org:en}
+Dependence of water density on the temperature
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(114001348:02.@entry, 104941453:0M)
+mod(104941453:0M, 107935504:0G)
+plc(104941453:0M, 105011790:11.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:455]
+{org:en}
+The most accurate method for measuring density is the pycnometric one.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000027:1W.@entry.@def, 105660268:0K.@topic)
+obj(200647094:0V.@progress, 104941453:15)
+aoj(300021766:0B, 105660268:0K.@topic)
+obj(200647094:0V.@progress, 104941453:15)
+aoj(300021766:0B, 105660268:0K.@topic)
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+aoj(303162775:1K, 600000027:1W.@entry.@def)
+man(300021766:0B, 400536271:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:456]
+{org:en}
+A pycnometer (specific gravity measuring flask) of 100 ml capacity with thermometer is weighed both empty and then filled with the water under investigation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202646064:2H.@entry, 115691329:04.@topic.@indef)
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+obj:02(200261533:39.@entry, 107935504:3P.@def)
+mod(100720951:1O, 115668729:1L)
+and:02(200261533:39.@entry, 301086545:2U)
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+obj:02(600000009:3V, 100633864:41)
+aoj:01(200647094:0X.@progress, 107512147:0P.@entry)
+obj:02(200261533:39.@entry, 107935504:3P.@def)
+mod(100720951:1O, 115668729:1L)
+and:02(200261533:39.@entry, 301086545:2U)
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+man(:02, 600000074:2P)
+aoj:01(301099951:0G, 107512147:0P.@entry)
+con(202646064:2H.@entry, :02)
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+mod:02(107935504:3P.@def, 600000009:3V)
+obj:01(200647094:0X.@progress, 103359566:17)
+mod:02(107935504:3P.@def, 600000009:3V)
+obj(600000019:1X, 104421872:22)
+man:02(200261533:39.@entry, 400117620:34)
+mod(100720951:1O, "100":1H)
+cnt(115691329:04.@topic.@indef, :01.@parenthesis)
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:457]
+{org:en}
+All these operations should be carried out strictly at a temperature HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:0X.@entry.@should.@past, 100409211:0C.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100409211:0C.@topic.@pl, 600000017:06)
+cnt(105011790:1N.@indef, HTM1:1Z)
+mod(100409211:0C.@topic.@pl, 600000017:06)
+cnt(105011790:1N.@indef, HTM1:1Z)
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+plc(202774207:0X.@entry.@should.@past, 105011790:1N.@indef)
+mod(100409211:0C.@topic.@pl, 300521584:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:458]
+{org:en}
+A water bath or thermostat should be utilized to maintain constant temperature.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200161872:13.@entry.@should.@past, :01:01)
+mod:01(100257770:0A.@topic.@indef, 107935504:04)
+aoj(300583239:1O, 105011790:1X)
+mod:01(100257770:0A.@topic.@indef, 107935504:04)
+aoj(300583239:1O, 105011790:1X)
+obj(201017643:1F, 105011790:1X)
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+or:01(104422875:0I.@entry.@topic.@indef, 100257770:0A.@topic.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:459]
+{org:en}
+The density of water HTM1 is calculated by the following formula
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200637259:0V.@entry, 104941453:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(104941453:06.@topic.@def, HTM1:0N)
+mod(104941453:06.@topic.@def, HTM1:0N)
+aoj(300127815:1D, 106731802:1N.@def)
+agt(200637259:0V.@entry, 106731802:1N.@def)
+mod(HTM1:0N, 107935504:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:460]
+{org:en}
+where HTM1 is the weight of the pycnometer with the water sample
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(104571088:0K.@entry.@def, 115689346:02)
+mod(105821775:1O.@def, 107935504:1I)
+aoj(600000019:19, 115691329:0Y.@def)
+mod(105821775:1O.@def, 107935504:1I)
+aoj(600000019:19, 115691329:0Y.@def)
+mod(104571088:0K.@entry.@def, 115691329:0Y.@def)
+aoj(104571088:0K.@entry.@def, HTM1:08.@topic)
+obj(600000019:19, 105821775:1O.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:461]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is the weight of empty pycnometer, and HTM2 is the volume of the pycnometer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(104990220:1M.@entry.@def, 104571088:0E.@def)
+aoj(301086545:0O, 115691329:0U)
+aoj(104571088:0E.@def, HTM1:02.@topic)
+aoj(301086545:0O, 115691329:0U)
+aoj(104571088:0E.@def, HTM1:02.@topic)
+mod(104990220:1M.@entry.@def, 115691329:20.@def)
+aoj(104990220:1M.@entry.@def, HTM2:1A.@topic)
+mod(104571088:0E.@def, 115691329:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:462]
+{org:en}
+The pycnometric method is also applicable for measuring specific density of such sediments as silt and sludge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301975448:0X.@entry, 105660268:0I.@topic.@def)
+aoj(303162775:06, 105660268:0I.@topic.@def)
+mod(104941453:1V, 109428967:2B.@pl)
+obj(200647094:1C.@progress, 104941453:1V)
+obj(600000032:2L, :01)
+aoj(303162775:06, 105660268:0I.@topic.@def)
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+obj(200647094:1C.@progress, 104941453:1V)
+obj(600000032:2L, :01)
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+mod(109428967:2B.@pl, 600001411:26)
+pur(301975448:0X.@entry, 200647094:1C.@progress)
+aoj(301099951:1M, 104941453:1V)
+aoj(301099951:1M, 104941453:1V)
+aoj(600000032:2L, 104941453:1V)
+and:01(114591804:2X.@entry, 115042052:2O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:463]
+{org:en}
+It is possible to employ the areometric method for technical analyses using a float instrument.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301821266:08.@entry, 202774279:0K.@topic)
+aoj(300484070:1H, 100634276:1R.@pl)
+aoj(303162979:0V, 105660268:16.@def)
+aoj(300484070:1H, 100634276:1R.@pl)
+aoj(303162979:0V, 105660268:16.@def)
+obj(202774279:0K.@topic, 105660268:16.@def)
+mod(100173761:2E.@indef, 103364340:28)
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+obj(201158572:20.@progress, 100173761:2E.@indef)
+obj(201158572:20.@progress, 100173761:2E.@indef)
+agt(201158572:20.@progress, 100634276:1R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:464]
+{org:en}
+Determination of specific gravity is a general preliminary method that characterizes the direction of further investigation of water quality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 100151497:02.@topic)
+aoj(301099951:0J, 107512147:0S)
+mod:01(106197215:2J.@def, 100633864:34)
+aoj:01(300878086:1D, 105660268:1P.@entry.@indef)
+mod:01(104723816:3R, 107935504:3L)
+aoj(301099951:0J, 107512147:0S)
+mod:01(106197215:2J.@def, 100633864:34)
+aoj:01(300878086:1D, 105660268:1P.@entry.@indef)
+mod:01(104723816:3R, 107935504:3L)
+aoj:01(300487198:15, 105660268:1P.@entry.@indef)
+mod:01(100633864:34, 300443988:2W)
+aoj:01(202697950:21, 105660268:1P.@entry.@indef)
+obj:01(100633864:34, 104723816:3R)
+obj:01(100633864:34, 104723816:3R)
+obj:01(202697950:21, 106197215:2J.@def)
+obj(100151497:02.@topic, 107512147:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:465]
+{org:en}
+The determination of the density can also serve for estimation of the isotopic composition of the natural water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161531:18.@entry, 100151497:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(302902531:20, 103081660:29.@def)
+obj(105803379:1I, 103081660:29.@def)
+aoj(302902531:20, 103081660:29.@def)
+obj(105803379:1I, 103081660:29.@def)
+man(303161531:18.@entry, 400047534:13)
+mod(100151497:06.@topic.@def, 104941453:0R.@def)
+pur(303161531:18.@entry, 105803379:1I)
+aoj(301335708:2S, 107935504:30.@def)
+aoj(301335708:2S, 107935504:30.@def)
+mod(103081660:29.@def, 107935504:30.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:466]
+{org:en}
+Determination of admixtures of dissolved and suspended HTM1 matter in water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100151497:02.@entry, 102681084:0J.@pl)
+aoj(301506258:0X, 100020827:1Q)
+aoj(301506258:0X, 100020827:1Q)
+plc(100020827:1Q, 107935504:20)
+mod(102681084:0J.@pl, 100020827:1Q)
+aoj(302351692:1B, 100020827:1Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:467]
+{org:en}
+The total content of the admixtures of dissolved and suspended matter is determined by the evaporation of the sample at HTM1 to constant weight and by weighing the residue obtained.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:23.@entry, 105809192:0C.@topic.@def)
+aoj(200699815:23.@entry, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:468]
+{org:en}
+The determination of the dissolved substances is carried out after filtering water through the paper or membrane filter and also after centrifugation of the water sample and subsequent drying the sample at HTM1 and weighing the obtained residue.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:1F.@entry, 100151497:06.@topic.@def)
+man(202774207:1F.@entry, :04)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:469]
+{org:en}
+The difference of results of the first and second determination makes possible determination of the total amount of dissolved substances in milligrams per liter of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200012267:1U.@entry, 104748836:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(200012267:1U.@entry, 100151497:29)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:470]
+{org:en}
+Finally, when it is necessary to determine separately the concentration of inorganic (mineral) admixtures and organic substances in the water sample, the operation of calcinations of the second residue at HTM1 is carried out.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774207:5Z.@entry, 600000033:0B)
+man(202774207:5Z.@entry, 400048138:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:471]
+{org:en}
+The weighing the third residue makes possible determination of the amount of organic substances burning at the calcinations in the air atmosphere as the weight difference between the second and third residues.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200012267:0X.@entry, 202646064:06.@topic.@def.@progress)
+mod(108499057:3T.@def, 104727214:3P)
+qua(100019613:2F.@pl, 100033615:1X.@def)
+qua(115004501:5M.@pl, :01:01)
+aoj(301821266:13, 100151497:1C)
+mod(104748836:4I.@def, 104571088:4B)
+plc(113442476:35.@def.@pl, 108499057:3T.@def)
+mod(108499057:3T.@def, 104727214:3P)
+qua(100019613:2F.@pl, 100033615:1X.@def)
+qua(115004501:5M.@pl, :01:01)
+aoj(301821266:13, 100151497:1C)
+mod(104748836:4I.@def, 104571088:4B)
+plc(113442476:35.@def.@pl, 108499057:3T.@def)
+mod(115004501:0P.@def, "3":0J)
+obj(100151497:1C, 100019613:2F.@pl)
+aoj(600000024:4T, 104748836:4I.@def)
+plc(200196364:2Q.@progress, 113442476:35.@def.@pl)
+obj(202646064:06.@topic.@def.@progress, 115004501:0P.@def)
+obj(200012267:0X.@entry, 100151497:1C)
+obj(600000032:44, 104748836:4I.@def)
+aoj(301093142:27, 100019613:2F.@pl)
+obj(600000032:44, 104748836:4I.@def)
+aoj(301093142:27, 100019613:2F.@pl)
+and:01("3":5G.@entry, "2":55.@def)
+obj(200196364:2Q.@progress, 100019613:2F.@pl)
+obj(600000024:4T, 115004501:5M.@pl)
+aoj(600000032:44, 108499057:3T.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:472]
+{org:en}
+Consequently, a so-called dry residue is created as the result of the first part of analytical operations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201640207:17.@entry, 400062857:02)
+mod(103892891:26.@def, 100409211:2Q.@pl)
+obj(600000023:1F, 115698567:1M.@def)
+mod(115004501:0W.@topic.@indef, 303161064:0I)
+mod(103892891:26.@def, 100409211:2Q.@pl)
+obj(600000023:1F, 115698567:1M.@def)
+mod(115004501:0W.@topic.@indef, 303161064:0I)
+man(201640207:17.@entry, 600000023:1F)
+aoj(303161396:2F, 100409211:2Q.@pl)
+obj(201640207:17.@entry, 115004501:0W.@topic.@indef)
+mod(103892891:26.@def, "1":20)
+mod(103892891:26.@def, "1":20)
+mod(115698567:1M.@def, 103892891:26.@def)
+aoj(300799953:0S, 115004501:0W.@topic.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:473]
+{org:en}
+This residue contains both dissolved substances and suspended matter.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:0F.@entry, 115004501:07.@topic)
+mod(:01, 600000323:0O)
+aoj:01(302351692:1I, 100020827:1S.@entry)
+mod(:01, 600000323:0O)
+aoj:01(302351692:1I, 100020827:1S.@entry)
+and:01(100020827:1S.@entry, 100019613:13.@pl)
+obj(202701210:0F.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(115004501:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(115004501:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+aoj:01(301506258:0T, 100019613:13.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:474]
+{org:en}
+It is desirable to carry out the analysis within 4 hours after taking the sample.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300732960:08.@entry, 202774207:0L)
+qua(105131023:1F.@pl, "4":1D)
+obj(600000042:16, 105131023:1F.@pl)
+qua(105131023:1F.@pl, "4":1D)
+obj(600000042:16, 105131023:1F.@pl)
+obj(202774207:0L, 100634276:0Z.@def)
+obj(200523095:1R.@progress, 105821775:22.@def)
+man(202774207:0L, 600000042:16)
+obj(600000112:1L, 200523095:1R.@progress)
+obj(600000112:1L, 200523095:1R.@progress)
+aoj(600000112:1L, 105131023:1F.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:475]
+{org:en}
+If it is impossible to perform the analysis in that time, the sample should be conserved by adding chloroform (2ml per l).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200212049:27.@entry.@should.@past, 301823092:0B)
+obj(201712704:0P, 100634276:11.@def)
+aoj:01(600000025:37, 115668729:34.@entry)
+obj(200182406:2K.@progress, 103022406:2R)
+aoj(301823092:0B, 201712704:0P)
+obj(201712704:0P, 100634276:11.@def)
+aoj:01(600000025:37, 115668729:34.@entry)
+obj(200182406:2K.@progress, 103022406:2R)
+aoj(301823092:0B, 201712704:0P)
+man(200212049:27.@entry.@should.@past, 200182406:2K.@progress)
+obj:01(600000025:37, 106832356:3B)
+obj(200212049:27.@entry.@should.@past, 105821775:1Q.@topic.@def)
+mod(100028270:1G, 600000050:1B)
+mod:01(115668729:34.@entry, "2":33)
+mod(100028270:1G, 600000050:1B)
+mod:01(115668729:34.@entry, "2":33)
+equ(:01.@parenthesis, 103022406:2R)
+tim(201712704:0P, 100028270:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:476]
+{org:en}
+Procedure of analysis
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100577068:02.@entry, 100634276:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:477]
+{org:en}
+The water sample is mixed thoroughly and 200 - 500 ml of water is taken in the measuring flask.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200523095:1W.@entry, 200184117:0M)
+qua(115668729:1H, :01:01)
+obj(200647094:29.@progress, 103359566:2J.@def)
+man(200184117:0M, 400057257:0S)
+qua(115668729:1H, :01:01)
+obj(200647094:29.@progress, 103359566:2J.@def)
+man(200184117:0M, 400057257:0S)
+gol(200523095:1W.@entry, 103359566:2J.@def)
+obj(200184117:0M, 105821775:0C.@topic.@def)
+obj(200523095:1W.@entry, 107935504:1N.@topic)
+fmt:01("500":1D.@entry, "200":17)
+fmt:01("500":1D.@entry, "200":17)
+qua(107935504:1N.@topic, 115668729:1H)
+mod(105821775:0C.@topic.@def, 107935504:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:478]
+{org:en}
+The measured sample is evaporated in the preliminary weighed cap (made of platinum, fused quartz, or porcelain).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200366858:0P.@entry, 105821775:0F.@topic.@def)
+rsn:02(200012267:1W.@entry.@past, :01:01)
+aoj(300878086:17, 102954340:1R.@def)
+obj:01(200396997:2E.@past, 114693733:2K)
+rsn:02(200012267:1W.@entry.@past, :01:01)
+aoj(300878086:17, 102954340:1R.@def)
+obj:01(200396997:2E.@past, 114693733:2K)
+obj(:02.@parenthesis, 102954340:1R.@def)
+or:01(114693733:2K, 114649543:24)
+plc(200366858:0P.@entry, 102954340:1R.@def)
+or:01(103984234:2V.@entry, 114693733:2K)
+or:01(103984234:2V.@entry, 114693733:2K)
+obj(202646064:1J.@past, 102954340:1R.@def)
+obj(200647094:06.@past, 105821775:0F.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:479]
+{org:en}
+The content of the cap is refilled in the evaporation process.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202772877:0S.@entry, 105809192:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(105809192:06.@topic.@def, 102954340:0L.@def)
+mod(105809192:06.@topic.@def, 102954340:0L.@def)
+mod(100029677:1K.@def, 113572436:18)
+scn(202772877:0S.@entry, 100029677:1K.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:480]
+{org:en}
+The measuring flask is rinsed by the distilled water that is poured into the same cap.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201536168:0P.@entry, 103359566:0G.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300355611:27, 102954340:2C)
+obj(200068467:13.@past, 107935504:1D.@def)
+aoj(300355611:27, 102954340:2C)
+obj(200068467:13.@past, 107935504:1D.@def)
+obj(202028366:1R, 107935504:1D.@def)
+agt(201536168:0P.@entry, 107935504:1D.@def)
+obj(200647094:06.@progress, 103359566:0G.@topic.@def)
+obj(200647094:06.@progress, 103359566:0G.@topic.@def)
+gol(202028366:1R, 102954340:2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:481]
+{org:en}
+After complete evaporation, the cap is placed into the drying chamber and dried 1 h at the temperature HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:01.@entry, 600000002:02)
+aoj(300520214:08, 113572436:0H)
+qua:01(106831926:2C, "1":2A)
+dur:01(200218475:24.@entry.@past, 106831926:2C)
+cnt:01(105011790:2L.@def, HTM1:2X)
+aoj(300520214:08, 113572436:0H)
+qua:01(106831926:2C, "1":2A)
+dur:01(200218475:24.@entry.@past, 106831926:2C)
+cnt:01(105011790:2L.@def, HTM1:2X)
+and:01(200218475:24.@entry.@past, 200659776:15.@past)
+aoj:01(303156659:1L, 103003730:1S.@def)
+obj(:01.@entry, 102954340:0Y.@topic.@def)
+gol:01(200659776:15.@past, 103003730:1S.@def)
+gol:01(200659776:15.@past, 103003730:1S.@def)
+man:01(200218475:24.@entry.@past, 105011790:2L.@def)
+obj(600000002:02, 113572436:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:482]
+{org:en}
+After cooling in the desiccators, the cap is weighed fast because the residue is hygroscopic.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(202646064:1B.@entry, 300007096:2B)
+plc(113453160:08, 115669661:0N.@def.@pl)
+man(202646064:1B.@entry, 300323873:1J)
+plc(113453160:08, 115669661:0N.@def.@pl)
+man(202646064:1B.@entry, 300323873:1J)
+obj(202646064:1B.@entry, 102954340:14.@topic.@def)
+man(202646064:1B.@entry, 600000002:02)
+aoj(300007096:2B, 115004501:20.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300007096:2B, 115004501:20.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000002:02, 113453160:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:483]
+{org:en}
+The dry residue of total dissolved and suspended substances ( HTM1 ) is determined by the equation (2):
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:22.@entry, 115004501:0A.@topic)
+cnt(100019613:1F.@pl, HTM1:1S.@parenthesis)
+aoj(300799953:06, 115004501:0A.@topic)
+and:01(302351692:15.@entry, 301506258:0R)
+cnt(100019613:1F.@pl, HTM1:1S.@parenthesis)
+aoj(300799953:06, 115004501:0A.@topic)
+and:01(302351692:15.@entry, 301506258:0R)
+tim(100185307:2K.@colon.@def, "2":2U.@parenthesis)
+aoj(:01, 100019613:1F.@pl)
+aoj(200699815:22.@entry, 100185307:2K.@colon.@def)
+qua(100019613:1F.@pl, 303160907:0L)
+qua(100019613:1F.@pl, 303160907:0L)
+mod(115004501:0A.@topic, 100019613:1F.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:484]
+{org:en}
+where HTM1 is the weight of the cap with the residue
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(104571088:0K.@entry.@def, 115689346:02)
+aoj(600000019:12, 102954340:0Y.@def)
+aoj(600000019:12, 102954340:0Y.@def)
+mod(104571088:0K.@entry.@def, 102954340:0Y.@def)
+aoj(104571088:0K.@entry.@def, HTM1:08.@topic)
+obj(600000019:12, 115004501:1B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:485]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is the weight of the empty cap, mg
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104571088:0E.@entry.@def, HTM1:02.@topic)
+aoj(301086545:0S, 102954340:0Y.@def)
+mod(104571088:0E.@entry.@def, 102954340:0Y.@def)
+[W]
+115669302:13.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:486]
+{org:en}
+V is the volume of the evaporated water, ml.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104990220:0B.@entry.@def, 106833436:02.@topic)
+aoj(302263150:0P, 107935504:10.@def)
+mod(104990220:0B.@entry.@def, 107935504:10.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:487]
+{org:en}
+The dried and weighed residue is placed into the muffle furnace at a temperature of HTM1 and calcined at 1 h.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:02.@entry, 115004501:0R.@topic.@def)
+and:01(202646064:0J.@entry.@past, 200218475:06.@past)
+mod:02(103404449:1P, 103797062:1I)
+qua:02(106831926:34, "1":32)
+mod:02(105011790:22.@indef, HTM1:2H)
+and:01(202646064:0J.@entry.@past, 200218475:06.@past)
+mod:02(103404449:1P, 103797062:1I)
+qua:02(106831926:34, "1":32)
+mod:02(105011790:22.@indef, HTM1:2H)
+man:02(200372251:2Q.@entry, 106831926:34)
+obj:02(600000245:1X, 105011790:22.@indef)
+and:02(200372251:2Q.@entry, 200659776:12)
+aoj:02(600000245:1X, 103404449:1P)
+aoj:02(600000245:1X, 103404449:1P)
+gol:02(200659776:12, 103404449:1P)
+obj(:01, 115004501:0R.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:488]
+{org:en}
+Then the cap is cooled and weighed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:01.@entry, 400117620:02)
+and:01(202646064:0T.@entry, 200369864:0I)
+obj(:01.@entry, 102954340:0B.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:489]
+{org:en}
+The residue after calcinations is equal to
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300889831:10.@entry, 115004501:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000112:0E, 113442476:0K.@pl)
+aoj(600000112:0E, 115004501:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:490]
+{org:en}
+where HTM1 is the weight of the cap with the calcined residue.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(104571088:0K.@entry.@def, 115689346:02)
+obj(200372251:1B.@past, 115004501:1K.@def)
+mod(104571088:0K.@entry.@def, 102954340:0Y.@def)
+obj(200372251:1B.@past, 115004501:1K.@def)
+mod(104571088:0K.@entry.@def, 102954340:0Y.@def)
+man(104571088:0K.@entry.@def, 600000018:12)
+aoj(104571088:0K.@entry.@def, HTM1:08.@topic)
+obj(600000018:12, 115004501:1K.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:491]
+{org:en}
+This result shows the concentration of organic substances in the analyzed water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0E.@entry, 115698567:07.@topic)
+obj(200643197:1V.@past, 107935504:24.@def)
+plc(100019613:1D.@pl, 107935504:24.@def)
+obj(200643197:1V.@past, 107935504:24.@def)
+plc(100019613:1D.@pl, 107935504:24.@def)
+mod(100375071:0O.@def, 100019613:1D.@pl)
+obj(200923307:0E.@entry, 100375071:0O.@def)
+mod(115698567:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(115698567:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+aoj(301093142:15, 100019613:1D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:492]
+{org:en}
+When differentiation of the dissolved and suspended substances is required, the intermediate water filtering is carried out as stated above before the second operation of thermal treatment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774207:36.@entry, 600000033:02)
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+mod(115689798:2T.@topic.@def, 107935504:2N)
+obj(600000062:3Y, 100409211:4G.@def)
+mod(115689798:2T.@topic.@def, 107935504:2N)
+obj(600000062:3Y, 100409211:4G.@def)
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+mod(100658082:51, 301250565:4T)
+obj(600000033:02, 202774169:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:493]
+{org:en}
+Chemical characteristics of water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104731497:0B.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0U)
+aoj(302692624:02, 104731497:0B.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:494]
+{org:en}
+Chemical characteristics of water are expressed as composition of the other chemical substances apart from pure water and heavy water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(104731497:0B.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0U)
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+mod(103081660:1H, 100019613:2F.@def.@pl)
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+aoj(302692624:26, 100019613:2F.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:02, 104731497:0B.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:26, 100019613:2F.@def.@pl)
+aoj(400119578:2Q, 100019613:2F.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(300462409:3G, 107935504:3M.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:495]
+{org:en}
+Also, the capability of appearance of the chemical reaction of hydrolysis and other non-hydrolytic reactions in various types of water use in human life and natural processes is related to the chemical characteristics of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(301971237:4W.@entry, 400047534:02)
+mod:02(100006269:42, 301258617:3W)
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+aoj:02(301335708:4B, 100029677:4J.@entry.@pl)
+gol(301971237:4W.@entry, 104731497:5K.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(100202816:2P.@entry.@pl, 600000053:28)
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+and:01(100202816:2P.@entry.@pl, 113494919:1T)
+plc(105202497:0C.@topic.@def, 104504486:3A.@pl)
+mod(100947128:3P, 107935504:3J)
+aoj(302692624:5B, 104731497:5K.@def.@pl)
+mod(104504486:3A.@pl, 100947128:3P)
+obj(100202816:1H.@def, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:496]
+{org:en}
+This field is inexhaustible, as water is the principal participant of almost all processes on the Earth (biological, geological, technical, and even social ones).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(300925642:0G.@entry, 110401829:1L.@def)
+aoj:02(:01, 600000027:4E.@entry.@pl)
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+aoj(110401829:1L.@def, 107935504:0Y.@topic)
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+man(300521584:27, 400073033:20)
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+mod(110401829:1L.@def, 303161143:1B)
+aoj(110401829:1L.@def, 107935504:0Y.@topic)
+and:01(300484070:3N, 302905591:3B)
+man(300521584:27, 400073033:20)
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+man:01(301076634:47.@entry, 400017639:42)
+mod(100029677:2B.@pl, 300521584:27)
+aoj(300925642:0G.@entry, 101097119:07.@topic)
+and:01(301076634:47.@entry, 300484070:3N)
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+and:01(301076634:47.@entry, 300484070:3N)
+plc(100029677:2B.@pl, 108562067:2S.@def)
+mod(110401829:1L.@def, 100029677:2B.@pl)
+and:01(302905591:3B, 301405904:2Z)
+cnt(108562067:2S.@def, :02.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:497]
+{org:en}
+All these processes are connected with chemical properties of water and with its chemical composition.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201069190:0Q.@entry, 100029677:0C.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000019:22, 103081660:2K)
+mod(104012260:1E.@pl, 107935504:1S)
+mod(100029677:0C.@topic.@pl, 300521584:02)
+obj(600000019:22, 103081660:2K)
+mod(104012260:1E.@pl, 107935504:1S)
+mod(100029677:0C.@topic.@pl, 300521584:02)
+gol(201069190:0Q.@entry, 104012260:1E.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:2B, 103081660:2K)
+man(201069190:0Q.@entry, 600000019:22)
+mod(103081660:2K, 600000016:27)
+mod(103081660:2K, 600000016:27)
+aoj(302692624:15, 104012260:1E.@pl)
+mod(100029677:0C.@topic.@pl, 600000017:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:498]
+{org:en}
+And this real material is water of different natural origins, of different history of use, and different techniques of participation in closed transformation cycles.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(107935504:0S.@entry, 103729951:0G.@topic)
+aoj:01(300490413:1V, 106155567:25)
+aoj:01(300490413:2P, 105665146:2Z.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300013662:0B, 103729951:0G.@topic)
+mod:01(107341038:4G.@pl, 115696220:41)
+aoj:01(300490413:1V, 106155567:25)
+aoj:01(300490413:2P, 105665146:2Z.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300013662:0B, 103729951:0G.@topic)
+mod:01(107341038:4G.@pl, 115696220:41)
+mod(103729951:0G.@topic, 600000017:06)
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+plc:01(113924659:3D, 107341038:4G.@pl)
+aoj:01(301335708:1B, 104923743:1J.@pl)
+plc:01(113924659:3D, 107341038:4G.@pl)
+mod:01(105665146:2Z.@entry.@pl, 113924659:3D)
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+and:01(106155567:25, 104923743:1J.@pl)
+aoj:01(300490413:11, 106155567:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:499]
+{org:en}
+This is why different requirements for quality are imposed in the different fields of use.
+{/org}
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+aoj(300490413:1W, 101097119:26.@def.@pl)
+plc(202774421:1H, 101097119:26.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:1W, 101097119:26.@def.@pl)
+plc(202774421:1H, 101097119:26.@def.@pl)
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+pur(115669633:0O.@topic.@pl, 104723816:15)
+mod(101097119:26.@def.@pl, 100947128:2G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:500]
+{org:en}
+Some of these properties have already been considered above.
+{/org}
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+mod(115689345:02.@topic, 104012260:0G.@pl)
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+man(200691312:19.@entry.@complete, 600000201:1K)
+man(200691312:19.@entry.@complete, 400031798:0W)
+mod(104012260:0G.@pl, 600000017:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:501]
+{org:en}
+Only purely chemical properties will be discussed in the rest of this chapter.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(302692624:0E, 400535433:07)
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+man(302692624:0E, 400535433:07)
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+man(400535433:07, 400535197:02)
+aoj(302692624:0E, 104012260:0N.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:502]
+{org:en}
+Elemental composition and corresponding reactions HTM1 of water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:01.@entry, 107935504:1O)
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+and:01(100202816:16.@entry.@pl, 103081660:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:503]
+{org:en}
+Here the presence of certain chemical elements in the water will be discussed without regard to the forms of their existence and their role in the water chemistry.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(101233802:0B.@topic.@def, 114622893:14.@pl)
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+mod:01(100722061:3T.@entry, 600000020:3N.@pl)
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+mod(103384535:2U.@def.@pl, :01)
+mod:01(113954253:39, 600000020:33.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:504]
+{org:en}
+The more in-depth the water is investigated and the more perfect become the determination methods, the more obvious becomes the fact that almost all known chemical elements are present in water in the form of various compounds including some only newly brought into existence.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+gol:01(200149583:1V.@entry, 300915321:1N.@def)
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+obj(200183879:6D.@progress, 115689345:6N)
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+and:01(200149583:1V.@entry, 200785962:0X)
+gol:01(200785962:0X, 303162620:0B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:505]
+{org:en}
+However, usually only a limited set of elements is included in the list of the most important components to be determined.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200183879:1A.@entry, 400027384:02)
+aoj(301275562:27, 103081021:2H.@pl)
+mod(106481320:1Q.@def, 103081021:2H.@pl)
+man(303161004:0J, 400535718:0B)
+aoj(301275562:27, 103081021:2H.@pl)
+mod(106481320:1Q.@def, 103081021:2H.@pl)
+man(303161004:0J, 400535718:0B)
+gol(200183879:1A.@entry, 106481320:1Q.@def)
+mod(100625699:0R.@topic.@indef, 105868954:0Y.@pl)
+obj(200183879:1A.@entry, 100625699:0R.@topic.@indef)
+man(301275562:27, 400536271:22)
+man(301275562:27, 400536271:22)
+obj(200699815:2Y, 103081021:2H.@pl)
+mod(100625699:0R.@topic.@indef, 303161004:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:506]
+{org:en}
+This is connected with a special meaning connected either with their compulsory presence due to the conditions of water preparing, or with their special biological and technological properties.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(302084979:4Q.@entry, 301405904:4B)
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+aoj:02(300848466:1Z, 101233802:2A)
+pos:02(104012260:54.@pl.@entry, 600000020:3X.@pl)
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+or:02(104012260:54.@pl.@entry, 101233802:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:507]
+{org:en}
+These elements will be discussed in more detail here (nonmetals: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, halogens, carbon, arsenic, and many metals especially the heavy ones).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(114629149:3P, 102961851:3H)
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+and:01(114649197:2V, 114656219:2N)
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+[W]
+:02.@parenthesis.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:508]
+{org:en}
+Hydrogen
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+114640434:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:509]
+{org:en}
+Hydrogen, in the ionic form in water, is a special constituent of water, determining its acidity (or alkalinity in case of deficiency of hydrogen ions).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(106312966:1H.@entry.@indef, 114640434:02.@topic)
+aoj:01(600000331:36, 105039709:2V.@entry)
+scn(114640434:02.@topic, 103384535:0P.@def)
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+aoj:01(600000331:36, 105039709:2V.@entry)
+scn(114640434:02.@topic, 103384535:0P.@def)
+aoj(200699815:23.@progress, 107935504:1W)
+mod:01(109315159:44, 114640434:3V)
+mod(105039526:2J, 600000016:2F)
+aoj(301678729:19, 106312966:1H.@entry.@indef)
+obj:01(105113133:3H, 109315159:44)
+aoj(302750752:0J, 103384535:0P.@def)
+mod(106312966:1H.@entry.@indef, 107935504:1W)
+obj:01(600000331:36, 105113133:3H)
+plc(103384535:0P.@def, 107935504:0X)
+obj:01(600000331:36, 105113133:3H)
+plc(103384535:0P.@def, 107935504:0X)
+obj(200699815:23.@progress, 105039526:2J)
+or(:01.@entry.@parenthesis, 105039526:2J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:510]
+{org:en}
+One of the fundamental characteristics of water is pH, i.e. the negative decimal logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration, pH.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105039106:1E.@entry, 600000027:02.@topic)
+mod(100375071:32.@def, 109315159:2Y)
+obj(115689159:1I, 106812631:28.@def)
+mod(104731497:0P.@def, 107935504:17)
+aoj(300075515:1R, 106812631:28.@def)
+mod(100375071:32.@def, 109315159:2Y)
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+mod(104731497:0P.@def, 107935504:17)
+aoj(300075515:1R, 106812631:28.@def)
+aoj(301856419:0D, 104731497:0P.@def)
+mod(106812631:28.@def, 100375071:32.@def)
+mod(600000027:02.@topic, 104731497:0P.@def)
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+cnt(106812631:28.@def, 105039106:3H)
+mod(109315159:2Y, 114640434:2P)
+cnt(106812631:28.@def, 105039106:3H)
+aoj(115689159:1I, 105039106:1E.@entry)
+aoj(301915353:20, 106812631:28.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:511]
+{org:en}
+This value is determined in water by a potentiometric method using a special instrument, a pH-meter that is a potentiometer calibrated to hydrogen concentrations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0G.@entry, 104979425:07.@topic)
+obj(600000189:2U, 103991646:34.@indef)
+aoj(303163609:15, 105660268:1K.@indef)
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+mod(100375071:45.@pl, 114640434:3W)
+aoj(600000189:2U, 103753077:2O.@indef)
+aoj(200699815:0G.@entry, 105660268:1K.@indef)
+ben(303147643:3I, 100375071:45.@pl)
+aoj(301678729:1Z, 100173761:27.@indef)
+man(200699815:0G.@entry, 103753077:2O.@indef)
+aoj(303147643:3I, 103991646:34.@indef)
+obj(201158572:1R.@progress, 100173761:27.@indef)
+aoj(303147643:3I, 103991646:34.@indef)
+obj(201158572:1R.@progress, 100173761:27.@indef)
+agt(201158572:1R.@progress, 105660268:1K.@indef)
+mod(104979425:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(103753077:2O.@indef, 105039106:2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:512]
+{org:en}
+The glass electrode is utilized as an indicator electrode, which is calibrated on the buffer solutions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200161872:0P.@entry, 103274796:0C.@topic.@def)
+plc(200295697:1Y, 100190783:2N.@def.@pl)
+obj(200295697:1Y, 103274796:1E.@indef)
+plc(200295697:1Y, 100190783:2N.@def.@pl)
+obj(200295697:1Y, 103274796:1E.@indef)
+obj(600000023:0Y, 103274796:1E.@indef)
+mod(103274796:0C.@topic.@def, 103438257:06)
+man(200161872:0P.@entry, 600000023:0Y)
+mod(100190783:2N.@def.@pl, 102911158:2G)
+mod(100190783:2N.@def.@pl, 102911158:2G)
+mod(103274796:1E.@indef, 103568117:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:513]
+{org:en}
+It reacts by change of potential in 58.1 mV on change of pH per unit at a temperature of HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200446885:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+mod(105011790:24.@indef, HTM1:2J)
+mod(115669522:17, "58.1":12)
+met(200446885:05.@entry, 100191142:0F)
+obj(600000025:1Q, 105869857:1U)
+mod(105011790:24.@indef, HTM1:2J)
+mod(115669522:17, "58.1":12)
+met(200446885:05.@entry, 100191142:0F)
+obj(600000025:1Q, 105869857:1U)
+plc(200446885:05.@entry, 115669522:17)
+aoj(600000025:1Q, 105039106:1N)
+plc(200446885:05.@entry, 100191142:1D)
+obj(100191142:1D, 105039106:1N)
+obj(100191142:1D, 105039106:1N)
+obj(100191142:0F, 114482620:0P)
+plc(105869857:1U, 105011790:24.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:514]
+{org:en}
+Determination of water acidity HTM1 is carried out by a titrimetric method with NaOH solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:15.@entry, 100151497:02.@topic)
+aoj(600000019:25, 105660268:1Y.@indef)
+mod(105039526:0P, 107935504:0J)
+aoj(600000019:25, 105660268:1Y.@indef)
+mod(105039526:0P, 107935504:0J)
+obj(100151497:02.@topic, 105039526:0P)
+mod(100190783:2F, 500323876:2A)
+met(202774207:15.@entry, 105660268:1Y.@indef)
+obj(600000019:25, 100190783:2F)
+obj(600000019:25, 100190783:2F)
+aoj(303163818:1M, 105660268:1Y.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:515]
+{org:en}
+The point of equivalence is established visually or by electrometry.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200636888:0U.@entry, 103974215:06.@topic.@def)
+or(115693663:1L, 400133140:16)
+or(115693663:1L, 400133140:16)
+met(200636888:0U.@entry, 115693663:1L)
+man(200636888:0U.@entry, 400133140:16)
+mod(103974215:06.@topic.@def, 104748273:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:516]
+{org:en}
+Color indicators methyl orange and phenolphthalein are used in the visual method.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:1L.@entry, :01:01)
+mod:01(114771482:0J.@topic, 103568117:08.@pl)
+mod:01(114771482:0J.@topic, 103568117:08.@pl)
+and:01(103922109:11.@entry.@topic, 114771482:0J.@topic)
+plc(201158572:1L.@entry, 105660268:1Y.@def)
+mod:01(103568117:08.@pl, 104674968:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:517]
+{org:en}
+The titration is carried out until pH = 8.3 in the electrometric method.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:0J.@entry, 100648237:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(303163192:1H, 105660268:1V.@def)
+aoj(303163192:1H, 105660268:1V.@def)
+tmt(202774207:0J.@entry, 115692982:11)
+plc(202774207:0J.@entry, 105660268:1V.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:518]
+{org:en}
+The acidity determined by titration until pH = 4.5 is considered as free acidity, and to pH = 8.3 as total acidity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200691312:1K.@entry, 105039526:06.@topic.@def)
+qua(105039526:31, 303160907:2V)
+man(200699815:0E.@past, 400074641:0T)
+obj(200699815:0E.@past, 105039526:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000032:2S, 115692982:2J.@entry)
+qua(105039526:31, 303160907:2V)
+man(200699815:0E.@past, 400074641:0T)
+obj(200699815:0E.@past, 105039526:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000032:2S, 115692982:2J.@entry)
+aoj(300916199:1Y, 105039526:23)
+obj(600000259:2I, 115692982:2J.@entry)
+obj(200691312:1K.@entry, 105039526:23)
+obj(400074641:0T, 115695834:18)
+obj(400074641:0T, 115695834:18)
+aoj(200699815:0E.@past, 100648237:0S)
+gol(600000032:2S, 105039526:31)
+and(600000259:2I, :40)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:519]
+{org:en}
+When colorimetric titration is carried out with the methyl orange indicator to the point of color change at pH = 4, the free acidity is determined connected with presence of the hydrogen ions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200699815:3U.@entry, 600000033:02)
+obj(200699815:3U.@entry, 105039526:3J.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:520]
+{org:en}
+Total acidity, including weak acid molecules is determined, when the phenolphthalein is used as indicator (point of color change pH = 9).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200699815:1E.@entry, 600000033:1Q)
+obj(200699815:1E.@entry, 105039526:08.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:521]
+{org:en}
+The acidity is expressed in milli-equivalents per liter of water (mg-equiv. HTM1).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200940384:0H.@entry, 105039526:06.@topic.@def)
+mod:02(105026508:10.@pl.@entry, 115695658:0U)
+aoj:02(600000025:1B, 105026508:10.@pl.@entry)
+mod:02(105026508:10.@pl.@entry, 115695658:0U)
+aoj:02(600000025:1B, 105026508:10.@pl.@entry)
+mod(:02, 107935504:1O)
+mod:01(HTM1:25, 115694046:1V)
+man(200940384:0H.@entry, :02)
+equ(:01.@parenthesis, :02)
+equ(:01.@parenthesis, :02)
+obj:02(600000025:1B, 113624190:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:522]
+{org:en}
+Determination of water alkalinity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100151497:02.@entry, 105039709:0P)
+mod(105039709:0P, 107935504:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:523]
+{org:en}
+The alkalinity of water is determined by the concentration of substances capable of reacting with hydrogen ions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0T.@entry, 105039709:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(300308015:23, 200446885:2E.@progress)
+mod(100375071:1B.@def, 100019613:1S.@pl)
+obj(300308015:23, 200446885:2E.@progress)
+mod(100375071:1B.@def, 100019613:1S.@pl)
+mod(105039709:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0K)
+mod(109315159:31.@pl, 114640434:2S)
+aoj(200699815:0T.@entry, 100375071:1B.@def)
+gol(200446885:2E.@progress, 109315159:31.@pl)
+gol(200446885:2E.@progress, 109315159:31.@pl)
+aoj(300308015:23, 100019613:1S.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:524]
+{org:en}
+These are strong and weak bases and anions of weak acids.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:02(:01, 102797692:0S.@pl)
+aoj:02(:01, 102797692:0S.@pl)
+and:02(109197815:12.@entry.@pl, 102797692:0S.@pl)
+aoj(300441523:1C, :02.@entry)
+and:01(300441523:0N.@entry, 301068609:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:525]
+{org:en}
+The alkalinity is determined by titration with acids (hydrochloric or sulfuric) using a color indicator.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0K.@entry, 105039709:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 114607521:1D.@pl)
+obj(600000018:18, 114607521:1D.@pl)
+mod(103568117:2O.@indef, 104674968:2I)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 114607521:1D.@pl)
+obj(600000018:18, 114607521:1D.@pl)
+mod(103568117:2O.@indef, 104674968:2I)
+aoj(200699815:0K.@entry, 100648237:0Y)
+obj(201158572:2A.@progress, 103568117:2O.@indef)
+man(200699815:0K.@entry, 600000018:18)
+or:01(303163786:20.@entry, 303158056:1K)
+or:01(303163786:20.@entry, 303158056:1K)
+agt(201158572:2A.@progress, 114607521:1D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:526]
+{org:en}
+The most suitable indicator is 2,4-dinitrophenol, which has a point of color change at pH = 2.4 - 4.6.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115692090:11.@entry, :01)
+fmt:01("4.6":2S.@entry, "4":2O)
+obj(200065370:1M, 103974215:1S.@indef)
+qua(115692090:11.@entry, "24":0X)
+aoj(301020885:0B, 103568117:0K.@topic)
+fmt:01("4.6":2S.@entry, "4":2O)
+obj(200065370:1M, 103974215:1S.@indef)
+qua(115692090:11.@entry, "24":0X)
+aoj(301020885:0B, 103568117:0K.@topic)
+aoj(200065370:1M, 115692090:11.@entry)
+mod(100191142:27, 104674968:21)
+aoj(115692090:11.@entry, 103568117:0K.@topic)
+mod(103974215:1S.@indef, 100191142:27)
+mod(103974215:1S.@indef, 100191142:27)
+plc(200065370:1M, 115694199:2H)
+man(301020885:0B, 400536271:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:527]
+{org:en}
+More often two indicators are employed
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774279:0W.@entry, 400059547:07)
+man(400059547:07, 400099341:02)
+man(400059547:07, 400099341:02)
+qua(103568117:0H.@topic.@pl, "2":0D)
+obj(202774279:0W.@entry, 103568117:0H.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:528]
+{org:en}
+methyl orange and phenolphthalein.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(103922109:0K.@entry, 114771482:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:529]
+{org:en}
+This facilitates determination of two kind of alkalinity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200518395:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+qua(105039709:1C, 105839024:14)
+qua(105039709:1C, 105839024:14)
+mod(100151497:0J, 105839024:14)
+obj(200518395:07.@entry, 100151497:0J)
+qua(105839024:14, "2":10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:530]
+{org:en}
+total and so called free alkalinity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105039709:0R.@entry, :01)
+and:01(303161064:0C.@entry, 303160907:02)
+aoj(300916199:0M, 105039709:0R.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:531]
+{org:en}
+Alkalinity determination is normally important for clarification of the anionic composition of complex waste water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(301275562:13.@entry, 100151497:0D.@topic)
+aoj(302930255:22, 103081660:2A.@def)
+obj(107171206:1H, 103081660:2A.@def)
+aoj(302930255:22, 103081660:2A.@def)
+obj(107171206:1H, 103081660:2A.@def)
+pur(301275562:13.@entry, 107171206:1H)
+mod(100151497:0D.@topic, 105039709:02)
+man(301275562:13.@entry, 400106921:0U)
+aoj(302176178:2P, 115669276:2X)
+aoj(302176178:2P, 115669276:2X)
+mod(103081660:2A.@def, 115669276:2X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:532]
+{org:en}
+It is preferable to employ the potentiometric method for these measurements because it is connected with continuous pH-measurement in the titration process, making it possible to fix the points of titration of different groups of bases.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(300733743:08.@entry, 201069190:2K)
+aoj(300733743:08.@entry, 202774279:0M.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:533]
+{org:en}
+The alkalinity is also expressed in mg-equiv.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200940384:0P.@entry, 105039709:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(115690591:15, 115669302:12)
+mod(115690591:15, 115669302:12)
+man(200940384:0P.@entry, 400047534:0K)
+plc(200940384:0P.@entry, 115690591:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:534]
+{org:en}
+Oxygen
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+114648100:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:535]
+{org:en}
+The decisive role of oxygen in the processes of life is connected with the solubility of molecular oxygen in water and with forming complex compounds with water and with hemoglobin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(:82.@entry, 201069190:1M)
+obj(100029677:11.@def.@pl, 100006269:1E)
+obj(201069190:1M, 100722061:0F.@topic.@def)
+obj(200144850:3I.@progress, 103081859:3Y.@pl)
+aoj(301542252:2J, 114648100:2T)
+man(:82.@entry, 600000018:3D)
+mod(105210221:25.@def, 114648100:2T)
+obj:01(600000018:4N.@entry, 115024240:4S)
+obj(100029677:11.@def.@pl, 100006269:1E)
+obj(201069190:1M, 100722061:0F.@topic.@def)
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+aoj(301542252:2J, 114648100:2T)
+man(:82.@entry, 600000018:3D)
+mod(105210221:25.@def, 114648100:2T)
+obj:01(600000018:4N.@entry, 115024240:4S)
+aoj(300684480:06, 100722061:0F.@topic.@def)
+man(:82.@entry, :01)
+obj(600000018:1W, 105210221:25.@def)
+and:01(600000018:4N.@entry, 600000018:48)
+obj(100722061:0F.@topic.@def, 114648100:0N)
+agt(:82.@entry, 100722061:0F.@topic.@def)
+man(201069190:1M, 600000018:1W)
+aoj(302176178:3Q, 103081859:3Y.@pl)
+man(201069190:1M, 600000018:1W)
+aoj(302176178:3Q, 103081859:3Y.@pl)
+scn(100722061:0F.@topic.@def, 100029677:11.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000018:3D, 200144850:3I.@progress)
+plc(114648100:2T, 107935504:33)
+obj:01(600000018:48, 107935504:4D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:536]
+{org:en}
+One of the specific features of water necessary for terrestrial and aquatic life is its purity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+pur(300343552:11, 100006269:23)
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+{org:en}
+This is expressed in the accomplishment of equilibrium reactions with oxygen in accordance with thermodynamic regularities.
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+
+[S:538]
+{org:en}
+The oxygen concentration in water is determined by the classical Winkler method proposed at first in 1888 and many times refined by the author himself up to 1916 and later by many authors including Yu. Yu. Lur'e.
+{/org}
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+Essentially the Winkler method involves salts of manganese (II) and alkali being introduced to the water.
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+[S:540]
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+A precipitate of manganese (II) hydroxide is formed that immediately oxidizes into manganese (IV) hydroxide (also soluble in water) by combining with the oxygen dissolved in water
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The precipitate dissolves in the excessive quantity of sulfuric acid and potassium iodide solution.
+{/org}
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+[S:542]
+{org:en}
+The iodide-ion is oxidized with the formation of elemental iodine that is then usually determined by sodium thiosulfate solution.
+{/org}
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+[S:543]
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+The results of analysis are expressed in HTM1 of oxygen and also as a percentage of the equilibrium concentration of the oxygen in the water at given temperature, as determined by special tables.
+{/org}
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+[S:544]
+{org:en}
+Depending on the origin of the water (potable, waste, etc.), different versions of this method are employed due to possible presence in the water of reducers, ions forming precipitates, etc.
+{/org}
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+[S:545]
+{org:en}
+In addition to the Winkler method that is considered a method of merit for dissolved oxygen determination, electrochemical methods are proposed.
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+
+[S:546]
+{org:en}
+The most widespread is the polarographic method that is carried out by the electrochemical reduction of oxygen on a mercury or some other cathode.
+{/org}
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+[S:547]
+{org:en}
+Also, a special electrode galvanic element (silver-lead) has been designed
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:548]
+{org:en}
+the electromotive force required depends on the oxygen dissolved in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:549]
+{org:en}
+Water oxidizability (chemical oxygen demand, COD)
+{/org}
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+[S:550]
+{org:en}
+The COD value is the measure of total concentration of the chemical reducers in the water (both inorganic and organic).
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+{org:en}
+As the concentration of inorganic compounds can be determined by the usual chemical analysis of water, COD serves as an indicator of total concentration of organic substances in the water (COD minus equivalent quantity of the determined inorganic reducers).
+{/org}
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+[S:552]
+{org:en}
+Earlier, potassium permanganate was used for COD determination, but today a solution of potassium dichromate with concentrated sulfuric acid is more often used.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:553]
+{org:en}
+The catalyst (silver sulfite) is added for more complete oxidation of the many possible organic compounds.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:554]
+{org:en}
+The following procedure is employed for COD determination
+{/org}
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+[S:555]
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+the investigated water is boiled for 2 hours with dichromate and sulfuric acid.
+{/org}
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+man(200328128:0S.@entry, 600000018:1B)
+obj(200785962:06.@past, 107935504:0J.@topic.@def)
+obj(200785962:06.@past, 107935504:0J.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000018:1B, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:556]
+{org:en}
+Then the solution is cooled and titration with Mohr's salt solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200369864:0L.@entry, 400117620:02)
+obj(600000018:16, 100190783:1N)
+obj(600000018:16, 100190783:1N)
+man(100648237:0W.@entry, 600000018:16)
+obj(200369864:0L.@entry, 100190783:0B.@topic.@def)
+mod(100190783:1N, 500323641:1B)
+and(100648237:0W.@entry, :20)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:557]
+{org:en}
+The concentration of this solution is preliminarily established by titration with potassium dichromate solution using indicator Ferroine.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200636888:1I.@entry, 100375071:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100375071:06.@topic.@def, 100190783:0S)
+mod(115692135:3M, 100190783:2X)
+man(200636888:1I.@entry, 400535150:14)
+mod(100190783:2X, 114650807:2C)
+mod(100375071:06.@topic.@def, 100190783:0S)
+mod(115692135:3M, 100190783:2X)
+man(200636888:1I.@entry, 400535150:14)
+mod(100190783:2X, 114650807:2C)
+met(200636888:1I.@entry, 100648237:1X)
+mod(115692135:3M, 103568117:3C)
+man(200636888:1I.@entry, 600000018:27)
+mod(100190783:0S, 600000017:0N)
+obj(201158572:36.@progress, 115692135:3M)
+mod(100190783:0S, 600000017:0N)
+obj(201158572:36.@progress, 115692135:3M)
+obj(600000018:27, 115692135:3M)
+mod(100190783:2X, 115691717:2M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:558]
+{org:en}
+The COD is expressed as the number of milligrams of oxygen in 1 l of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200940384:0D.@entry, 600000023:0N)
+qua(114648100:1I, 113723061:14.@pl)
+plc(103835412:0U.@def, 107935504:1Z)
+qua(114648100:1I, 113723061:14.@pl)
+plc(103835412:0U.@def, 107935504:1Z)
+obj(600000023:0N, 103835412:0U.@def)
+qua(106832356:1U, "1":1S)
+obj(200940384:0D.@entry, 102522399:06.@topic.@def)
+qua(107935504:1Z, 106832356:1U)
+qua(107935504:1Z, 106832356:1U)
+mod(103835412:0U.@def, 114648100:1I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:559]
+{org:en}
+The calculation of the results of analysis is carried out using formula (3)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:1C.@entry, 100868910:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(115698567:0P.@def.@pl, 100634276:10)
+cnt(106731802:1U, "3":23.@parenthesis)
+mod(115698567:0P.@def.@pl, 100634276:10)
+cnt(106731802:1U, "3":23.@parenthesis)
+obj(201158572:1O.@progress, 106731802:1U)
+man(202774207:1C.@entry, 201158572:1O.@progress)
+obj(100868910:06.@topic.@def, 115698567:0P.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:560]
+{org:en}
+where HTM1 is the volume of the Mohr's salt HTM2 solution spent for titration of the sample, ml
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(104990220:0K.@entry.@def, 115689346:02)
+cnt(500323641:0Y.@def, HTM2:1A)
+obj(202267060:1O, 100190783:1F)
+cnt(500323641:0Y.@def, HTM2:1A)
+obj(202267060:1O, 100190783:1F)
+mod(104990220:0K.@entry.@def, 100190783:1F)
+obj(100648237:1Y, 105821775:2F.@def)
+aoj(104990220:0K.@entry.@def, HTM1:08.@topic)
+pur(202267060:1O, 100648237:1Y)
+pur(202267060:1O, 100648237:1Y)
+mod(100190783:1F, 500323641:0Y.@def)
+[W]
+115668729:2N.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:561]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is the volume of the same solution spent for the blank experiment, ml (all stages of analysis are carried out with distilled water)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104990220:0E.@def.@entry, HTM1:02.@topic)
+mod:01(100306900:25.@topic.@pl, 300521584:21)
+obj:01(202774207:2S.@entry, 100306900:25.@topic.@pl)
+pur(202267060:16.@entry, 100639556:1L.@def)
+obj:01(200068467:39.@past, 107935504:3J)
+mod:01(100306900:25.@topic.@pl, 300521584:21)
+obj:01(202774207:2S.@entry, 100306900:25.@topic.@pl)
+pur(202267060:16.@entry, 100639556:1L.@def)
+obj:01(200068467:39.@past, 107935504:3J)
+obj(202267060:16.@entry, 100190783:0X)
+obj:01(600000018:34, 107935504:3J)
+mod(104990220:0E.@def.@entry, 100190783:0X)
+man:01(202774207:2S.@entry, 600000018:34)
+man:01(202774207:2S.@entry, 600000018:34)
+aoj(300355611:0S, 100190783:0X)
+obj:01(100306900:25.@topic.@pl, 100634276:2F)
+cnt(115668729:1X.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:562]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is the equivalent concentration of the Mohr's salt solution
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100375071:0P.@entry.@def, :2C.@topic)
+mod(100190783:1M.@def, 500323641:1A)
+mod(100190783:1M.@def, 500323641:1A)
+aoj(300890351:0E, 100375071:0P.@entry.@def)
+mod(100375071:0P.@entry.@def, 100190783:1M.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:563]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is the volume of the analyzed sample of water, ml
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104990220:0E.@entry.@def, :1V.@topic)
+obj(200643197:0S.@past, 105821775:11.@def)
+obj(200643197:0S.@past, 105821775:11.@def)
+mod(105821775:11.@def, 107935504:1B)
+mod(104990220:0E.@entry.@def, 105821775:11.@def)
+[W]
+115668729:1I.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:564]
+{org:en}
+8 is the equivalent weight of oxygen.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104571088:0M.@entry.@def, "8":02.@topic)
+aoj(300890351:0B, 104571088:0M.@entry.@def)
+mod(104571088:0M.@entry.@def, 114648100:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:565]
+{org:en}
+Biological oxygen demand (BOD)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+equ(115691036:0S.@parenthesis, 101061333:0K.@entry)
+mod(101061333:0K.@entry, 114648100:0D)
+aoj(301405904:02, 101061333:0K.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:566]
+{org:en}
+Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) characterizes the amount of oxygen expressed in milligrams spent for biological processes in 1 liter of the investigated water in a predetermined time period established by consumer or by standardized procedure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202697950:0Y.@entry, 101061333:0L.@topic)
+equ(115691036:0T.@parenthesis, 101061333:0L.@topic)
+tim(107935504:4B.@def, 106843520:55.@indef)
+obj(202267060:2L, 113723061:2A.@pl)
+tim(106843520:55.@indef, 100028270:50)
+qua(114648100:1Q, 100033615:1G.@def)
+qua(113624190:3L, "1":3J)
+aoj(301405904:2V, 100029677:36.@pl)
+equ(115691036:0T.@parenthesis, 101061333:0L.@topic)
+tim(107935504:4B.@def, 106843520:55.@indef)
+obj(202267060:2L, 113723061:2A.@pl)
+tim(106843520:55.@indef, 100028270:50)
+qua(114648100:1Q, 100033615:1G.@def)
+qua(113624190:3L, "1":3J)
+aoj(301405904:2V, 100029677:36.@pl)
+obj:01(200467717:66.@past, 100577068:6J.@entry)
+obj(200940384:1X.@past, 114648100:1Q)
+mod(101061333:0L.@topic, 114648100:0E)
+obj(200785962:3Y.@past, 107935504:4B.@def)
+plc(100029677:36.@pl, 107935504:4B.@def)
+or:01(100577068:6J.@entry, 109612848:5R)
+obj(202697950:0Y.@entry, 114648100:1Q)
+aoj(302664932:02, 101061333:0L.@topic)
+qua(107935504:4B.@def, 113624190:3L)
+pur(202267060:2L, 100029677:36.@pl)
+aoj(302664932:02, 101061333:0L.@topic)
+qua(107935504:4B.@def, 113624190:3L)
+pur(202267060:2L, 100029677:36.@pl)
+agt(200636888:5C.@past, :01)
+plc(200940384:1X.@past, 113723061:2A.@pl)
+aoj(303161763:4M, 106843520:55.@indef)
+obj(200636888:5C.@past, 107935504:4B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:567]
+{org:en}
+Often a five day period is accepted as appropriate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200668805:0T.@entry, 400059547:02)
+qua(114484516:0F, "5":0A)
+qua(114484516:0F, "5":0A)
+gol(200668805:0T.@entry, 300134701:15)
+obj(200668805:0T.@entry, 106843520:0J.@indef.@topic)
+mod(106843520:0J.@indef.@topic, 114484516:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:568]
+{org:en}
+BOD is the quantity of oxygen that is necessary for oxidizing organic compounds by microorganisms in aerobic conditions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105108740:0D.@def.@entry, 115691036:02.@topic)
+agt(200238867:1I.@progress, 100004475:2I.@pl)
+pur(300343552:14, 200238867:1I.@progress)
+mod(100004475:2I.@pl, 103485407:2D)
+agt(200238867:1I.@progress, 100004475:2I.@pl)
+pur(300343552:14, 200238867:1I.@progress)
+mod(100004475:2I.@pl, 103485407:2D)
+aoj(300343552:14, 114648100:0P)
+aoj(301093142:1S, 103081859:20.@pl)
+qua(105108740:0D.@def.@entry, 114648100:0P)
+scn(200238867:1I.@progress, 105798863:33.@pl)
+scn(200238867:1I.@progress, 105798863:33.@pl)
+obj(200238867:1I.@progress, 103081859:20.@pl)
+aoj(300068566:2V, 105798863:33.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:569]
+{org:en}
+Usually BOD for majority of household and industrial waste waters is 70 - 80% of total BOD value, determined as HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(104979425:2K.@entry, 400535718:02)
+obj(600000023:32, HTM1:35)
+qua("%":25, "70-80":20)
+qua(104979425:2K.@entry, 303160907:2A)
+and:01(115669276:1J.@entry.@pl, 115669720:0U)
+obj(600000023:32, HTM1:35)
+qua("%":25, "70-80":20)
+qua(104979425:2K.@entry, 303160907:2A)
+and:01(115669276:1J.@entry.@pl, 115669720:0U)
+qua(104979425:2K.@entry, "%":25)
+mod(105122557:0I, :01)
+aoj(104979425:2K.@entry, 115691036:0A.@topic)
+pur(115691036:0A.@topic, 105122557:0I)
+pur(115691036:0A.@topic, 105122557:0I)
+mod(104979425:2K.@entry, 115691036:2G)
+aoj:01(301188648:18, 115669276:1J.@entry.@pl)
+man(200699815:2R.@entry.@past, 600000023:32)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:570]
+{org:en}
+Procedure for BOD determination
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(100577068:02.@entry, 100151497:0K)
+mod(100151497:0K, 115691036:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:571]
+{org:en}
+Two flasks with ground glass stoppers are filled completely with the water under investigation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200261533:17.@entry, 103359566:06.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104327825:0V, 103438257:0P)
+obj(600000003:24, 100633864:2A)
+man(200261533:17.@entry, 400157624:1E)
+obj(600000019:0D, 104327825:0V)
+mod(104327825:0V, 103438257:0P)
+obj(600000003:24, 100633864:2A)
+man(200261533:17.@entry, 400157624:1E)
+obj(600000019:0D, 104327825:0V)
+man(200261533:17.@entry, 600000018:1P)
+aoj(600000019:0D, 103359566:06.@topic.@pl)
+man(200261533:17.@entry, 600000003:24)
+qua(103359566:06.@topic.@pl, "2":02)
+qua(103359566:06.@topic.@pl, "2":02)
+obj(600000018:1P, 107935504:1Y.@def)
+mod(104327825:0V, 103462594:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:572]
+{org:en}
+At the moment of sampling the dissolved oxygen is determined immediately in one flask (see above).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:1G.@entry, 201195299:0J.@topic.@progress)
+tim(201195299:0J.@topic.@progress, 106022509:09.@def)
+qua(103359566:2A, "1":26)
+tim(201195299:0J.@topic.@progress, 106022509:09.@def)
+qua(103359566:2A, "1":26)
+man(200699815:1G.@entry, 400048739:1R)
+plc(200699815:1G.@entry, 103359566:2A)
+obj(200338559:0W.@past, 114648100:16.@def)
+obj(200338559:0W.@past, 114648100:16.@def)
+obj(201195299:0J.@topic.@progress, 114648100:16.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:573]
+{org:en}
+Another flask is immersed into the water thermostat with room temperature for 5, 20, and 100 days.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201577635:0J.@entry, 103359566:0A.@topic)
+mod(103359566:0A.@topic, 600000066:02)
+obj(600000018:1I, 105011790:1S)
+gol(201577635:0J.@entry, 104422875:17.@def)
+and:01("100":2J.@entry, "20":2B)
+mod(103359566:0A.@topic, 600000066:02)
+obj(600000018:1I, 105011790:1S)
+gol(201577635:0J.@entry, 104422875:17.@def)
+and:01("100":2J.@entry, "20":2B)
+man(201577635:0J.@entry, 600000018:1I)
+qua(114484516:2N.@pl, :01:01)
+dur(201577635:0J.@entry, 114484516:2N.@pl)
+mod(105011790:1S, 104105893:1N)
+mod(105011790:1S, 104105893:1N)
+mod(104422875:17.@def, 107935504:11)
+and:01("20":2B, "5":28)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:574]
+{org:en}
+After these time periods, the oxygen concentration is determined.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+seq(200699815:1K.@entry, 600000002:02)
+tim(106843520:0J.@pl, 100028270:0E)
+obj(600000002:02, 106843520:0J.@pl)
+tim(106843520:0J.@pl, 100028270:0E)
+obj(600000002:02, 106843520:0J.@pl)
+mod(100375071:13.@topic.@def, 114648100:0W)
+obj(200699815:1K.@entry, 100375071:13.@topic.@def)
+mod(106843520:0J.@pl, 600000017:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:575]
+{org:en}
+The difference between the concentrations of oxygen in the water at the moment of sampling and after each storage time determines HTM1 and HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200699815:3C.@entry, 104748836:06.@topic.@def)
+obj:02(600000002:2O.@entry, 100028270:37)
+mod(100375071:0T.@def, 114648100:1A)
+man(600000024:0H, 104748836:06.@topic.@def)
+and:02(600000002:2O.@entry, 106022509:21.@def)
+obj:02(600000002:2O.@entry, 100028270:37)
+mod(100375071:0T.@def, 114648100:1A)
+man(600000024:0H, 104748836:06.@topic.@def)
+and:02(600000002:2O.@entry, 106022509:21.@def)
+and:01(HTM2:3W.@entry, HTM1:3N)
+mod:02(100028270:37, 100811355:2Z)
+plc(114648100:1A, 107935504:1O.@def)
+obj(200699815:3C.@entry, :01:01)
+mod:02(100028270:37, 600000848:2U)
+tim(100375071:0T.@def, :02:02)
+mod:02(100028270:37, 600000848:2U)
+tim(100375071:0T.@def, :02:02)
+obj(600000024:0H, 100375071:0T.@def)
+mod:02(106022509:21.@def, 100161888:2B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:576]
+{org:en}
+This test is an important tool in waste water investigations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104451818:0S.@entry.@indef, 100791078:07.@topic)
+mod(100633864:1C.@pl, 115669276:10)
+mod(100633864:1C.@pl, 115669276:10)
+aoj(301275562:0I, 104451818:0S.@entry.@indef)
+scn(104451818:0S.@entry.@indef, 100633864:1C.@pl)
+mod(100791078:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:577]
+{org:en}
+Organic carbon
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301093142:02, 102961851:0A.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:578]
+{org:en}
+Determination of carbon content is one of the principal determinations when the analysis of organic components in water is carried out.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(600000027:11.@entry, 202774207:3H)
+mod(105809192:0Q, 102961851:0J)
+mod(100151497:1M.@def.@pl, 303161143:1C)
+obj(100634276:2A.@def, 103081021:2U.@pl)
+mod(105809192:0Q, 102961851:0J)
+mod(100151497:1M.@def.@pl, 303161143:1C)
+obj(100634276:2A.@def, 103081021:2U.@pl)
+pof(600000027:11.@entry, 100151497:1M.@def.@pl)
+plc(100634276:2A.@def, 107935504:38)
+aoj(600000027:11.@entry, 100151497:02.@topic)
+obj(202774207:3H, 100634276:2A.@def)
+obj(202774207:3H, 100634276:2A.@def)
+mod(100151497:02.@topic, 105809192:0Q)
+aoj(301093142:2M, 103081021:2U.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:579]
+{org:en}
+The water samples are evaporated and the dry residue is burned at HTM1 with the catalyst cobalt oxide on an asbestos carrier.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200196364:1M.@entry, 200366858:0O)
+obj(200366858:0O, 105821775:0C.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(114971519:2Q.@def, 101314145:3B.@indef)
+plc(200196364:1M.@entry, HTM1:1W)
+aoj(303162981:32, 101314145:3B.@indef)
+obj(200366858:0O, 105821775:0C.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(114971519:2Q.@def, 101314145:3B.@indef)
+plc(200196364:1M.@entry, HTM1:1W)
+aoj(303162981:32, 101314145:3B.@indef)
+man(200196364:1M.@entry, 600000018:21)
+mod(114635290:2J, 109900711:2A)
+obj(200196364:1M.@entry, 115004501:1B.@topic.@def)
+mod(105821775:0C.@topic.@def.@pl, 107935504:06)
+mod(114971519:2Q.@def, 114635290:2J)
+mod(105821775:0C.@topic.@def.@pl, 107935504:06)
+mod(114971519:2Q.@def, 114635290:2J)
+obj(600000018:21, 114971519:2Q.@def)
+aoj(300799953:17, 115004501:1B.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:580]
+{org:en}
+The carbon dioxide formed is determined using an IR-spectrometer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(200699815:0V.@entry, 201158572:16.@progress)
+obj(200144850:0L, 114796969:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:581]
+{org:en}
+In parallel, a sample of the same water is evaporated and calcined at HTM1 in a tube filled with fragments of silica glass coated with an 85% solution of phosphoric acid.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:01.@entry, 400148869:02)
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+obj:01(600000018:2M, 107008680:2R.@pl)
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+mod:01(100190783:40.@indef, "%":3Y)
+obj:01(200051511:3H, 103438257:3B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:582]
+{org:en}
+Only inorganic components, namely free carbon dioxide and inorganic carbon dioxide are formed in these conditions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200144850:2H.@entry, 103081021:0H.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301679244:07, 103081021:0H.@topic.@pl)
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+obj(400188510:0T, :01)
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+aoj:01(300916199:10, 114796969:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:583]
+{org:en}
+This carbon dioxide is also determined with the IR-spectrometer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0U.@entry, 114796969:07.@topic)
+mod(114796969:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
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+man(200699815:0U.@entry, 600000018:15)
+mod(115668825:1H.@def, 500323848:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:584]
+{org:en}
+The difference between the two results gives the value of organic carbon on the basis of HTM1 quantities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200108604:15.@entry, 104748836:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000085:23, 105108740:2O.@pl)
+mod(104979425:1F.@def, 102961851:1W)
+obj(600000024:0H, 115698567:0X.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000085:23, 105108740:2O.@pl)
+mod(104979425:1F.@def, 102961851:1W)
+obj(600000024:0H, 115698567:0X.@def.@pl)
+obj(200108604:15.@entry, 104979425:1F.@def)
+aoj(600000024:0H, 104748836:06.@topic.@def)
+man(200108604:15.@entry, 600000085:23)
+mod(105108740:2O.@pl, HTM1:2J)
+mod(105108740:2O.@pl, HTM1:2J)
+aoj(301093142:1O, 102961851:1W)
+qua(115698567:0X.@def.@pl, "2":0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:585]
+{org:en}
+Total and organic nitrogen
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01, 114647235:0K.@entry)
+and:01(301093142:0C.@entry, 303160907:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:586]
+{org:en}
+The well known Kjeldahl method is used for determination of so-called organic nitrogen, i.e. nitrogen contained in organic compounds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:10.@entry, 105660268:0Q.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301376705:06, 105660268:0Q.@topic.@def)
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+aoj(115689159:2I, 114647235:28)
+plc(202701210:2W, 103081859:3H.@pl)
+aoj(301376705:06, 105660268:0Q.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301093142:20, 114647235:28)
+aoj(115689159:2I, 114647235:28)
+plc(202701210:2W, 103081859:3H.@pl)
+aoj(114647235:28, 100151497:19)
+obj(202701210:2W, 114647235:2N)
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+obj(115689159:2I, 114647235:2N)
+mod(105660268:0Q.@topic.@def, 500323359:0H)
+obj(115689159:2I, 114647235:2N)
+mod(114647235:28, 303161064:1Q)
+aoj(301093142:39, 103081859:3H.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:587]
+{org:en}
+Destruction of these compounds takes place in this method through treatment of organic substances by a mixture of concentrated sulfuric acid and potassium sulfate, with addition of copper salt as a catalyst.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774213:13.@entry, 100217014:02.@topic)
+mod(103081859:0N.@pl, 600000017:0H)
+obj(200237511:38.@past, 115063493:4E)
+mod(105660268:1H, 600000017:1C)
+mod(105717342:5B, 102282385:54)
+man(202774213:13.@entry, 600000026:1O)
+obj(600000018:4N, 100363788:4S)
+aoj(301093142:29, 100019613:2H.@pl)
+mod(103081859:0N.@pl, 600000017:0H)
+obj(200237511:38.@past, 115063493:4E)
+mod(105660268:1H, 600000017:1C)
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+man(202774213:13.@entry, 600000026:1O)
+obj(600000018:4N, 100363788:4S)
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+obj(100217014:02.@topic, 103081859:0N.@pl)
+ins(202774213:13.@entry, 100380083:2X.@indef)
+and:01(114650807:44.@entry, 115668824:3L)
+obj(100658082:1W, 100019613:2H.@pl)
+obj(600000032:5G, 109900711:5L.@indef)
+man(202774213:13.@entry, 600000018:4N)
+mod(115063493:4E, :01)
+obj(600000026:1O, 100658082:1W)
+mod(115063493:4E, :01)
+obj(600000026:1O, 100658082:1W)
+aoj(600000032:5G, 100363788:4S)
+plc(202774213:13.@entry, 105660268:1H)
+obj(100363788:4S, 105717342:5B)
+mod(100380083:2X.@indef, 115063493:4E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:588]
+{org:en}
+Ammonium sulfate is formed in this process.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200144850:0M.@entry, 115063493:0B.@topic)
+mod(115063493:0B.@topic, 114744120:02)
+mod(115063493:0B.@topic, 114744120:02)
+mod(100029677:11, 600000017:0W)
+scn(200144850:0M.@entry, 100029677:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:589]
+{org:en}
+The ammonium salt is transformed into ammonia by addition of alkali.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200381601:0N.@entry, 105717342:0F.@topic.@def)
+obj(100363788:1F, 114618253:1R)
+obj(100363788:1F, 114618253:1R)
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+agt(200381601:0N.@entry, 100363788:1F)
+mod(105717342:0F.@topic.@def, 114744120:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:590]
+{org:en}
+The ammonia formed is distilled out (together with ammonia formed from any ammonium salts present initially in the sample under investigation).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200068467:0O.@entry, 114743582:06.@topic.@def)
+man:01(200772967:2O, 400103194:2W)
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+obj:01(600000113:13.@entry, 114743582:1H)
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+man:01(200772967:2O, 400103194:2W)
+obj:01(200144850:1P.@past, 105717342:2E.@pl)
+obj:01(600000113:13.@entry, 114743582:1H)
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+man(200068467:0O.@entry, 600000212:0Y)
+obj:01(600000009:3K, 100633864:3Q)
+mod:01(105717342:2E.@pl, 600000052:21)
+man(200068467:0O.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(105821775:3D.@def, 600000009:3K)
+obj:01(200772967:2O, 105717342:2E.@pl)
+mod:01(105821775:3D.@def, 600000009:3K)
+obj:01(200772967:2O, 105717342:2E.@pl)
+agt:01(200144850:1P.@past, 114743582:1H)
+plc:01(200772967:2O, 105821775:3D.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:591]
+{org:en}
+In parallel, the ammonium salts are determined in the initial sample in the presence of a phosphate buffer solution (pH = 7).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200699815:12.@entry, 400148869:02)
+obj(600000361:1Z, 100190783:31.@indef)
+plc(200699815:12.@entry, 105821775:1S.@def)
+mod(102911158:2U, 107928578:2K)
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+obj(200699815:12.@entry, 105717342:0S.@topic.@def.@pl)
+cnt(100190783:31.@indef, 115694200:3B.@parenthesis)
+cnt(100190783:31.@indef, 115694200:3B.@parenthesis)
+mod(105821775:1S.@def, 301011973:1K)
+mod(105717342:0S.@topic.@def.@pl, 114744120:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:592]
+{org:en}
+The nitrogen of ammonium salts is subtracted from the total nitrogen to determine organic nitrogen.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200586973:10.@entry, 114647235:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301093142:2C, 114647235:2K)
+qua(114647235:1Q.@def, 303160907:1K)
+aoj(301093142:2C, 114647235:2K)
+qua(114647235:1Q.@def, 303160907:1K)
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+mod(105717342:0R.@pl, 114744120:0I)
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+mod(114647235:06.@topic.@def, 105717342:0R.@pl)
+obj(200699815:22, 114647235:2K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:593]
+{org:en}
+Nitrates and nitrites
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115015963:0E.@entry, 115015501:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:594]
+{org:en}
+The necessity to limit the consumption of water with high concentration of nitrates and nitrites, and also foodstuff prepared with water high in these compounds, has attracted much attention recently.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201350025:4M.@entry.@complete, 109367203:06.@topic.@def)
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+man(200235368:0J, 600000018:1E)
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+obj:02(201754271:39.@past, 107566340:2Z.@entry)
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+and:02(107566340:2Z.@entry, :01)
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+pur(109367203:06.@topic.@def, 200235368:0J)
+man:02(201754271:39.@past, 600000018:3I)
+mod(100375071:1O, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:595]
+{org:en}
+This is connected with intensive use of nitrate fertilizers in agriculture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201069190:0A.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+scn(114859344:1E.@pl, 108075287:1T)
+obj(100947128:0Z, 114859344:1E.@pl)
+scn(114859344:1E.@pl, 108075287:1T)
+obj(100947128:0Z, 114859344:1E.@pl)
+obj(600000018:0K, 100947128:0Z)
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+mod(114859344:1E.@pl, 115015501:16)
+aoj(301512275:0P, 100947128:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:596]
+{org:en}
+The most convenient and practical method of nitrite determination is a photometric one consisting of combination of two reactions
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000027:2D.@entry.@indef, 105660268:10.@topic)
+mod(100151497:1I, 115015963:1A)
+qua(100202816:3E.@pl, "2":3A)
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+mod(100151497:1I, 115015963:1A)
+qua(100202816:3E.@pl, "2":3A)
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+and:01(300863555:0Q.@entry, 300604617:0B)
+aoj(302777548:21, 600000027:2D.@entry.@indef)
+aoj(:01, 105660268:10.@topic)
+aoj(202774237:2H.@progress, 600000027:2D.@entry.@indef)
+mod(105660268:10.@topic, 100151497:1I)
+mod(105660268:10.@topic, 100151497:1I)
+obj(100378985:2V, 100202816:3E.@pl)
+man:01(300604617:0B, 400536271:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:597]
+{org:en}
+first is diazotization with sulfanilamide and second is formation of a purple dye with HTM1 (1-naphthyl)-ethylenediamine.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100925207:1M.@entry, 115692660:0B)
+man(115692660:0B, 600000018:0P)
+obj(600000018:2C, 115693692:2Z)
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+qua:01(115695702:2P.@entry, "1":2N)
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+obj(100925207:1M.@entry, 114985383:28.@indef)
+qua:01(115695702:2P.@entry, "1":2N)
+man(100925207:1M.@entry, 600000018:2C)
+cnt(HTM1:2H, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj(100925207:1M.@entry, 600000720:1C.@topic)
+obj(600000018:0P, 104352759:0U)
+mod(115693692:2Z, HTM1:2H)
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+mod(115693692:2Z, HTM1:2H)
+aoj(300380312:21, 114985383:28.@indef)
+aoj(115692660:0B, 600000204:02.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:598]
+{org:en}
+Maximum absorption occurs at 543 nm at such reagent composition.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200723349:0L.@entry, 113423922:0A.@topic)
+mod(103081660:1I, 114778982:1A)
+qua(115669060:0Z, "543":0V)
+mod(103081660:1I, 114778982:1A)
+qua(115669060:0Z, "543":0V)
+plc(200723349:0L.@entry, 115669060:0Z)
+plc(200723349:0L.@entry, 103081660:1I)
+aoj(303161017:02, 113423922:0A.@topic)
+aoj(303161017:02, 113423922:0A.@topic)
+mod(103081660:1I, 600001411:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:599]
+{org:en}
+Nitrate is reduced to nitrite in a column packed with copper-clad cadmium.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200045817:0D.@entry, 115015501:02.@topic)
+obj(600000018:1F, 114632444:1W)
+obj(200108909:18, 103073977:11.@indef)
+obj(600000018:1F, 114632444:1W)
+obj(200108909:18, 103073977:11.@indef)
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+aoj(202776302:1R, 114632444:1W)
+aoj(202776302:1R, 114632444:1W)
+man(200108909:18, 600000018:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:600]
+{org:en}
+A galvanic element is formed in this column, in which cadmium functioning as the anode provides the electrons for reducing nitrate to nitrite.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200144850:0O.@entry, 105868954:0D.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(400250898:1S.@progress, 114632444:1K)
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+plc(200406963:2H, 103073977:13)
+pur(109271904:2U.@def.@pl, 200045817:38.@progress)
+plc(200144850:0O.@entry, 103073977:13)
+aoj(303161411:04, 105868954:0D.@topic.@indef)
+obj(200406963:2H, 109271904:2U.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303161411:04, 105868954:0D.@topic.@indef)
+obj(200406963:2H, 109271904:2U.@def.@pl)
+agt(200406963:2H, 114632444:1K)
+aoj(102714315:2B.@def, 114632444:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:601]
+{org:en}
+The nitrite formed is determined by the method described above.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0O.@entry, 115015963:06.@topic.@def)
+man(200987071:1D, 600000201:1N)
+man(200987071:1D, 600000201:1N)
+obj(200987071:1D, 105660268:16.@def)
+aoj(200699815:0O.@entry, 105660268:16.@def)
+obj(200144850:0E, 115015963:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:602]
+{org:en}
+There is also the method of nitrate reduction with metal zinc powder.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, 105660268:0K.@def)
+obj(600000019:1C, 103994008:1S)
+mod(105660268:0K.@def, 100192300:12)
+obj(600000019:1C, 103994008:1S)
+mod(105660268:0K.@def, 100192300:12)
+aoj(600000019:1C, 105660268:0K.@def)
+mod(114661977:1N, 114625458:1H)
+man(105660268:0K.@def, 400047534:0B)
+mod(103994008:1S, 114661977:1N)
+mod(103994008:1S, 114661977:1N)
+mod(100192300:12, 115015501:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:603]
+{org:en}
+However, a real revolution in nitrate determination was accomplished by the invention of ion-selective electrodes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202775825:1M.@entry.@past, 600000070:02)
+scn(300775693:2N, 109315159:2J)
+obj(100940412:26.@def, 103274796:2X.@pl)
+mod(100151497:14, 115015501:0W)
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+obj(100940412:26.@def, 103274796:2X.@pl)
+mod(100151497:14, 115015501:0W)
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+aoj(300013662:0D, 100962722:0I.@topic.@indef)
+obj(202775825:1M.@entry.@past, 100962722:0I.@topic.@indef)
+plc(100962722:0I.@topic.@indef, 100151497:14)
+plc(100962722:0I.@topic.@indef, 100151497:14)
+aoj(300775693:2N, 103274796:2X.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:604]
+{org:en}
+These devices make possible to measure nitrate concentration ion in the presence of other nitrogen containing compounds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200012267:0G.@entry, 100171249:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(114647235:2K, 600000810:2E)
+mod(109315159:1R, 100375071:1D)
+man(200647094:0X, 600000361:1V)
+mod(103081859:34.@pl, 114647235:2K)
+mod(114647235:2K, 600000810:2E)
+mod(109315159:1R, 100375071:1D)
+man(200647094:0X, 600000361:1V)
+mod(103081859:34.@pl, 114647235:2K)
+obj(200012267:0G.@entry, 200647094:0X)
+obj(600000361:1V, 103081859:34.@pl)
+gol(200012267:0G.@entry, 301821266:0L)
+mod(100171249:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+mod(100375071:1D, 115015501:15)
+mod(100171249:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+mod(100375071:1D, 115015501:15)
+obj(200647094:0X, 109315159:1R)
+obj(202701210:2T.@progress, 103081859:34.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:605]
+{org:en}
+Sometimes some additional operations are necessary for obtaining accurate results.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(300343552:17.@entry, 202238085:1L.@progress)
+obj(202238085:1L.@progress, 115698567:24.@pl)
+qua(100409211:0S.@pl, 600000034:0C)
+obj(202238085:1L.@progress, 115698567:24.@pl)
+qua(100409211:0S.@pl, 600000034:0C)
+man(300343552:17.@entry, 100409211:0S.@pl)
+man(300343552:17.@entry, 400021878:02)
+aoj(300021766:1V, 115698567:24.@pl)
+aoj(300021766:1V, 115698567:24.@pl)
+mod(100409211:0S.@pl, 303161014:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:606]
+{org:en}
+Sulfur containing compounds
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103081859:0K.@entry.@pl, 114656219:02)
+obj(202701210:09.@progress, 103081859:0K.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:607]
+{org:en}
+So-called total sulfur is determined.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0S.@entry, 114656219:0I.@topic)
+qua(114656219:0I.@topic, 303160907:0C)
+mod(114656219:0I.@topic, 303161064:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:608]
+{org:en}
+The suspended matter is filtered out and a water sample is passed through the ion exchange chromatographic column with ion exchanger in HTM1 form.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202049696:1P.@entry, 105821775:1F.@topic.@indef)
+mod(103384535:3Z, HTM1:3U)
+mod(103073977:31, 100167063:2C.@def)
+man(202049696:1P.@entry, 600000026:1W)
+obj(600000018:38, 110069120:3H)
+mod(103384535:3Z, HTM1:3U)
+mod(103073977:31, 100167063:2C.@def)
+man(202049696:1P.@entry, 600000026:1W)
+obj(600000018:38, 110069120:3H)
+man(202049696:1P.@entry, 600000018:38)
+mod(100167063:2C.@def, 109315159:28)
+plc(202049696:1P.@entry, 103384535:3Z)
+mod(105821775:1F.@topic.@indef, 107935504:19)
+aoj(302987910:2L, 103073977:31)
+mod(105821775:1F.@topic.@indef, 107935504:19)
+aoj(302987910:2L, 103073977:31)
+obj(600000026:1W, 103073977:31)
+mod(110069120:3H, 109315159:3D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:609]
+{org:en}
+Then all reducible compounds are oxidized by bromine in the alkaline medium and sulfates are precipitated by a barium chloride standard solution with known concentration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:01.@entry, 400117620:02)
+obj:01(200238867:0Z, 103081859:0L.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(100190783:3U.@indef, 104301140:3L)
+aoj:01(300883611:0B, 103081859:0L.@topic.@pl)
+man:01(200474994:2N.@entry, 600000018:43)
+aoj:01(300025728:1Q, 106254475:1Z.@def)
+obj:01(600000018:43, 100375071:4E)
+obj:01(200238867:0Z, 103081859:0L.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(100190783:3U.@indef, 104301140:3L)
+aoj:01(300883611:0B, 103081859:0L.@topic.@pl)
+man:01(200474994:2N.@entry, 600000018:43)
+aoj:01(300025728:1Q, 106254475:1Z.@def)
+obj:01(600000018:43, 100375071:4E)
+obj:01(200474994:2N.@entry, 115063493:2A.@pl)
+plc:01(114632129:1B, 106254475:1Z.@def)
+mod:01(115016852:3C, 114629998:35)
+and:01(200474994:2N.@entry, 200238867:0Z)
+agt:01(200238867:0Z, 114632129:1B)
+mod:01(104301140:3L, 115016852:3C)
+agt:01(200238867:0Z, 114632129:1B)
+mod:01(104301140:3L, 115016852:3C)
+agt:01(200474994:2N.@entry, 100190783:3U.@indef)
+mod:01(103081859:0L.@topic.@pl, 300521584:07)
+mod:01(100375071:4E, 301375174:48)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:610]
+{org:en}
+The excess of barium ion is determined by Complexone III (EDTA).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0U.@entry, 109315159:0N.@topic)
+mod(109315159:0N.@topic, 105118437:06.@def)
+mod(109315159:0N.@topic, 105118437:06.@def)
+mod(115693492:18, "3":1J)
+aoj(200699815:0U.@entry, 115693492:18)
+mod(109315159:0N.@topic, 114629998:0G)
+[W]
+500323686:1O.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:611]
+{org:en}
+The sulfur concentration (in mg /l) is calculated as the difference between the two results.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200637259:14.@entry, 100375071:0D.@topic.@def)
+qua(115698567:2D.@def.@pl, "2":29)
+aoj(600000024:1X, 104748836:1M.@def)
+obj:01(600000051:0U, 115690126:0V)
+qua(115698567:2D.@def.@pl, "2":29)
+aoj(600000024:1X, 104748836:1M.@def)
+obj:01(600000051:0U, 115690126:0V)
+obj(600000023:1F, 104748836:1M.@def)
+mod(100375071:0D.@topic.@def, 114656219:06)
+man(200637259:14.@entry, 600000023:1F)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 100375071:0D.@topic.@def)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 100375071:0D.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000024:1X, 115698567:2D.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:612]
+{org:en}
+Special methods are employed if it is necessary to determine separate sulfur containing compounds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(202774279:0M.@entry, 300343552:14)
+mod(103081859:2I.@pl, 114656219:20)
+aoj(300343552:14, 200699815:1H)
+mod(103081859:2I.@pl, 114656219:20)
+aoj(300343552:14, 200699815:1H)
+aoj(301678729:02, 105660268:0A.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301327371:1R, 114656219:20)
+obj(202774279:0M.@entry, 105660268:0A.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202701210:27.@progress, 103081859:2I.@pl)
+obj(202701210:27.@progress, 103081859:2I.@pl)
+obj(200699815:1H, 103081859:2I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:613]
+{org:en}
+Heavy metals
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300462409:02, 114625458:08.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:614]
+{org:en}
+The series of metals (lead, copper, cadmium, zinc, nickel) can be determined as a sum by the following method.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:1W.@entry, 105862721:06.@topic.@def)
+and:01(102282385:0U, 101256270:0O)
+mod(105862721:06.@topic.@def, 114625458:0G.@pl)
+obj(600000023:27, 105861067:2C.@indef)
+and:01(114661977:1B, 114632444:12)
+and:01(102282385:0U, 101256270:0O)
+mod(105862721:06.@topic.@def, 114625458:0G.@pl)
+obj(600000023:27, 105861067:2C.@indef)
+and:01(114661977:1B, 114632444:12)
+man(200699815:1W.@entry, 105660268:2X)
+and:01(113390139:1H.@entry, 114661977:1B)
+man(200699815:1W.@entry, 600000023:27)
+cnt(114625458:0G.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+cnt(114625458:0G.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj(300127815:2N, 105660268:2X)
+and:01(114632444:12, 102282385:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:615]
+{org:en}
+These metals are extracted from water by Dithizone (diphenyl thiocarbazone) solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200638723:0J.@entry, 114625458:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(115696204:1R.@entry, 115695068:1I)
+mod(100190783:26, 115693618:17)
+mod:01(115696204:1R.@entry, 115695068:1I)
+mod(100190783:26, 115693618:17)
+src(200638723:0J.@entry, 107935504:0Y)
+agt(200638723:0J.@entry, 100190783:26)
+mod(114625458:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+mod(114625458:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+cnt(115693618:17, :01.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:616]
+{org:en}
+The extract obtained is treated by a salt of mercury (II).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200078760:0Q.@entry, 115689670:06.@topic.@def)
+tim(105014308:1B, "2":1K.@parenthesis)
+tim(105014308:1B, "2":1K.@parenthesis)
+mod(105717342:13.@indef, 105014308:1B)
+agt(200078760:0Q.@entry, 105717342:13.@indef)
+obj(202238085:0E, 115689670:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:617]
+{org:en}
+That operation transforms all dithizonates into mercury (I) dithizonate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200381601:0H.@entry, 100409211:07.@topic)
+tim(105014308:1E, "1":1N.@parenthesis)
+mod(115692095:0W.@pl, 300521584:0S)
+tim(105014308:1E, "1":1N.@parenthesis)
+mod(115692095:0W.@pl, 300521584:0S)
+obj(200381601:0H.@entry, 115692095:0W.@pl)
+gol(200381601:0H.@entry, 115692095:1Q)
+mod(100409211:07.@topic, 600000050:02)
+mod(100409211:07.@topic, 600000050:02)
+mod(115692095:1Q, 105014308:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:618]
+{org:en}
+This latter compound is measured by its light absorption at wave length HTM1 nm.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200647094:0Q.@entry, 103081859:0E.@topic)
+cnt(103656231:1V, HTM1:22)
+mod(113423922:1C, 600000016:12)
+mod(103081859:0E.@topic, 600000017:02)
+cnt(103656231:1V, HTM1:22)
+mod(113423922:1C, 600000016:12)
+mod(103081859:0E.@topic, 600000017:02)
+aoj(200647094:0Q.@entry, 113423922:1C)
+mod(103656231:1V, 100346095:1Q)
+man(200647094:0Q.@entry, 103656231:1V)
+qua(115669060:27, HTM1:22)
+qua(115669060:27, HTM1:22)
+mod(113423922:1C, 103665366:16)
+mod(103081859:0E.@topic, 301047561:07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:619]
+{org:en}
+The results are expressed in m-equiv HTM1 of the metals.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200940384:0I.@entry, 115698567:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(HTM1:13, 115690591:0X)
+mod(HTM1:13, 115690591:0X)
+qua(114625458:1F.@def.@pl, HTM1:13)
+plc(200940384:0I.@entry, 114625458:1F.@def.@pl)
+mod(115690591:0X, 106832464:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:620]
+{org:en}
+Determination of iron HTM1 is carried out by a photocolorimetric method using the reagent sulfosalicylic acid in a weak alkaline medium (ammonia).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:0W.@entry, 100151497:02.@topic)
+aoj(300025728:3E, 106254475:3N.@indef)
+plc(114607521:2Z, 106254475:3N.@indef)
+aoj(303163588:1D, 105660268:1V.@indef)
+cnt(106254475:3N.@indef, 114743582:3V.@parenthesis)
+aoj(300025728:3E, 106254475:3N.@indef)
+plc(114607521:2Z, 106254475:3N.@indef)
+aoj(303163588:1D, 105660268:1V.@indef)
+cnt(106254475:3N.@indef, 114743582:3V.@parenthesis)
+agt(201158572:22.@progress, 105660268:1V.@indef)
+aoj(303163784:2K, 114607521:2Z)
+agt(202774207:0W.@entry, 105660268:1V.@indef)
+obj(100151497:02.@topic, 103584829:0J)
+mod(114607521:2Z, 114778982:2C.@def)
+obj(100151497:02.@topic, 103584829:0J)
+mod(114607521:2Z, 114778982:2C.@def)
+obj(201158572:22.@progress, 114607521:2Z)
+aoj(300441523:39, 106254475:3N.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:621]
+{org:en}
+The determination is carried out at wave length HTM1 nm.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:0N.@entry, 100151497:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(103656231:17, 100346095:12)
+mod(103656231:17, 100346095:12)
+cnt(103656231:17, HTM1:1E)
+man(202774207:0N.@entry, 103656231:17)
+qua(115669060:1J, HTM1:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:622]
+{org:en}
+Calcium and magnesium
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(114644249:0E.@entry, 114632648:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:623]
+{org:en}
+These two metals are present in water of almost any origin in rather large concentrations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(301731351:0N.@entry, 107935504:0Y)
+man(104923743:1I, 400073033:17)
+qua(114625458:0C.@pl, "2":08)
+aoj(300527870:1Z, 100375071:25.@pl)
+man(104923743:1I, 400073033:17)
+qua(114625458:0C.@pl, "2":08)
+aoj(300527870:1Z, 100375071:25.@pl)
+mod(114625458:0C.@pl, 600000017:02)
+mod(104923743:1I, 600000052:1E)
+man(301731351:0N.@entry, 114625458:0C.@pl)
+plc(104923743:1I, 100375071:25.@pl)
+plc(104923743:1I, 100375071:25.@pl)
+mod(107935504:0Y, 104923743:1I)
+man(300527870:1Z, 600000114:1S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:624]
+{org:en}
+The best modern method for their determination is the atomic absorption method, which is brought about with the use of a special spectrophotometer utilizing so called lamps with a hollow cathode.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105660268:22.@entry.@def, 105660268:0I.@topic.@def)
+obj(200161872:45.@progress, 103636248:4P.@pl)
+obj(600000018:2X, 100947128:36.@def)
+aoj(300227507:06, 105660268:0I.@topic.@def)
+mod(105660268:22.@entry.@def, 113423922:1R)
+aoj(302010127:52, 102984699:59.@indef)
+aoj(301678729:3F, 104272928:3N.@indef)
+obj(200161872:45.@progress, 103636248:4P.@pl)
+obj(600000018:2X, 100947128:36.@def)
+aoj(300227507:06, 105660268:0I.@topic.@def)
+mod(105660268:22.@entry.@def, 113423922:1R)
+aoj(302010127:52, 102984699:59.@indef)
+aoj(301678729:3F, 104272928:3N.@indef)
+mod(100151497:0Z, 600000020:0T.@pl)
+aoj(301392071:1K, 105660268:22.@entry.@def)
+obj(600000018:4V, 102984699:59.@indef)
+agt(200161872:45.@progress, 104272928:3N.@indef)
+man(300227507:06, 400536271:5F)
+obj(202090679:2R, 105660268:22.@entry.@def)
+mod(103636248:4P.@pl, 303161064:4F)
+obj(100947128:36.@def, 104272928:3N.@indef)
+mod(103636248:4P.@pl, 303161064:4F)
+obj(100947128:36.@def, 104272928:3N.@indef)
+aoj(300414354:0B, 105660268:0I.@topic.@def)
+man(202090679:2R, 600000018:2X)
+pur(105660268:0I.@topic.@def, 100151497:0Z)
+man(200161872:45.@progress, 600000018:4V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:625]
+{org:en}
+The cathode in the lamp contains the element that should be determined in the analyzed material.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202701210:0Q.@entry, 102984699:06.@topic.@def)
+plc(102984699:06.@topic.@def, 103636248:0L.@def)
+plc(200699815:1Q.@should.@past, 103729951:2H.@def)
+plc(102984699:06.@topic.@def, 103636248:0L.@def)
+plc(200699815:1Q.@should.@past, 103729951:2H.@def)
+obj(200699815:1Q.@should.@past, 105868954:13.@def)
+obj(202701210:0Q.@entry, 105868954:13.@def)
+obj(200643197:28.@past, 103729951:2H.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:626]
+{org:en}
+Thus, electromagnetic radiation is generated in the lamp, the energy of which is compared with the excitation energy of the atoms or ions of the element to be determined.
+{/org}
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+This radiation is directed on an aerosol of the element under investigation.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The radiation utilized has wave length HTM1 nm for calcium and HTM2 nm for magnesium.
+{/org}
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+[S:629]
+{org:en}
+Hardness of water
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:630]
+{org:en}
+Hardness is a property of water, the name of which reflects physiological dissatisfaction with this property, in particular for household and even for industrial use.
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+{org:en}
+Water containing large concentrations of dissolved salts of calcium and magnesium is called hard water.
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+{org:en}
+Total, temporary, permanent, carbonate, and non-carbonate kinds of hardness are distinguished.
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+{org:en}
+Permanent hardness is that part of the total hardness that persists after boiling water under special conditions.
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+Temporary hardness is that part of total hardness that is removed after such boiling.
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+[S:635]
+{org:en}
+Carbonate hardness is that part of the total hardness that is equivalent to the concentration of carbonates and hydrocarbonates of calcium and magnesium.
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+{org:en}
+The non-carbonate hardness is equal to the difference between total and carbonate hardness.
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+{/unl}
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+[S:637]
+{org:en}
+The methods for water softening are discussed in another section of this article.
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+{org:en}
+Total hardness is determined by a complexometric method and is expressed in mg-equiv. per liter of water.
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+
+[S:639]
+{org:en}
+Approximate calculation of the carbonate and consequently non-carbonate hardness is carried out assuming the carbonate hardness is equal to the determined harness without regard to the alkalinity of water (in mg-equiv. HTM1 ).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:640]
+{org:en}
+The complexometric determination of the total hardness is performed by titration with the Complexion III (EDTA) solution with the dye Eriochrome Black T as indicator in the medium, with HTM1 i.e. established, for example, by the buffer solution ( HTM2 ).
+{/org}
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+
+[S:641]
+{org:en}
+The color changes from red to dark blue at the point of equivalence.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200109660:0C.@entry, 104674968:06.@topic.@def)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:642]
+{org:en}
+Phenols
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+114989545:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:643]
+{org:en}
+This group of compounds is discussed here because phenol compounds comprise a group of organic substances that are often present in household and industrial waste water and also enter potable water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:644]
+{org:en}
+Their toxicity increases as a consequence of water chlorination.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:645]
+{org:en}
+The primary problem is the isolation of the organic compounds from water.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:646]
+{org:en}
+This problem is solved by extraction.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+The water is saturated with sodium chloride, and hydrochloric acid is added until its concentration reaches 5%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+tmt(200182406:20.@entry, 100375071:2G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:648]
+{org:en}
+Extraction with diethyl ether is then carried out a few times with small portions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774207:14.@entry, 400117620:0Z)
+obj(600000018:1S, 115699459:23.@pl)
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+mod(103299929:0Q, 115695066:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:649]
+{org:en}
+The ether extract is treated with three portions of sodium hydroxide solution for 30 ml each.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200078760:0N.@entry, 115689670:0C.@topic.@def)
+mod(115689670:0C.@topic.@def, 103299929:06)
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+qua(115668729:2F, "30":2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:650]
+{org:en}
+Then the ether layer is separated and dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:01.@entry, 400117620:02)
+aoj:01(302555550:1F, 115063493:1W)
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+obj:01(600000018:1A, 115063493:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:651]
+{org:en}
+Ether is distilled off, and the residue is weighed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202646064:19.@entry, 200068467:0B)
+man(200068467:0B, 600000261:0L)
+man(200068467:0B, 600000261:0L)
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+obj(202646064:19.@entry, 115004501:0Y.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:652]
+{org:en}
+The alkaline water solution is cooled, saturated with HTM1 to precipitate sodium hydrocarbonate, and treated with few portions of ether.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:01.@entry, 100190783:0L.@topic.@def)
+obj:01(200474994:1S, 115690319:2B)
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+obj:01(600000018:1F, HTM1:1K)
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+and:01(200456357:15, 200369864:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:653]
+{org:en}
+All portions of the ether extract are combined together, dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate, and ether is distilled off.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200068467:31.@entry, :01)
+aoj:01(302555550:1Y, 115063493:2F)
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+mod:01(115063493:2F, 114655371:28)
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+obj:01(600000018:1T, 115063493:2F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:654]
+{org:en}
+The residue that can be considered as phenols is weighed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202646064:1F.@entry, 115004501:06.@topic.@def)
+gol(200691312:0Q.@ability, 114989545:14.@pl)
+obj(200691312:0Q.@ability, 115004501:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:655]
+{org:en}
+Active chlorine
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300031974:02, 114634591:09.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:656]
+{org:en}
+It is necessary to determine so-called active chlorine in the usual disinfection of water by means of chlorination.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300343552:08.@entry, 200699815:0L)
+obj(100709521:1Y.@def, 107935504:2E)
+mod(114634591:1C, 303161064:0V)
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+aoj(300489108:1S, 100709521:1Y.@def)
+aoj(300031974:15, 114634591:1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:657]
+{org:en}
+Active chlorine includes dissolved molecular chlorine and a series of compounds (chlorites, hypochlorites, etc.).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0I.@entry, 114634591:09.@topic)
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+and:01(114614245:2M.@pl, 114670954:2B.@pl)
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+and:01(114614245:2M.@pl, 114670954:2B.@pl)
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+and:01(115689145:31.@entry, 114614245:2M.@pl)
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+aoj:02(301506258:0R, 114634591:1B)
+cnt:02(103081859:20.@entry.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj:02(301542252:11, 114634591:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:658]
+{org:en}
+They are all determined jointly by colorimetric method.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000166:0B.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+man(200699815:0F.@past, 400117082:0Q)
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+obj(200699815:0F.@past, 600000166:0B.@entry)
+aoj(302700615:11, 105660268:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:659]
+{org:en}
+Acetic acid and solid potassium iodide is added to the water sample.
+{/org}
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+aoj:01(303039907:02, 114607521:09)
+aoj:01(300291181:0I, 114922371:0Y.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:660]
+{org:en}
+The formed iodine is titrated with sodium thiosulfate to become a light yellow color.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200491910:0N.@entry, 114641397:0D.@topic.@def)
+gol(200149583:1N, 104674968:29.@indef)
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+obj(200144850:06.@past, 114641397:0D.@topic.@def)
+gol(200149583:1N, 104674968:29.@indef)
+mod(115691009:18, 114655371:11)
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+obj(600000018:0W, 115691009:18)
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+aoj(300269989:1W, 104674968:29.@indef)
+obj(200149583:1N, 115691009)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:661]
+{org:en}
+Then 1 ml of starch solution is added and the titration is continued, until a blue color disappears.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tmt(:01.@entry, 200426958:2J)
+qua:01(100190783:0M.@topic, 115668729:09)
+man:01(200182406:0Y, 400117620:02)
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+obj:01(200118523:1P.@entry, 100648237:1C.@topic.@def)
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+and:01(200118523:1P.@entry, 200182406:0Y)
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+mod:01(100190783:0M.@topic, 115018889:0F)
+obj:01(200182406:0Y, 100190783:0M.@topic)
+aoj(300364881:28, 104674968:2D.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:662]
+{org:en}
+The same titration is carried out with a sample of distilled water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:0O.@entry, 100648237:0B.@topic)
+aoj(300355611:06, 100648237:0B.@topic)
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+man(202774207:0O.@entry, 600000018:10)
+obj(200068467:1H.@past, 107935504:1R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:663]
+{org:en}
+The difference between the results minus the amount of thiosulfate spent in the blank experiment is used for calculation of active chlorine concentration (mg of chlorine per 1l of water).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:2U.@entry, 104748836:06.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(106832356:4X, "1":4W)
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+obj(100868910:33, 100375071:3Y)
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+aoj:01(600000025:4S, 115669302:4D.@entry)
+aoj(600000024:0H, 104748836:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj:01(600000025:4S, 115669302:4D.@entry)
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+obj(400197275:11, 100033615:1B.@def)
+qua:01(107935504:52, 106832356:4X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:664]
+{org:en}
+Ozone
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+114972807:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:665]
+{org:en}
+Disinfection of water is often carried out by ozone.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(100709521:02.@topic, 107935504:0I)
+obj(100709521:02.@topic, 107935504:0I)
+man(202774207:0X.@entry, 400059547:0R)
+agt(202774207:0X.@entry, 114972807:1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:666]
+{org:en}
+To control the process, it is necessary to determine the ozone concentration in the treated water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(300343552:0W.@entry, 200663160:05)
+obj(200078760:2E.@past, 107935504:2M.@def)
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+obj(200663160:05, 100029677:0H.@def)
+mod(100375071:1T.@def, 114972807:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:667]
+{org:en}
+The iodometric method is utilized for this purpose.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(303163411:06, 105660268:0H.@topic.@def)
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+pur(200161872:0R.@entry, 105982152:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:668]
+{org:en}
+The results are calculated for ozone concentration expressed in milligrams of ozone per liter of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200637259:0I.@entry, 115698567:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+qua(114972807:28, 113723061:1U.@pl)
+plc(200940384:1H, 114972807:28)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:669]
+{org:en}
+Gaseous nitrogen is passed for 5 to 8 minutes through the water sample in the flask.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202049696:0M.@entry, 114647235:0A.@topic)
+fmt:01("8":12.@entry, "5":0X)
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+obj(600000026:1C, 105821775:1U.@def)
+qua(106506315:14.@pl, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:670]
+{org:en}
+Then the water is acidified with a solution of sulfuric acid to pH = 2, and a solution of potassium iodide is added.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:01.@entry, 400117620:02)
+obj:01(200264875:0K, 107935504:0B.@topic.@def)
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+obj:01(200264875:0K, 107935504:0B.@topic.@def)
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+obj:01(600000018:0U, 100190783:11.@indef)
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+gol:01(200264875:0K, 115694199:1V)
+mod:01(114922371:2V, 114650807:2L)
+mod:01(100190783:11.@indef, 115668824:1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:671]
+{org:en}
+The mixture is titrated with a sodium thiosulfate solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200491910:0H.@entry, 100380083:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100190783:1G.@indef, 115691009:14)
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+man(200491910:0H.@entry, 600000018:0Q)
+mod(115691009:14, 114655371:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:672]
+{org:en}
+A control experiment with the same amount of sodium iodide solution and sulfuric acid is performed to establish the absence of the side reactions between the reagents of the principal experiment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201712704:2J.@entry, 100639556:0C.@topic.@indef)
+mod(100639556:0C.@topic.@indef, 100803617:04)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:673]
+{org:en}
+The equation of the main reaction is as follows
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100185307:06.@topic.@def, 100202816:0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:674]
+{org:en}
+Microorganisms and water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(107935504:0L.@entry, 100004475:07.@pl)
+mod(100004475:07.@pl, 103485407:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:675]
+{org:en}
+Microorganisms are always present in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301731351:0S.@entry, 100004475:07.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100004475:07.@topic.@pl, 103485407:02)
+mod(100004475:07.@topic.@pl, 103485407:02)
+man(301731351:0S.@entry, 400019339:0L)
+plc(301731351:0S.@entry, 107935504:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:676]
+{org:en}
+The pathogenic ones were often and are still the cause of serious epidemics.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100007347:1F.@entry.@def, 600000027:0H.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303161307:06, 600000027:0H.@topic.@pl)
+man(100007347:1F.@entry.@def, 400031304:15.@present)
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+man(100007347:1F.@entry.@def, 400059547:0R.@past)
+aoj(300748359:1O, 107435533:1W.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:677]
+{org:en}
+Bacteriological analysis of water is a rather difficult and prolonged process.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100029677:20.@entry.@indef, 100634276:0I.@topic)
+aoj(302914740:02, 100634276:0I.@topic)
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:678]
+{org:en}
+The well known bacteriologist Robert Koch proposed in 1892 a rapid method that is now widely used for estimating bacteriological contamination of water by the quantity of cells of HTM1 Escherichia coli HTM2 bacterium.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105108740:4H.@def, 100006484:4T.@pl)
+man(201158572:2N, 400495663:2G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:679]
+{org:en}
+This bacterium is a normal component of intestinal flora.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103081021:0T.@entry.@indef, 115689384:07.@topic)
+aoj(302935530:16, 115669739:1H)
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+mod(103081021:0T.@entry.@indef, 115669739:1H)
+mod(115689384:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:680]
+{org:en}
+It does not cause any diseases, but its quantity in water is an indicator of the presence of other harmful microorganisms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(114070360:0O.@pl, 600000052:0K)
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+mod(100004475:36.@pl, 600000031:2N)
+agt(201645601:0E.@emphasis.@not, 600000016:02.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:681]
+{org:en}
+If HTM1 Escherichia coli HTM2 is absent or present in water only in small quantity, then there should be no contamination with other microorganisms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(202603699:2J.@entry.@past, :01)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:682]
+{org:en}
+It is established that water is harmless for drinking, if there are not more than 3 cells of HTM1 Escherichia Coli HTM2 in 1 liter.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200636888:08.@entry, 202603699:1U)
+obj(200636888:08.@entry, 301159655:0Y.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:683]
+{org:en}
+The cell number per liter of water is called the coli-index.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000025:0I, 107935504:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:684]
+{org:en}
+Another characteristic of water decontamination is coli-titer i.e. the volume of water ( HTM1 ) containing 1 cell of HTM2 Escherichia Coli HTM3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115690889:1H.@entry, 104731497:0A.@topic)
+mod(104731497:0A.@topic, 600000066:02)
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+mod(104731497:0A.@topic, 100394485:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:685]
+{org:en}
+Water of good quality should have coli-titer not less than 300 ml
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0V.@entry, 107935504:02.@topic)
+mod(107935504:02.@topic, 104723816:0G)
+qua(115668729:1T, 400099868:1F.@not)
+mod(107935504:02.@topic, 104723816:0G)
+qua(115668729:1T, 400099868:1F.@not)
+qua(115690889:10, 115668729:1T)
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+aoj(300523364:0B, 104723816:0G)
+bas(400099868:1F.@not, "300":1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:686]
+{org:en}
+this corresponds to coli-index of not more than 3 cells per litre.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201006810:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+bas(400099341:14, "3":1E)
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+bas(400099341:14, "3":1E)
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+man(400099341:14, 400024073:10)
+man(400099341:14, 400024073:10)
+qua(100006484:1G.@pl, 400099341:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:687]
+{org:en}
+Another aspect of the interaction of water and microorganisms is their use for biochemical purification of waste water in filtration and purification beds, in biological filters and aeration tanks, and also in the silt places and in biological ponds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100947128:21.@entry, 104733118:0A.@topic)
+pur(100947128:21.@entry, 100252894:2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:688]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106396142:0A.@entry.@pl, 301971237:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:689]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:690]
+{org:en}
+Analyte
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115694742:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:691]
+{org:en}
+the material to be analyzed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200643197:0L, 103729951:06.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:692]
+{org:en}
+BOD
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115691036:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:693]
+{org:en}
+biological oxygen demand - consumption of the oxygen dissolved in water for processes of biological oxidation of the microorganisms present in water {or oxidation of the reducing agents present in the water by the microorganisms also present in the water} in a predetermined duration of time (usually 5 days).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301731351:3Q, 100004475:3G.@def.@pl)
+obj(100356367:0T.@entry, 114648100:1C.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:694]
+{org:en}
+COD
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+102522399:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:695]
+{org:en}
+chemical oxygen demand - chemical consumption of the oxygen dissolved in water for oxidizing reducing agents present.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100356367:10.@entry, 101061333:0I)
+mod(101061333:0I, 114648100:0B)
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+pur(200338559:1Q, 200238867:2D.@progress)
+aoj(302692624:02, 101061333:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:696]
+{org:en}
+Coli-index
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115690585:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:697]
+{org:en}
+degree of water contamination with harmful microorganisms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000019:0W, 105094565:02.@entry)
+mod(100004475:1E.@pl, 301393976:19)
+obj(600000019:0W, 100004475:1E.@pl)
+mod(100004475:1E.@pl, 301393976:19)
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+mod(105094565:02.@entry, 100276987:0I)
+aoj(301160031:11, 100004475:1E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:698]
+{org:en}
+EDTA
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323686:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:699]
+{org:en}
+ethylenediaminetetraacetate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115695175:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:700]
+{org:en}
+Organoleptic properties
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161155:02, 104012260:0F.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:701]
+{org:en}
+characteristics of the water quality on the basis of sensation of human perception organs (taste, odor, etc.).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104731497:02.@entry.@pl, 104723816:0V.@def)
+cnt(103854065:2D.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
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+mod(103854065:2D.@pl, 105708432:22)
+mod(105712076:1J, 103854065:2D.@pl)
+and:01(104980008:2S, 100882702:2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:702]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:703]
+{org:en}
+Alykov N.M.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323206:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:704]
+{org:en}
+Determination of Toxic Elements in Mineral Water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100151497:02.@entry, 105868954:0P.@pl)
+aoj(301680559:11, 107935504:19)
+aoj(301680559:11, 107935504:19)
+aoj(302449430:0J, 105868954:0P.@pl)
+plc(105868954:0P.@pl, 107935504:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:705]
+{org:en}
+All-Russian Conference
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107142566:0E.@entry, 300521584:02)
+aoj(302957276:06, 107142566:0E.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:706]
+{org:en}
+Chemical Analysis of Substances and Materials. Moscow
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+Review of literature on this new efficient analytical method, used for water investigations (in Russian).
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+Council of Mutual Economic Assistance, 4th edition.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:752]
+{org:en}
+ARTIFICIAL GROUNDWATER RECHARGE
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300073465:02, 115689206:0P.@entry)
+mod(115689206:0P.@entry, 115669379:0D)
+mod(115689206:0P.@entry, 115669379:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:753]
+{org:en}
+ARTIFICIAL GROUNDWATER RECHARGE
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300073465:02, 115689206:0P.@entry)
+aoj(300073465:02, 115689206:0P.@entry)
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+mod(115689206:0P.@entry, 115669379:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:754]
+{org:en}
+Spandre R.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323449:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323449:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:755]
+{org:en}
+University of Pisa, Italy
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323660:02.@entry, 500003409:0M)
+plc(500323660:02.@entry, 500003409:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:756]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:757]
+{org:en}
+artificial groundwater recharge, hydrogeology, map analysis, water management, aquifer, water demand and supply, groundwater, water pollution, water reserve, infiltration basins, recharge wells
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:758]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:759]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:760]
+{org:en}
+Artificial Groundwater Recharge (AGR)
+{/org}
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+aoj(300073465:02, 115689206:0P.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:761]
+{org:en}
+Influence of Recharge Factors
+{/org}
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+mod(100157081:02.@entry, 105858317:0O.@pl)
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+mod(105858317:0O.@pl, 115689206:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:762]
+{org:en}
+Methods of Artificial Recharge
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+[/S]
+
+[S:763]
+{org:en}
+Mixed Systems of Water Recharge
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+mod(104377057:08.@entry.@pl, 115689206:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:764]
+{org:en}
+Evaluation of Aquifer Recharge Area by Piezometric Map Analysis
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:765]
+{org:en}
+Advantages and Disadvantages of Artificial Groundwater Recharge
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:766]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
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+obj(200953058:02.@past, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
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+
+[S:767]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:768]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:769]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:770]
+{org:en}
+Summary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:771]
+{org:en}
+The increasing demand for water in many regions around the world has led to the implementation of more intensive water management measures to achieve more efficient utilization of limited available water supplies.
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+
+[S:772]
+{org:en}
+The natural replenishment of groundwater occurs very slowly.
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:773]
+{org:en}
+If groundwater is exploited at a rate greater than that of its natural replenishment this will cause declining groundwater levels and, in the long term, destruction of the groundwater resource.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:774]
+{org:en}
+To augment natural replenishment of groundwater reserves, the artificial recharge of groundwater has become increasingly important in many countries.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:775]
+{org:en}
+In artificial recharge schemes aquifers are treated as a naturally-regulated system which may be used to store surface water, thereby leveling out seasonal variations in surface water availability and providing a steady supply of potable water.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:776]
+{org:en}
+Furthermore, the soil can be utilized as a reactive agent for improving the quality of the surface water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:777]
+{org:en}
+The main reasons for carrying8out artificial recharge may be summarized as follows
+{/org}
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+man(202752695:1R.@entry.@may, 600000181:22)
+obj(202774207:0N.@progress, 115689206:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:778]
+{org:en}
+promoting recovery of overexploited aquifers
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(100045907:0C, 109201998:12.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:779]
+{org:en}
+storage of surficial waters during flood periods to maintain and improve supply in the dry season
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:780]
+{org:en}
+storage of local or imported water in the aquifer
+{/org}
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+obj(100811355:02.@entry, 107935504:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:781]
+{org:en}
+preventing seawater intrusion by creating freshwater barriers
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202450505:02.@entry.@progress, 201640207:0Z.@progress)
+obj(201640207:0Z.@progress, 102796623:1J.@pl)
+man(202450505:02.@entry.@progress, 201640207:0Z.@progress)
+obj(201640207:0Z.@progress, 102796623:1J.@pl)
+mod(100049530:0M, 115008847:0D)
+obj(202450505:02.@entry.@progress, 100049530:0M)
+mod(102796623:1J.@pl, 303161011:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:782]
+{org:en}
+increasing the value of aquifers for water distribution in areas with many wells
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200153263:02.@entry.@progress, 600000018:1V)
+mod(101083077:19, 107935504:13)
+mod(104979425:0H.@def, 109201998:0Q.@pl)
+man(200153263:02.@entry.@progress, 600000018:1V)
+mod(101083077:19, 107935504:13)
+mod(104979425:0H.@def, 109201998:0Q.@pl)
+obj(200153263:02.@entry.@progress, 104979425:0H.@def)
+qua(104572344:25.@pl, 600000028:20)
+plc(200153263:02.@entry.@progress, 102735688:1P.@pl)
+obj(600000018:1V, 104572344:25.@pl)
+pur(109201998:0Q.@pl, 101083077:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:783]
+{org:en}
+discharging certain wastewaters, such as cooling water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201097743:02.@entry.@progress, 600000068:0Z)
+obj(600000068:0Z, 115689501:17)
+man(201097743:02.@entry.@progress, 600000068:0Z)
+obj(600000068:0Z, 115689501:17)
+aoj(300309740:0E, 115669276:0M.@pl)
+obj(201097743:02.@entry.@progress, 115669276:0M.@pl)
+obj(201097743:02.@entry.@progress, 115669276:0M.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:784]
+{org:en}
+reducing groundwater salinity in agricultural areas
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200045817:02.@entry.@progress, 102735688:1C.@pl)
+aoj(302790222:0Z, 102735688:1C.@pl)
+plc(200045817:02.@entry.@progress, 102735688:1C.@pl)
+aoj(302790222:0Z, 102735688:1C.@pl)
+mod(115668809:0N, 115669379:0B)
+obj(200045817:02.@entry.@progress, 115668809:0N)
+obj(200045817:02.@entry.@progress, 115668809:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:785]
+{org:en}
+reducing subsidence caused by high pumping rates
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200045817:02.@entry.@progress, 115669212:0B)
+aoj(300705498:0W, 113325010:19.@pl)
+obj(200045817:02.@entry.@progress, 115669212:0B)
+aoj(300705498:0W, 113325010:19.@pl)
+aoj(201645601:0M.@past, 113325010:19.@pl)
+obj(201645601:0M.@past, 115669212:0B)
+obj(201645601:0M.@past, 115669212:0B)
+obj(200788057:11.@progress, 113325010:19.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:786]
+{org:en}
+and
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(:02.@entry, :01)
+and(:02.@entry, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:787]
+{org:en}
+groundwater quality improvement.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100248977:0M.@entry, 104723816:0E)
+obj(100248977:0M.@entry, 104723816:0E)
+mod(104723816:0E, 115669379:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:788]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:789]
+{org:en}
+Groundwater resources HTM1 can be defined as the waters present in the subsurface in a specific area during a specific period of time.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200957378:10.@entry.@ability, 105154676:0E.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105154676:0E.@topic.@pl, 115669379:02)
+aoj(301731351:1M, 115689188:1F.@def.@pl)
+plc(115689188:1F.@def.@pl, 102735688:2Q.@indef)
+obj(200957378:10.@entry.@ability, 105154676:0E.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105154676:0E.@topic.@pl, 115669379:02)
+aoj(301731351:1M, 115689188:1F.@def.@pl)
+plc(115689188:1F.@def.@pl, 102735688:2Q.@indef)
+mod(106843520:3D.@indef, 100028270:3N)
+dur(115689188:1F.@def.@pl, 106843520:3D.@indef)
+aoj(301099951:2H, 102735688:2Q.@indef)
+gol(200957378:10.@entry.@ability, 115689188:1F.@def.@pl)
+gol(200957378:10.@entry.@ability, 115689188:1F.@def.@pl)
+mod(:64.@def, 302471782:21)
+plc(115689188:1F.@def.@pl, :64.@def)
+aoj(301099951:34, 106843520:3D.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:790]
+{org:en}
+These resources can be divided into
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200642098:0P.@ability.@entry, 105154676:08.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200642098:0P.@ability.@entry, 105154676:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105154676:08.@topic.@pl, 600000022:02.@pl)
+gol(200642098:0P.@ability.@entry, :10)
+gol(200642098:0P.@ability.@entry, :10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:791]
+{org:en}
+natural water resources HTM1 (water resources present in the environment)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(105154676:0G.@entry.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(105154676:12.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0W)
+plc:01(105154676:12.@entry.@pl, 108567235:1R.@def)
+cnt(105154676:0G.@entry.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(105154676:12.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0W)
+plc:01(105154676:12.@entry.@pl, 108567235:1R.@def)
+mod(105154676:0G.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0A)
+aoj(301335708:02, 105154676:0G.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301335708:02, 105154676:0G.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(301731351:1C, 105154676:12.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:792]
+{org:en}
+potential groundwater resources HTM1 (the maximum volume of groundwater resources that can be replaced by artificial methods)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(105154676:0O.@entry.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj:01(200162688:2O.@ability, 105154676:22.@pl)
+mod:01(104990220:1G.@entry.@def, 105154676:22.@pl)
+cnt(105154676:0O.@entry.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj:01(200162688:2O.@ability, 105154676:22.@pl)
+mod:01(104990220:1G.@entry.@def, 105154676:22.@pl)
+aoj:01(300073465:30, 105660268:3B.@pl)
+mod(105154676:0O.@entry.@pl, 115669379:0C)
+agt:01(200162688:2O.@ability, 105660268:3B.@pl)
+mod(105154676:0O.@entry.@pl, 300044353:02)
+mod(105154676:0O.@entry.@pl, 300044353:02)
+mod:01(105154676:22.@pl, 115669379:1Q)
+mod:01(104990220:1G.@entry.@def, 303161017:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:793]
+{org:en}
+and
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(:02.@entry, :01)
+and(:02.@entry, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:794]
+{org:en}
+available HTM1 or HTM2 exploitable groundwater resources HTM3 (groundwater resources that can be exploited under particular socioeconomic constraints).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01, 105154676:1D.@entry.@pl)
+mod:02(105154676:25.@entry.@pl, 115669379:1T)
+or:01(303160852:0P.@entry, 300183053:02)
+aoj(:01, 105154676:1D.@entry.@pl)
+mod:02(105154676:25.@entry.@pl, 115669379:1T)
+or:01(303160852:0P.@entry, 300183053:02)
+aoj:02(300311044:37, 101149621:3W.@pl)
+mod(105154676:1D.@entry.@pl, 115669379:11)
+obj:02(600000003:31, 101149621:3W.@pl)
+cnt(105154676:1D.@entry.@pl, :02.@parenthesis)
+cnt(105154676:1D.@entry.@pl, :02.@parenthesis)
+man:02(201162754:2R.@ability, 600000003:31)
+obj:02(201162754:2R.@ability, 105154676:25.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:02(302717021:3I, 101149621:3W.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:795]
+{org:en}
+Natural groundwater resources HTM1 include static and dynamic waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:11.@entry, 105154676:0M.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105154676:0M.@topic.@pl, 115669379:0A)
+and:01(300808191:1K.@entry, 300348018:19)
+aoj(200183879:11.@entry, 105154676:0M.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105154676:0M.@topic.@pl, 115669379:0A)
+and:01(300808191:1K.@entry, 300348018:19)
+aoj(:01, 115689188:1S.@pl)
+obj(200183879:11.@entry, 115689188:1S.@pl)
+obj(200183879:11.@entry, 115689188:1S.@pl)
+aoj(301335708:02, 105154676:0M.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:796]
+{org:en}
+The HTM1 natural static HTM2 resources are connate waters, which are contained by exploitable aquifers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115689188:1H.@entry.@pl, 105154676:0V.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301335708:0B, 105154676:0V.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(202701210:1Z, 109201998:2O.@pl)
+aoj(115689188:1H.@entry.@pl, 105154676:0V.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301335708:0B, 105154676:0V.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(202701210:1Z, 109201998:2O.@pl)
+aoj(301973969:19, 115689188:1H.@entry.@pl)
+obj(202701210:1Z, 115689188:1H.@entry.@pl)
+obj(202701210:1Z, 115689188:1H.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300348018:0J, 105154676:0V.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303160852:2C, 109201998:2O.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:797]
+{org:en}
+Connate waters were formed during periods in which climatic and hydrogeologic conditions were very different from those today, as illustrated by the case of the present-day groundwater resources of the Sahara.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200144850:0M.@entry.@past, 115689188:0A.@topic.@pl)
+mod(102974697:47.@def, 105154676:57.@def.@pl)
+plf(300490413:2T.@past, 115156001:3E)
+and:01(303162001:1U.@entry, 303055374:1H)
+aoj(300490413:2T.@past, 105798863:28.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105154676:57.@def.@pl, 115669379:4V)
+obj(200144850:0M.@entry.@past, 115689188:0A.@topic.@pl)
+mod(102974697:47.@def, 105154676:57.@def.@pl)
+plf(300490413:2T.@past, 115156001:3E)
+and:01(303162001:1U.@entry, 303055374:1H)
+aoj(300490413:2T.@past, 105798863:28.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105154676:57.@def.@pl, 115669379:4V)
+obj(600000061:3L, 201668421:3O.@past)
+plc(300490413:2T.@past, 106843520:10.@pl)
+mod(105154676:57.@def.@pl, 303162057:4J)
+mod(115156001:3E, 600000030:38.@pl)
+dur(200144850:0M.@entry.@past, 106843520:10.@pl)
+mod(105154676:57.@def.@pl, 500005127:5O.@def)
+dur(200144850:0M.@entry.@past, 106843520:10.@pl)
+mod(105154676:57.@def.@pl, 500005127:5O.@def)
+man(300490413:2T.@past, 400031899:2O)
+aoj(301973969:02, 115689188:0A.@topic.@pl)
+man(300490413:2T.@past, 600000061:3L)
+aoj(:01, 105798863:28.@topic.@pl)
+ins(201668421:3O.@past, 102974697:47.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:798]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 Natural dynamic HTM2 resources are the volumes of moving water on the Earth's surface (runoff) and in aquifers (groundwater).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104990220:1A.@entry.@def.@pl, 105154676:0S.@topic.@pl)
+cnt(104362025:2B.@def, 100183357:2K.@parenthesis)
+obj(200124442:1L.@progress, 107935504:1S)
+aoj(104990220:1A.@entry.@def.@pl, 105154676:0S.@topic.@pl)
+cnt(104362025:2B.@def, 100183357:2K.@parenthesis)
+obj(200124442:1L.@progress, 107935504:1S)
+aoj(301335708:07, 105154676:0S.@topic.@pl)
+plc(200124442:1L.@progress, 109201998:2Z.@pl)
+cnt(109201998:2Z.@pl, 115669379:39.@parenthesis)
+mod(104990220:1A.@entry.@def.@pl, 200124442:1L.@progress)
+mod(104990220:1A.@entry.@def.@pl, 200124442:1L.@progress)
+mod(104362025:2B.@def, 108562067:25)
+plc(107935504:1S, 104362025:2B.@def)
+aoj(300808191:0F, 105154676:0S.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:799]
+{org:en}
+Potential groundwater resources HTM1 represent the maximum exploitable natural resource, accessible with or without the use of mechanical devices.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200825447:13.@entry, 105154676:0O.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105154676:0O.@topic.@pl, 300044353:02)
+man(300019131:26, :01)
+aoj(303161017:1H, 105154676:1W.@def)
+aoj(200825447:13.@entry, 105154676:0O.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105154676:0O.@topic.@pl, 300044353:02)
+man(300019131:26, :01)
+aoj(303161017:1H, 105154676:1W.@def)
+obj(100947128:31.@def, 100171249:3J.@pl)
+aoj(300019131:26, 105154676:1W.@def)
+or:01(600000043:2P.@entry, 600000018:2H)
+obj(200825447:13.@entry, 105154676:1W.@def)
+mod(105154676:0O.@topic.@pl, 115669379:0C)
+obj(200825447:13.@entry, 105154676:1W.@def)
+mod(105154676:0O.@topic.@pl, 115669379:0C)
+obj(:01, 100947128:31.@def)
+aoj(301335708:1P, 105154676:1W.@def)
+aoj(301499686:38, 100171249:3J.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:800]
+{org:en}
+Their potential is limited by hydrographic, hydrogeologic, geological, environmental, and ecological limitations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200235368:0L.@entry, 114482620:08.@topic)
+and:01(302905591:1P, 303162001:1A)
+and:01(302906478:2K.@entry, 302943151:21)
+obj(200235368:0L.@entry, 114482620:08.@topic)
+and:01(302905591:1P, 303162001:1A)
+and:01(302906478:2K.@entry, 302943151:21)
+aoj(:01, 100808182:2V.@pl)
+mod(114482620:08.@topic, 600000020:02.@pl)
+agt(200235368:0L.@entry, 100808182:2V.@pl)
+agt(200235368:0L.@entry, 100808182:2V.@pl)
+and:01(303162001:1A, 302744720:0W)
+and:01(302943151:21, 302905591:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:801]
+{org:en}
+These resources are generally less than the total of all natural resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(400099868:0W.@entry, 105154676:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301335708:1N, 105154676:1U.@pl)
+mod(104353803:1A.@def, 105154676:1U.@pl)
+aoj(400099868:0W.@entry, 105154676:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301335708:1N, 105154676:1U.@pl)
+mod(104353803:1A.@def, 105154676:1U.@pl)
+man(400099868:0W.@entry, 400041954:0M)
+bas(400099868:0W.@entry, 104353803:1A.@def)
+bas(400099868:0W.@entry, 104353803:1A.@def)
+mod(105154676:08.@topic.@pl, 600000022:02.@pl)
+qua(105154676:1U.@pl, 600000011:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:802]
+{org:en}
+Available or exploitable groundwater resources HTM1 are less than the total of potential resources because their extraction is subject to socioeconomic restrictions as well as natural physical limitations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(400099868:1M.@entry, 303161166:3L)
+aoj(600000015:4M, 101148614:49.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 105154676:13.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100392950:37.@topic, 600000020:31.@pl)
+mod(104353803:20.@def, 105154676:2J.@pl)
+aoj(301335708:4X, 100808182:5E.@pl)
+rsn(400099868:1M.@entry, 303161166:3L)
+aoj(600000015:4M, 101148614:49.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 105154676:13.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100392950:37.@topic, 600000020:31.@pl)
+mod(104353803:20.@def, 105154676:2J.@pl)
+aoj(301335708:4X, 100808182:5E.@pl)
+aoj(303161166:3L, 100392950:37.@topic)
+bas(400099868:1M.@entry, 104353803:20.@def)
+obj(600000015:4M, 100808182:5E.@pl)
+or:01(303160852:0F.@entry, 300183053:02)
+aoj(400099868:1M.@entry, 105154676:13.@topic.@pl)
+mod(101148614:49.@pl, 302717021:3V)
+aoj(400099868:1M.@entry, 105154676:13.@topic.@pl)
+mod(101148614:49.@pl, 302717021:3V)
+mod(105154676:13.@topic.@pl, 115669379:0R)
+mod(105154676:2J.@pl, 300044353:29)
+aoj(300627004:55, 100808182:5E.@pl)
+obj(303161166:3L, 101148614:49.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:803]
+{org:en}
+A distinction has also been drawn between conventional and non-conventional water resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200097029:0U.@entry.@progress.@complete, 104749572:04.@topic.@indef)
+mod(105154676:2C.@pl, 107935504:26)
+obj(600000010:10, 105154676:2C.@pl)
+obj(200097029:0U.@entry.@progress.@complete, 104749572:04.@topic.@indef)
+mod(105154676:2C.@pl, 107935504:26)
+obj(600000010:10, 105154676:2C.@pl)
+man(200097029:0U.@entry.@progress.@complete, 600000010:10)
+man(200097029:0U.@entry.@progress.@complete, 400047534:0K)
+man(200097029:0U.@entry.@progress.@complete, 400047534:0K)
+and:01(303162707:1P.@entry, 300605516:18)
+aoj(:01, 105154676:2C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:804]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 Conventional resources HTM2 are exploited by traditional methods, while HTM3 non-conventional HTM4 resources require the application of new and innovative methods.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(201162754:13.@entry, 202774169:38.@should)
+aoj(303162707:2C, 105154676:2Y.@pl)
+agt(202774169:38.@should, 105154676:2Y.@pl)
+aoj(300611047:1G, 105660268:1S.@pl)
+dur(201162754:13.@entry, 202774169:38.@should)
+aoj(303162707:2C, 105154676:2Y.@pl)
+agt(202774169:38.@should, 105154676:2Y.@pl)
+aoj(300611047:1G, 105660268:1S.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 105660268:4I.@pl)
+agt(201162754:13.@entry, 105660268:1S.@pl)
+obj(100036061:3K.@def, 105660268:4I.@pl)
+obj(201162754:13.@entry, 105154676:0K.@topic.@pl)
+obj(201162754:13.@entry, 105154676:0K.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202774169:38.@should, 100036061:3K.@def)
+aoj(300605516:07, 105154676:0K.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(301687586:47.@entry, 300024996:3Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:805]
+{org:en}
+The boundaries and scales of the two categories require updating continuously in the light of the development of scientific and technical knowledge and the application of new technologies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+Augmentation of Water Resources by Conventional Methods
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+These solutions are especially difficult to implement in countries with high population densities and land values.
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+Induced recharge of aquifers by artificial means, or HTM1 artificial recharge HTM2 , has been used for many years in many different countries and may be considered a proven, conventional method for water resource augmentation.
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+Artificial recharge uses aquifers as reservoirs to store and conserve natural river waters and other surface runoff.
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+Its application depends heavily on the disciplines of hydrogeology and groundwater engineering.
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+both very important advantages in arid and semiarid regions.
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+For these reasons, surface waters should increasingly be used to augment groundwater reservoirs and supplies.
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+Augmentation of Water Resources by Non-Conventional Methods
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+Non-conventional water resource technologies that may be used in artificial recharge schemes include
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+desalination of salty or brackish waters
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+wastewater recovery or regeneration
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+climate modification programs
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+schemes to reduce evaporation
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+In the near future it may also be possible to use water stored in Antarctic or Arctic icebergs.
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+{org:en}
+Desalination
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+[/S]
+
+[S:829]
+{org:en}
+Desalination is a process that removes dissolved minerals (including salt, but also other minerals) from seawater, brackish water, or treated wastewater.
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+{org:en}
+A number of desalination technologies have been developed, including reverse osmosis, distillation, electrodialysis, and vacuum freezing.
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+
+[S:831]
+{org:en}
+The desalination of water in small plants has been carried out for centuries, but only in the later twentieth century were substantial technological advances and cost reductions achieved.
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+Cost reductions have allowed this method to be used to supply areas without other water resources, such as deserts and islands, and to be integrated within larger water supply systems in areas where traditional water resources are inadequate.
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+[S:833]
+{org:en}
+An essential requirement for the process is the availability of abundant energy in various forms.
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+
+[S:834]
+{org:en}
+Desalination plants are generally integrated with power generation plants using a common source of energy.
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+
+[S:835]
+{org:en}
+A plant may produce more energy than necessary for desalination and use the surplus for other purposes, for example to produce electric energy.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:836]
+{org:en}
+Worldwide there are more than 7500 desalination plants in operation
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:837]
+{org:en}
+the largest, in Saudi Arabia, produces about 128 million gallons of desalted water per day.
+{/org}
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+[S:838]
+{org:en}
+Wastewater Regeneration (WWR)
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:839]
+{org:en}
+Wastewater regeneration is a process by which wastewater is treated to permit reuse for irrigation, and for industrial and municipal supply.
+{/org}
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+The processes are similar to wastewater treatment prior to discharge to lakes or rivers.
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+
+[S:841]
+{org:en}
+However, regeneration is more thorough because it must give the waters special qualitative characteristics to permit direct reuse, and to maximize a groundwater body's capacity for self-purification.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:842]
+{org:en}
+A major problem with regard to water supply generally is that while water resources are decreasing at a steady rate, water demand for civil and industrial uses are increasing correspondingly rapidly.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:843]
+{org:en}
+For this reason natural water bodies become increasingly contaminated, and more advanced decontamination methods are needed as a result.
+{/org}
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+Climate Modification
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+Increases in natural meteoric precipitation can been induced by cloud seeding.
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+Rainfall is enhanced by introducing solid particles into the atmosphere that increase the number of natural freezing or condensing particles.
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+Reduction of Evaporation
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+Loss of water by evaporation is a very important issue.
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+Its rate depends largely on local climatic conditions.
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+The construction of large artificial storage reservoirs in arid or semiarid areas with very high temperatures may lead to high evaporation losses.
+{/org}
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+Advances in research and large-scale testing have shown that protecting water with a molecular film prevents molecular diffusion into the air and greatly reduces losses.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Artificial Groundwater Recharge (AGR)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+equ(500323668:0Z.@parenthesis, 500323990:02.@entry)
+equ(500323668:0Z.@parenthesis, 500323990:02.@entry)
+{/unl}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Traditionally, most water supply systems have been based on either surface water or groundwater.
+{/org}
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+While surface water is being increasingly contaminated by domestic and industrial pollutants, microorganisms, and inorganic solutes, groundwater is generally of better quality and needs only simple, inexpensive treatment to meet the high standards required for water supply.
+{/org}
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+However, the use of groundwater for water supply has led to a situation where natural replenishment cannot match exploitation rates, leading to falling groundwater levels.
+{/org}
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+In view of likely future water shortages the two resources canno be viewed as isolated bodies, and water resources management will need to give more attention to the combined use of surface and groundwater.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Artificial recharge is one method that allows for management of this kind.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
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+Artificial recharge HTM1 (also sometimes called HTM2 planned recharge HTM3 ) is a method of storing water underground at times of water surplus to meet demand in times of shortage.
+{/org}
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+Artificial recharge is a process by which excess surface water is directed into suitable geological formations using infiltration basins, ditches, wells, or sprinkler systems.
+{/org}
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+Bank filtration, or HTM1 induced recharge HTM2 , can be used if there is a direct hydraulic connection between an aquifer and a surface water body.
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+In most artificial recharge schemes, aquifers are used for water storage and reuse.
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+In artificial recharge the infiltration rate is much higher, thereby decreasing the period over which pollutants are exposed to the natural cleaning processes.
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+This can pose problems, both for the quality of the water and for the operation of the artificial recharge plants.
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+Increased knowledge of the processes involved obtained through research projects will be useful when planning and operating new artificial recharge plants.
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+The main objectives of artificial recharge are to increase available reserves of water and the water-resource potential of aquifers more generally.
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+It can also be used for the following purposes (the percentages in brackets reflect the main purpose of documented schemes)
+{/org}
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+promoting recovery of overexploited aquifers (25%)
+{/org}
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+storage of surficial waters during flood periods to maintain and improve supply in the dry season (20%)
+{/org}
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+storage of local or imported water in the aquifer (15%)
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+{org:en}
+preventing s awater intrusion by creating freshwater barriers (15%)
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+increasing the value of aquifers for water distribution in areas with a high density of wells
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+discharging certain wastewaters, such as cooling water
+{/org}
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+reducing groundwater salinity in agricultural areas (10%)
+{/org}
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+obj(200045817:02.@entry.@progress, 115668809:0N)
+aoj(302790222:0Z, 102735688:1C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:880]
+{org:en}
+reducing subsidence caused by high pumping rates
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200045817:02.@entry.@progress, 115669212:0B)
+aoj(300705498:0W, 113325010:19.@pl)
+obj(200045817:02.@entry.@progress, 115669212:0B)
+aoj(300705498:0W, 113325010:19.@pl)
+agt(201645601:0M.@past, 113325010:19.@pl)
+obj(201645601:0M.@past, 115669212:0B)
+obj(201645601:0M.@past, 115669212:0B)
+obj(200788057:11.@progress, 113325010:19.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:881]
+{org:en}
+and
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(:02.@entry, :01)
+and(:02.@entry, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:882]
+{org:en}
+groundwater quality improvement.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100248977:0M.@entry, 104723816:0E)
+mod(100248977:0M.@entry, 104723816:0E)
+mod(104723816:0E, 115669379:02)
+mod(104723816:0E, 115669379:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:883]
+{org:en}
+Objectives (e), (f), (h), and (i) combined account for ca. 15% of recharge schemes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200939621:19.@entry, 103838298:02.@pl)
+aoj(301329830:10, 103838298:02.@pl)
+mod(105905348:25.@pl, 115689206:1W)
+aoj(200939621:19.@entry, 103838298:02.@pl)
+aoj(301329830:10, 103838298:02.@pl)
+mod(105905348:25.@pl, 115689206:1W)
+and:01(106831926:0N.@parenthesis, 106831712:0I.@parenthesis)
+qua(105905348:25.@pl, "15%":1R)
+and:01(500324406:0W.@parenthesis.@entry, 106831926:0N.@parenthesis)
+obj(200939621:19.@entry, 105905348:25.@pl)
+obj(200939621:19.@entry, 105905348:25.@pl)
+mod(103838298:02.@pl, :01)
+mod("15%":1R, 500323524:1L)
+and:01(106831712:0I.@parenthesis, 106831605:0D.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:884]
+{org:en}
+Influence of Recharge Factors
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100157081:02.@entry, 105858317:0O.@pl)
+mod(100157081:02.@entry, 105858317:0O.@pl)
+mod(105858317:0O.@pl, 115689206:0F)
+mod(105858317:0O.@pl, 115689206:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:885]
+{org:en}
+Not all aquifers can be artificially recharged.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200518288:13.@entry.@ability, 109201998:0A.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200518288:13.@entry.@ability, 109201998:0A.@topic.@pl)
+qua(109201998:0A.@topic.@pl, 600000011:06.@not)
+man(200518288:13.@entry.@ability, 400140566:0Q)
+man(200518288:13.@entry.@ability, 400140566:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:886]
+{org:en}
+The hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer, the nature of the existing groundwater, and the characteristics of the recharge water can have a major influence on the outcome of a recharge operation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200065370:3U.@entry.@ability, 104731497:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(107935504:3K.@def, 115689206:3B)
+mod(100409211:5A.@indef, 115689206:51)
+mod(100157081:47.@indef, 301471002:41)
+mod:01(115669379:23.@def, 301731786:1U)
+agt(200065370:3U.@entry.@ability, 104731497:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(107935504:3K.@def, 115689206:3B)
+mod(100409211:5A.@indef, 115689206:51)
+mod(100157081:47.@indef, 301471002:41)
+mod:01(115669379:23.@def, 301731786:1U)
+and:01(104731497:2O.@entry.@def.@pl, 104623113:1G.@def)
+obj(100157081:47.@indef, 107292694:4O.@def)
+mod:01(104623113:1G.@def, 115669379:23.@def)
+aoj(303073751:06, 104731497:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200065370:3U.@entry.@ability, 100157081:47.@indef)
+and:01(104623113:1G.@def, 109201998:13.@def)
+obj(200065370:3U.@entry.@ability, 100157081:47.@indef)
+and:01(104623113:1G.@def, 109201998:13.@def)
+mod(104731497:0G.@topic.@def.@pl, :01)
+mod(107292694:4O.@def, 100409211:5A.@indef)
+mod:01(104731497:2O.@entry.@def.@pl, 107935504:3K.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:887]
+{org:en}
+Geological Factors
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302905591:02, 105858317:0D.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(302905591:02, 105858317:0D.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:888]
+{org:en}
+One of the main factors affecting recharge is aquifer porosity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104940146:1K.@entry, :2R.@topic)
+mod(105858317:0I.@pl, 301512527:0D)
+qua(:2R.@topic, "1":02)
+aoj(104940146:1K.@entry, :2R.@topic)
+mod(105858317:0I.@pl, 301512527:0D)
+qua(:2R.@topic, "1":02)
+mod(:2R.@topic, 105858317:0I.@pl)
+mod(104940146:1K.@entry, 109201998:1C)
+mod(104940146:1K.@entry, 109201998:1C)
+obj(200019448:0Q.@progress, 115689206:10)
+agt(200019448:0Q.@progress, 105858317:0I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:889]
+{org:en}
+Porosity must be as high as possible, and this factor depends on a uniformity coefficient
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202663848:1K.@entry, 300705498:0M.@obligation)
+aoj(300705498:0M.@obligation, 104940146:02.@topic)
+mod(113586122:28.@indef, 104745370:1X)
+and(202663848:1K.@entry, 300705498:0M.@obligation)
+aoj(300705498:0M.@obligation, 104940146:02.@topic)
+mod(113586122:28.@indef, 104745370:1X)
+obj(202663848:1K.@entry, 113586122:28.@indef)
+man(300705498:0M.@obligation, 400516638:0J)
+aoj(202663848:1K.@entry, 105858317:1D)
+aoj(202663848:1K.@entry, 105858317:1D)
+man(300705498:0M.@obligation, 400098714:0R)
+mod(105858317:1D, 600000017:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:890]
+{org:en}
+where the coefficient is small, porosity is high.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(300705498:1A.@entry, 115689346:02)
+aoj(301391351:0R, 113586122:0C.@topic.@def)
+plc(300705498:1A.@entry, 115689346:02)
+aoj(301391351:0R, 113586122:0C.@topic.@def)
+plc(301391351:0R, 115689346:02)
+aoj(300705498:1A.@entry, 104940146:0Y.@topic)
+aoj(300705498:1A.@entry, 104940146:0Y.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:891]
+{org:en}
+Another factor is the hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115669512:0Y.@entry.@def, 105858317:0A.@topic)
+mod(105858317:0A.@topic, 600000066:02)
+aoj(115669512:0Y.@entry.@def, 105858317:0A.@topic)
+mod(105858317:0A.@topic, 600000066:02)
+aoj(303073751:0O, 115669512:0Y.@entry.@def)
+mod(115669512:0Y.@entry.@def, 109201998:1H.@indef)
+mod(115669512:0Y.@entry.@def, 109201998:1H.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:892]
+{org:en}
+when the hydraulic conductivity is high, recharge is very quick.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(300919018:1O.@entry, 300705498:11)
+aoj(300705498:11, 115669512:0L.@topic.@def)
+tim(300919018:1O.@entry, 300705498:11)
+aoj(300705498:11, 115669512:0L.@topic.@def)
+man(300919018:1O.@entry, 400031899:1J)
+aoj(300919018:1O.@entry, 115689206:17.@topic)
+aoj(300919018:1O.@entry, 115689206:17.@topic)
+aoj(303073751:0B, 115669512:0L.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:893]
+{org:en}
+Hydraulic conductivity values tend to be high when the aquifer grain size is large.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(202439047:0W.@entry, 300527870:27)
+aoj(300527870:27, 105095691:1Z.@topic.@def)
+aoj(303073751:02, 104979425:0P.@topic.@pl)
+tim(202439047:0W.@entry, 300527870:27)
+aoj(300527870:27, 105095691:1Z.@topic.@def)
+aoj(303073751:02, 104979425:0P.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202439047:0W.@entry, 300705498:17)
+mod(104950713:1T, 109201998:1L)
+aoj(202439047:0W.@entry, 104979425:0P.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(202439047:0W.@entry, 104979425:0P.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105095691:1Z.@topic.@def, 104950713:1T)
+mod(104979425:0P.@topic.@pl, 115669512:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:894]
+{org:en}
+However, high conductivity means that an aquifer
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(202774207:36.@entry.@obligation, 200708840:0T)
+to(105200169:1H.@topic.@indef, 107935504:28)
+obj(200708840:0T, 301206474:2H)
+obj(600000018:3I, 107935504:3T)
+obj(200518288:1Y.@past, 107935504:28)
+rsn(202774207:36.@entry.@obligation, 200708840:0T)
+to(105200169:1H.@topic.@indef, 107935504:28)
+obj(200708840:0T, 301206474:2H)
+obj(600000018:3I, 107935504:3T)
+obj(200518288:1Y.@past, 107935504:28)
+aoj(300705498:0B, 115669512:0G.@topic)
+man(202774207:36.@entry.@obligation, 600000018:3I)
+mod(105200169:1H.@topic.@indef, 109201998:17)
+aoj(200708840:0T, 115669512:0G.@topic)
+obj(202774207:36.@entry.@obligation, 115689206:2P)
+obj(105200169:1H.@topic.@indef, 200177714:1S.@should)
+obj(202774207:36.@entry.@obligation, 115689206:2P)
+obj(105200169:1H.@topic.@indef, 200177714:1S.@should)
+man(200708840:0T, 400027384:02)
+aoj(300047653:3N, 107935504:3T)
+aoj(301206474:2H, 105200169:1H.@topic.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:895]
+{org:en}
+The chemical equilibrium in the aquifer is very important.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301275562:1E.@entry, 105659365:0F.@topic.@def)
+aoj(302692624:06, 105659365:0F.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301275562:1E.@entry, 105659365:0F.@topic.@def)
+aoj(302692624:06, 105659365:0F.@topic.@def)
+plc(105659365:0F.@topic.@def, 109201998:0Y.@def)
+man(301275562:1E.@entry, 400031899:19)
+man(301275562:1E.@entry, 400031899:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:896]
+{org:en}
+In most cases the aquifer materials and groundwater are in chemical equilibrium, and care must be taken to ensure that the recharge water does not change this.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200523095:2S.@entry.@state.@obligation, 202603699:1I)
+aoj(302692624:1P, 105659365:1Y)
+obj(200109660:45.@emphasis.@not, 600000022:4C)
+obj(202774184:31, 200109660:45.@emphasis.@not)
+qua(102974697:0A.@pl, 600000067:05)
+and(200523095:2S.@entry.@state.@obligation, 202603699:1I)
+aoj(302692624:1P, 105659365:1Y)
+obj(200109660:45.@emphasis.@not, 600000022:4C)
+obj(202774184:31, 200109660:45.@emphasis.@not)
+qua(102974697:0A.@pl, 600000067:05)
+aoj(202603699:1I, :01)
+pur(200523095:2S.@entry.@state.@obligation, 202774184:31)
+mod:01(103729951:0S.@def.@pl.@topic, 109201998:0K)
+plc(202603699:1I, 102974697:0A.@pl)
+obj(200523095:2S.@entry.@state.@obligation, 100267522:2F.@topic)
+and:01(115669379:16.@entry.@topic, 103729951:0S.@def.@pl.@topic)
+obj(200523095:2S.@entry.@state.@obligation, 100267522:2F.@topic)
+and:01(115669379:16.@entry.@topic, 103729951:0S.@def.@pl.@topic)
+mod(107935504:3Q.@def, 115689206:3H)
+agt(200109660:45.@emphasis.@not, 107935504:3Q.@def)
+scn(202603699:1I, 105659365:1Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:897]
+{org:en}
+Clay tend to be good ion exchangers
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202439047:07.@entry, 114813182:02.@topic)
+mod(110069120:0R.@pl, 109315159:0N)
+aoj(202439047:07.@entry, 114813182:02.@topic)
+mod(110069120:0R.@pl, 109315159:0N)
+aoj(300523364:0I, 110069120:0R.@pl)
+obj(202439047:07.@entry, 110069120:0R.@pl)
+obj(202439047:07.@entry, 110069120:0R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:898]
+{org:en}
+if recharge water has a high sodium content then clay flocculation can result, with the consequent blocking of pores.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200340704:21.@entry.@ability, 200065370:0K)
+aoj(300705498:0Q, 105809192:12.@indef)
+aoj(303162480:2I, 200477382:2T.@def.@progress)
+obj(600000018:29, 200477382:2T.@def.@progress)
+con(200340704:21.@entry.@ability, 200065370:0K)
+aoj(300705498:0Q, 105809192:12.@indef)
+aoj(303162480:2I, 200477382:2T.@def.@progress)
+obj(600000018:29, 200477382:2T.@def.@progress)
+tim(200065370:0K, 400117620:1A)
+man(200340704:21.@entry.@ability, 600000018:29)
+mod(107935504:0E, 115689206:05)
+agt(200065370:0K, 107935504:0E)
+obj(200340704:21.@entry.@ability, 113482187:1K.@topic)
+mod(105809192:12.@indef, 114655371:0V)
+obj(200340704:21.@entry.@ability, 113482187:1K.@topic)
+mod(105809192:12.@indef, 114655371:0V)
+mod(113482187:1K.@topic, 114813182:1F)
+obj(200477382:2T.@def.@progress, 105245906:35.@pl)
+obj(200065370:0K, 105809192:12.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:899]
+{org:en}
+It should also be noted that recharge water can dissolve aquifer materials, and special care should be taken with recharge in rocks that contain carbonates (limestone and dolomite), sulfates (evaporites), chlorides, and iron (pyrite) because of their high water solubility.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201020005:0K.@entry.@should.@past, :03:03)
+aoj:03(300705498:71, 105210221:7C)
+cnt:03(:02, 114692682:6C.@parenthesis)
+man:03(200523095:2X.@entry.@should.@past, 600000018:33)
+mod:03(103729951:1V.@pl, 109201998:1N)
+cnt:02(114798450:43.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj:03(200523095:2X.@entry.@should.@past, 100267522:2I)
+agt:03(200338559:1E.@ability, 107935504:14)
+and:02(115063493:54.@pl, 114798450:43.@pl)
+obj(201020005:0K.@entry.@should.@past, :03:03)
+aoj:03(300705498:71, 105210221:7C)
+cnt:03(:02, 114692682:6C.@parenthesis)
+man:03(200523095:2X.@entry.@should.@past, 600000018:33)
+mod:03(103729951:1V.@pl, 109201998:1N)
+cnt:02(114798450:43.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj:03(200523095:2X.@entry.@should.@past, 100267522:2I)
+agt:03(200338559:1E.@ability, 107935504:14)
+and:02(115063493:54.@pl, 114798450:43.@pl)
+rsn:03(202701210:3V, 600000012:6K)
+mod:03(105210221:7C, 600000020:6V.@pl)
+and:03(200523095:2X.@entry.@should.@past, 200338559:1E.@ability)
+aoj:03(301678729:2A, 100267522:2I)
+and:02(115016852:5R.@pl, 115063493:54.@pl)
+aoj:03(202701210:3V, 100348008:3K.@pl)
+obj:03(600000012:6K, 105210221:7C)
+man(201020005:0K.@entry.@should.@past, 400047534:0C)
+mod:03(105210221:7C, 107935504:76)
+and:02(103584829:66.@entry, 115016852:5R.@pl)
+man(201020005:0K.@entry.@should.@past, 400047534:0C)
+mod:03(105210221:7C, 107935504:76)
+and:02(103584829:66.@entry, 115016852:5R.@pl)
+obj:03(600000018:33, 115689206:38)
+mod:03(107935504:14, 115689206:0V)
+and:01(114673747:4T.@entry, 114936226:4F)
+obj:03(200338559:1E.@ability, 103729951:1V.@pl)
+plc:03(200523095:2X.@entry.@should.@past, 100348008:3K.@pl)
+cnt:02(115063493:54.@pl, 115009192:5E.@parenthesis.@pl)
+obj:03(202701210:3V, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:900]
+{org:en}
+Hydrogeologic Factors
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303162001:02, 105858317:0G.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(303162001:02, 105858317:0G.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:901]
+{org:en}
+Artificial recharge depends on transmissivity and porosity values, and the uniformity of these parameters is very important.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(301275562:38.@entry, 202663848:0M)
+aoj(202663848:0M, 115689206:0D.@topic)
+mod(104745370:25.@topic.@def, 105859071:2P.@pl)
+and(301275562:38.@entry, 202663848:0M)
+aoj(202663848:0M, 115689206:0D.@topic)
+mod(104745370:25.@topic.@def, 105859071:2P.@pl)
+and:01(104940146:1G.@entry, 115691930:0X)
+man(301275562:38.@entry, 400031899:33)
+mod(104979425:1P.@pl, :01)
+aoj(301275562:38.@entry, 104745370:25.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301275562:38.@entry, 104745370:25.@topic.@def)
+obj(202663848:0M, 104979425:1P.@pl)
+mod(105859071:2P.@pl, 600000022:2J.@pl)
+aoj(300073465:02, 115689206:0D.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:902]
+{org:en}
+The receiving aquifer must be as homogeneous and isotropic as possible.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 109201998:0G.@topic.@def)
+man:01(301199751:0Z.@obligation, 400516638:0W)
+aoj(:01.@entry, 109201998:0G.@topic.@def)
+man:01(301199751:0Z.@obligation, 400516638:0W)
+and:01(301360804:1F.@entry.@obligation, 301199751:0Z.@obligation)
+man(:01.@entry, 400098714:1P)
+man(:01.@entry, 400098714:1P)
+agt(200117346:06.@progress, 109201998:0G.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:903]
+{org:en}
+The velocity of recharge is directly proportional to transmissivity and hydraulic gradient in the aquifer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300482673:13.@entry, 115689301:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj:01(303073751:22, 105068461:2C.@entry)
+man(300482673:13.@entry, 400051848:0U)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:904]
+{org:en}
+For this reason the water table or piezometric surface must be very well defined, so that the depression
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200957378:23.@entry.@obligation, 400535857:2C)
+pur:03(201158572:4M.@entry.@ability, 200011852:4T)
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+aoj:02(303161422:3G, 104362025:3S.@entry)
+and:03(201158572:4M.@entry.@ability, 200618451:47.@ability)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:905]
+{org:en}
+Physical-Chemical Factors
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300627004:02, 105858317:0K.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300627004:02, 105858317:0K.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:0B, 105858317:0K.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:0B, 105858317:0K.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:906]
+{org:en}
+The chemical and physical characteristics of groundwater and recharge water have a great effect on the results of artificial recharge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:26.@entry, :01)
+and:02(115689206:1R.@entry, 115669379:1B)
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+mod(107935504:20, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:907]
+{org:en}
+The chemical, physical, and biological compatibility of the two kinds of waters must be investigated, as these properties can greatly influence plugging of the aquifer and therefore the rate and duration of recharge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(200785962:2I.@entry.@obligation, 202536557:3S.@ability)
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+mod(104012260:35.@pl, 600000022:2Z.@pl)
+and:01(301405904:0U.@entry, 300627004:0G)
+and:02(105051249:5H.@entry.@def, 113325010:58.@def)
+obj(202536557:3S.@ability, :03:03)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:908]
+{org:en}
+Physical Characteristics
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300627004:02, 104731497:0B.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300627004:02, 104731497:0B.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:909]
+{org:en}
+The main physical characteristics to consider are
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:20.@entry, 115691122:0B.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(:20.@entry, 115691122:0B.@topic.@pl)
+obj(115691122:0B.@topic, 200691312:13)
+mod(115691122:0B.@topic.@pl, 301512527:06)
+mod(115691122:0B.@topic.@pl, 301512527:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:910]
+{org:en}
+temperature
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105011790:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+105011790:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:911]
+{org:en}
+pH
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105039106:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+105039106:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:912]
+{org:en}
+total dissolved solids (TDS)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+equ(115669789:0Q.@parenthesis, 115693612:08.@entry.@pl)
+equ(115669789:0Q.@parenthesis, 115693612:08.@entry.@pl)
+qua(115693612:08.@entry.@pl, 303160907:02)
+qua(115693612:08.@entry.@pl, 303160907:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:913]
+{org:en}
+electrical conductivity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
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+[/W]
+[W]
+115693660:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:914]
+{org:en}
+color and odor
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(104980008:0C.@entry, 104674968:02)
+and(104980008:0C.@entry, 104674968:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:915]
+{org:en}
+Temperature can affect water viscosity, as the two properties are inversely proportional.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200019448:0I.@entry.@ability, 300482673:25)
+man(300482673:25, 400175919:1W)
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+qua(104012260:1H.@def.@pl, "2":1D)
+man(300482673:25, 104012260:1H.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:916]
+{org:en}
+Since the hydraulic conductivity of the ground is inversely proportional to water viscosity, this means that water that is cold flows more slowly in the aquifer than warmer water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(200708840:2R.@entry, 300482673:1P)
+man(300445308:4M, 400099341:68)
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+aoj(300482673:1P, 115669512:0M.@topic.@def)
+plc(200217427:3K, 109201998:49.@def)
+aoj(303073751:0C, 115669512:0M.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300096815:3F, 107935504:32)
+mod(104935003:2B, 107935504:25)
+aoj(300445308:4M, 107935504:4T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:917]
+{org:en}
+Moreover, if temperature decreases water density grows proportionally, leading to thermal stratification of water in the aquifer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200094460:1F.@entry, 200151689:0R)
+obj(200151689:0R, 105011790:0F)
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+mod(100919877:2K, 301250565:2C)
+man(200094460:1F.@entry, 202774203:21.@progress)
+obj(100919877:2K, 107935504:32)
+obj(200094460:1F.@entry, 104941453:17.@topic)
+obj(200094460:1F.@entry, 104941453:17.@topic)
+obj(202774203:21.@progress, 100919877:2K)
+man(200094460:1F.@entry, 115691530:02)
+mod(104941453:17.@topic, 107935504:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:918]
+{org:en}
+This stratification lead to the obstruction of pores and reduces water infiltration into the aquifer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200045817:1N.@entry, 202774203:0M)
+obj(202774203:0M, 100919877:07.@topic)
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+gol(202774203:0M, 100562280:0Y.@def)
+mod(100976698:21, 107935504:1V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:919]
+{org:en}
+Because of these factors, it is always recommended that an aquifer be recharged with water that is warmer than the groundwater
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200578733:15.@entry, 200518288:20.@topic.@should)
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+mod(105858317:0J.@pl, 600000022:0D.@pl)
+bas(300445308:2S, 115669379:38.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:920]
+{org:en}
+thermal effects arising from direct recharge are thus reduced, because surface water balances its temperature with groundwater during infiltration through the unsaturated zo e.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(200045817:1K.@entry, 202264967:2F)
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+dur(202264967:2F, 100976698:3S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:921]
+{org:en}
+Even biological life (including microorganisms and bacteria) may be affected by thermal effects, both in the unsaturated and saturated zones.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200019448:1Y.@entry.@may, 100006269:0I.@topic)
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+man(105611062:3R.@def.@pl, 600000074:2Q)
+aoj(301405904:07, 100006269:0I.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:922]
+{org:en}
+Chemical Characteristics
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302692624:02, 104731497:0B.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:02, 104731497:0B.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:923]
+{org:en}
+The main important parameters affecting artificial recharge are dissolved gas and dissolved salts.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+agt(200019448:0W.@progress, 105859071:0L.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:924]
+{org:en}
+Dissolved or suspended gas (air) has a double function
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0Z.@entry, 114481080:0P.@topic)
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+man(:02.@entry, 600000267:27)
+or:01(302351692:0F.@entry, 301506258:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:925]
+{org:en}
+The presence of small air bubbles inside the pores may cause blockage of the aquifer and reduce percolation into the unsaturated zone.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(102909053:0S.@pl, 104727214:0O)
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+aoj:01(300393852:3B, 105611062:3M.@def)
+aoj(301391351:0I, 102909053:0S.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:926]
+{org:en}
+Oxygen in the air causes redox reactions in the ground that can chemically precipitate compounds that block the aquifer, reducing water quality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201645601:0K.@entry, 114648100:02.@topic)
+obj(200045817:3E.@progress, 104723816:3T)
+obj(200474994:24.@ability, 103081859:2G.@pl)
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+Its microbial content is generally higher than that of the receiving groundwater, and pollution of the aquifer may result.
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+Residence time, in turn, is directly proportional to subsurface flow distance and inversely proportional to the grain size of the aquifer matrix.
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+{org:en}
+Groundwater Recharge Precautions
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+To help prevent groundwater pollution, permits are usually issued by governments to regulate the discharge, disposal, and storage of waste and wastewater.
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+These permits should take into account the vulnerability of the aquifer and make provision for its protection.
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+These provisions should apply to
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+effluents and sludge produced by wastewater treatment plants
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+domestic waste disposal sites
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+subsurface waste containment by deep-well injection or storage
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+surface storage of wastes that are hazardous by virtue of their chemical composition.
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+{org:en}
+Furthermore
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+in permitting activities such as artificial recharge, the hydrogeological environment of the area should be taken into consideration
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+the opinion of qualified specialists should be sought with regard to all the above-mentioned issues
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+Special attention should be paid to hazardous substances, such as heavy metals.
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+Deep-well injection of liquid industrial waste and other polluted water into the ground should be authorized only on a case-by-case basis, if the necessary precautions and controls for deep-well disposal can be observed and if injected wastes cannot harm nearby aquifers.
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+Control methods should include proper siting, design, construction, operation, decommissioning, and monitoring of deep-well injection sites.
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+{org:en}
+Methods of Artificial Recharge
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+{org:en}
+Choice of Recharge Method
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+The choice of recharge method depends on various factors.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0W.@entry, 100161243:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(100161243:06.@topic.@def, 105660268:0P)
+aoj(202663848:0W.@entry, 100161243:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(100161243:06.@topic.@def, 105660268:0P)
+aoj(303160904:17, 105858317:1F.@pl)
+obj(202663848:0W.@entry, 105858317:1F.@pl)
+obj(202663848:0W.@entry, 105858317:1F.@pl)
+mod(105660268:0P, 115689206:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:967]
+{org:en}
+Most important are HTM1 hydrogeological HTM2 variables
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105857459:1B.@entry.@pl, :20.@topic)
+aoj(301275562:07, :20.@topic)
+aoj(105857459:1B.@entry.@pl, :20.@topic)
+aoj(301275562:07, :20.@topic)
+man(301275562:07, 400536271:02)
+aoj(303161724:0Q, 105857459:1B.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(303161724:0Q, 105857459:1B.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:968]
+{org:en}
+feed flow
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100329227:07.@entry, 107800091:02)
+mod(100329227:07.@entry, 107800091:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:969]
+{org:en}
+transmissivity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115691930:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115691930:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:970]
+{org:en}
+storage coefficient
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(113586122:0A.@entry, 100811355:02)
+mod(113586122:0A.@entry, 100811355:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:971]
+{org:en}
+These are the main hydrodynamic parameters that regulate the efficacy of recharge, above all near the recharge area itself.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105859071:0Y.@entry.@def.@pl, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(600000145:39, 102735688:34.@def)
+obj(200299341:1E, 105199869:1R.@def)
+aoj(302979995:0L, 105859071:0Y.@entry.@def.@pl)
+aoj(105859071:0Y.@entry.@def.@pl, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(600000145:39, 102735688:34.@def)
+obj(200299341:1E, 105199869:1R.@def)
+aoj(302979995:0L, 105859071:0Y.@entry.@def.@pl)
+aoj(600000081:2M, 600000166:2I)
+mod(105859071:0Y.@entry.@def.@pl, 301512527:0G)
+bas(600000073:2D, 600000166:2I)
+agt(200299341:1E, 105859071:0Y.@entry.@def.@pl)
+mod(102735688:34.@def, 115689206:2V)
+agt(200299341:1E, 105859071:0Y.@entry.@def.@pl)
+mod(102735688:34.@def, 115689206:2V)
+mod(105199869:1R.@def, 115689206:23)
+man(200299341:1E, 600000073:2D)
+obj(600000081:2M, 600000145:39)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:972]
+{org:en}
+Whatever artificial recharge system is used, an increase in water load is produced and a "mound" is formed at the water table.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:15.@entry, 104377057:0V.@topic)
+obj(200144850:34.@entry, 103792048:2P.@indef.@single_quote)
+mod(104377057:0V.@topic, 115689206:0M)
+obj(201158572:15.@entry, 104377057:0V.@topic)
+obj(200144850:34.@entry, 103792048:2P.@indef.@single_quote)
+mod(104377057:0V.@topic, 115689206:0M)
+obj(100363260:1E.@topic.@indef, 103679986:1W)
+aoj(300073465:0B, 104377057:0V.@topic)
+obj(201621555:24, 100363260:1E.@topic.@indef)
+mod(104377057:0V.@topic, 600000513:02)
+mod(104377057:0V.@topic, 600000513:02)
+plc(200144850:34.@entry, 109476123:3I.@def)
+and(200144850:34.@entry, 201621555:24)
+mod(103679986:1W, 107935504:1Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:973]
+{org:en}
+In unconfined aquifers this water-level mounding is the result of an increase in the amount of stored water, and its dimensions depend only on the aquifer storage coefficient.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202663848:3L.@entry, 115698567:1L.@def)
+mod(115698567:1L.@def, 100363260:1Y.@indef)
+mod(100811355:4C, 109201998:44)
+mod(105093890:0Z, 107935504:0U)
+man(202663848:3L.@entry, 400535197:3S)
+mod(201660386:15.@progress.@topic, 600000017:0P)
+and(202663848:3L.@entry, 115698567:1L.@def)
+mod(115698567:1L.@def, 100363260:1Y.@indef)
+mod(100811355:4C, 109201998:44)
+mod(105093890:0Z, 107935504:0U)
+man(202663848:3L.@entry, 400535197:3S)
+mod(201660386:15.@progress.@topic, 600000017:0P)
+aoj(115698567:1L.@def, 201660386:15.@progress.@topic)
+obj(202663848:3L.@entry, 113586122:4K.@def)
+obj(202281093:2O.@past, 107935504:2V)
+plc(115698567:1L.@def, 109201998:0G.@pl)
+aoj(300558373:07, 109201998:0G.@pl)
+aoj(202663848:3L.@entry, 105093581:3A.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100033615:2E.@def, 107935504:2V)
+aoj(202663848:3L.@entry, 105093581:3A.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100033615:2E.@def, 107935504:2V)
+mod(105093581:3A.@topic.@pl, 600000016:36)
+mod(109201998:0G.@pl, 303161781:05)
+mod(113586122:4K.@def, 100811355:4C)
+obj(201660386:15.@progress.@topic, 105093890:0Z)
+plc(115698567:1L.@def, 100033615:2E.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:974]
+{org:en}
+In confined aquifers, which have very small storage coefficients, recharge produces a pressure increase over a wide area rather than an observable growth in water volume.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201621555:25.@entry, 109201998:0E.@pl)
+aoj(303162716:3U, 108438067:45.@indef)
+obj(201621555:25.@entry, 100363260:2P.@indef)
+aoj(301391351:14, 113586122:1I.@pl)
+man(201621555:25.@entry, 600000151:3F)
+aoj(300558373:05, 109201998:0E.@pl)
+plc(201621555:25.@entry, 109201998:0E.@pl)
+aoj(303162716:3U, 108438067:45.@indef)
+obj(201621555:25.@entry, 100363260:2P.@indef)
+aoj(301391351:14, 113586122:1I.@pl)
+man(201621555:25.@entry, 600000151:3F)
+aoj(300558373:05, 109201998:0E.@pl)
+aoj(300024241:35, 102735688:3A.@indef)
+plc(201621555:25.@entry, 104990220:4L)
+aoj(200065370:0U, 109201998:0E.@pl)
+obj(600000040:2Y, 102735688:3A.@indef)
+man(301391351:14, 400031899:0Z)
+agt(201621555:25.@entry, 115689206:1W.@topic)
+mod(104990220:4L, 107935504:4F)
+agt(201621555:25.@entry, 115689206:1W.@topic)
+mod(104990220:4L, 107935504:4F)
+mod(100363260:2P.@indef, 100113113:2G)
+mod(113586122:1I.@pl, 100811355:1A)
+man(201621555:25.@entry, 600000040:2Y)
+obj(200065370:0U, 113586122:1I.@pl)
+obj(600000151:3F, 108438067:45.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:975]
+{org:en}
+In this case, aquifer transmissivity governs the behavior of the recharge syst m.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202442205:13.@entry, 600000186:02)
+mod(115691930:0O.@topic, 109201998:0G)
+mod(101220984:1F.@def, 104377057:24.@def)
+man(202442205:13.@entry, 600000186:02)
+mod(115691930:0O.@topic, 109201998:0G)
+mod(101220984:1F.@def, 104377057:24.@def)
+obj(202442205:13.@entry, 101220984:1F.@def)
+agt(202442205:13.@entry, 115691930:0O.@topic)
+agt(202442205:13.@entry, 115691930:0O.@topic)
+mod(104377057:24.@def, 115689206:1V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:976]
+{org:en}
+Recharge generates a velocity field that spreads through the whole aquifer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201627355:0B.@entry, 115689206:02.@topic)
+obj(600000026:1F, 109201998:1X.@def)
+mod(101097119:0W.@indef, 115689301:0N)
+agt(201627355:0B.@entry, 115689206:02.@topic)
+obj(600000026:1F, 109201998:1X.@def)
+mod(101097119:0W.@indef, 115689301:0N)
+obj(201378556:17, 101097119:0W.@indef)
+obj(201627355:0B.@entry, 101097119:0W.@indef)
+obj(201627355:0B.@entry, 101097119:0W.@indef)
+mod(109201998:1X.@def, 300514884:1R)
+man(201378556:17, 600000026:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:977]
+{org:en}
+The velocity intensity decreases with distance from the recharge area.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200151689:0P.@entry, 105036394:0F.@topic.@def)
+mod(105036394:0F.@topic.@def, 115689301:06)
+frm(105084201:14, 102735688:1V.@def)
+obj(200151689:0P.@entry, 105036394:0F.@topic.@def)
+mod(105036394:0F.@topic.@def, 115689301:06)
+frm(105084201:14, 102735688:1V.@def)
+obj(600000018:0Z, 105084201:14)
+man(200151689:0P.@entry, 600000018:0Z)
+man(200151689:0P.@entry, 600000018:0Z)
+mod(102735688:1V.@def, 115689206:1M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:978]
+{org:en}
+Other relevant conditions include the following
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0S.@entry, 105798863:0H.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105798863:0H.@topic.@pl, 600000031:02)
+aoj(200183879:0S.@entry, 105798863:0H.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105798863:0H.@topic.@pl, 600000031:02)
+mod(:29.@def, 300127815:14)
+obj(200183879:0S.@entry, :29.@def)
+obj(200183879:0S.@entry, :29.@def)
+aoj(301975138:08, 105798863:0H.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:979]
+{org:en}
+Water available for recharge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(107935504:02.@entry, 115689206:0M)
+pur(107935504:02.@entry, 115689206:0M)
+aoj(300183053:08, 107935504:02.@entry)
+aoj(300183053:08, 107935504:02.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:980]
+{org:en}
+Water availability is the first requirement that must be satisfied.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 115668897:08.@topic)
+mod(115668897:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+aoj(:01.@entry, 115668897:08.@topic)
+mod(115668897:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+mod:01(115669633:0Y.@entry, "1":0S)
+obj:01(201816431:1N.@obligation, 115669633:0Y.@entry)
+obj:01(201816431:1N.@obligation, 115669633:0Y.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:981]
+{org:en}
+Appropriate physical-chemical properties of recharge water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104012260:0W.@entry.@pl, 107935504:1J)
+mod(107935504:1J, 115689206:1A)
+mod(104012260:0W.@entry.@pl, 107935504:1J)
+mod(107935504:1J, 115689206:1A)
+aoj(303161516:0E, 104012260:0W.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300134701:02, 104012260:0W.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300134701:02, 104012260:0W.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:982]
+{org:en}
+The quality of recharged water should be compatible with the chemical characteristics of groundwater to avoid chemical reactions that can reduce the aquifer's ability to receive and store water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202776318:16.@entry.@should.@past, 104723816:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(105200169:4G.@def, 109201998:46)
+obj(200811375:2X, 100202816:3C.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:1Q, 104731497:1Z.@def.@pl)
+mod(104723816:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0Q)
+aoj(202776318:16.@entry.@should.@past, 104723816:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(105200169:4G.@def, 109201998:46)
+obj(200811375:2X, 100202816:3C.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:1Q, 104731497:1Z.@def.@pl)
+mod(104723816:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0Q)
+obj(200045817:3V.@ability, 105200169:4G.@def)
+mod(104731497:1Z.@def.@pl, 115669379:2I)
+and:01(202281093:53.@entry, 200117346:4R)
+aoj(302692624:33, 100202816:3C.@pl)
+obj(202776318:16.@entry.@should.@past, 104731497:1Z.@def.@pl)
+obj(:01, 107935504:58)
+obj(202776318:16.@entry.@should.@past, 104731497:1Z.@def.@pl)
+obj(:01, 107935504:58)
+agt(200045817:3V.@ability, 100202816:3C.@pl)
+pur(115669379:2I, 200811375:2X)
+obj(200518288:0G.@past, 107935504:0Q)
+pur(105200169:4G.@def, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:983]
+{org:en}
+Recharge water must have the lowest possible suspended solids content to avoid subsurface plugging and slowing of the percolation or injection of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0M.@entry.@obligation, 107935504:0B.@topic)
+mod(:01, 302471782:29)
+aoj(201194238:1S, 113860793:1L.@pl)
+man(600000252:0V, 400536271:4A)
+or:02(100322634:3R.@entry.@def, 100192149:3C.@def)
+aoj(200065370:0M.@entry.@obligation, 107935504:0B.@topic)
+mod(:01, 302471782:29)
+aoj(201194238:1S, 113860793:1L.@pl)
+man(600000252:0V, 400536271:4A)
+or:02(100322634:3R.@entry.@def, 100192149:3C.@def)
+obj(200811375:23, :01)
+man(200065370:0M.@entry.@obligation, 600000252:0V)
+obj(:02, 107935504:44)
+aoj(302351692:1B, 113860793:1L.@pl)
+obj(200065370:0M.@entry.@obligation, 113860793:1L.@pl)
+and:01(115696083:2X.@entry, 115691124:2K)
+obj(200065370:0M.@entry.@obligation, 113860793:1L.@pl)
+and:01(115696083:2X.@entry, 115691124:2K)
+aoj(301821266:12, 113860793:1L.@pl)
+pur(113860793:1L.@pl, 200811375:23)
+mod(107935504:0B.@topic, 115689206:02)
+obj(:01, :02:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:984]
+{org:en}
+Availability of aquifers suitable for recharging.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115668897:02.@entry, 109201998:0I.@pl)
+mod(115668897:02.@entry, 109201998:0I.@pl)
+pur(301020885:0R, 200518288:13.@progress)
+aoj(301020885:0R, 109201998:0I.@pl)
+aoj(301020885:0R, 109201998:0I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:985]
+{org:en}
+Aquifer properties are very difficult to define in areas exhibiting complex hydrogeological conditions and geological structure, especially where there is a wide range in lithology and grain sizes in the geological formation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300744916:0U.@entry, 200957378:16)
+mod(100925207:60.@def, 302905591:5P)
+mod:01(105798863:2L.@pl, 303161724:25)
+man(202631856:1M.@progress, 115689346:3X)
+aoj(202603699:49, 104053218:4J.@indef)
+plc(200957378:16, 102735688:1G.@pl)
+scn(202603699:49, 100925207:60.@def)
+aoj(300744916:0U.@entry, 200957378:16)
+mod(100925207:60.@def, 302905591:5P)
+mod:01(105798863:2L.@pl, 303161724:25)
+man(202631856:1M.@progress, 115689346:3X)
+aoj(202603699:49, 104053218:4J.@indef)
+plc(200957378:16, 102735688:1G.@pl)
+scn(202603699:49, 100925207:60.@def)
+mod:01(104931965:3B.@entry, 302905591:30)
+and:02(104950713:56.@entry, 115669550:4S)
+obj(200957378:16, 104012260:0A.@pl)
+man(115689346:3X, 400535221:3M)
+and:01(104931965:3B.@entry, 105798863:2L.@pl)
+mod(105095691:5C.@pl, :02)
+man(300744916:0U.@entry, 400031899:0P)
+mod(104012260:0A.@pl, 109201998:02)
+obj(115689346:3X, 202603699:49)
+man(300744916:0U.@entry, 400031899:0P)
+mod(104012260:0A.@pl, 109201998:02)
+obj(115689346:3X, 202603699:49)
+obj(202631856:1M.@progress, :01:01)
+aoj(300024241:4E, 104053218:4J.@indef)
+agt(202631856:1M.@progress, 102735688:1G.@pl)
+plc(202603699:49, 105095691:5C.@pl)
+aoj:01(302176178:1X, 105798863:2L.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:986]
+{org:en}
+Thickness and permeability of the unsaturated zone.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(:01.@entry, 105611062:1B.@def)
+mod(:01.@entry, 105611062:1B.@def)
+aoj(300393852:10, 105611062:1B.@def)
+and:01(104940496:0G.@entry, 104936403:02)
+and:01(104940496:0G.@entry, 104936403:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:987]
+{org:en}
+When the thickness and/or permeability of the unsaturated zone is very high, deep recharge (using recharge or injection wells) is preferable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(300733743:3H.@entry, 300705498:1U)
+mod(104940496:0M.@topic.@def, 104936403:0B)
+mod:02(104572344:37.@pl, :01)
+aoj(300149120:20, 115689206:25.@topic)
+tim(300733743:3H.@entry, 300705498:1U)
+mod(104940496:0M.@topic.@def, 104936403:0B)
+mod:02(104572344:37.@pl, :01)
+aoj(300149120:20, 115689206:25.@topic)
+man(300705498:1U, 400031899:1P)
+agt(:02.@parenthesis, 115689206:25.@topic)
+aoj(300705498:1U, 104940496:0M.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300733743:3H.@entry, 115689206:25.@topic)
+aoj(300393852:16, 105611062:1H.@def)
+aoj(300733743:3H.@entry, 115689206:25.@topic)
+aoj(300393852:16, 105611062:1H.@def)
+or:01(100322634:2X.@entry, 115689206:2L)
+obj:02(201158572:2F.@entry.@progress, 104572344:37.@pl)
+mod(104940496:0M.@topic.@def, 105611062:1H.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:988]
+{org:en}
+A surface recharge system is preferable where there is low permeability and the unsaturated zone is relatively thin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300733743:0V.@entry, 115689346:49)
+aoj:01(301206474:1L, 104940496:1P)
+and:01(300988232:34.@entry, 202603699:1I)
+mod(115689206:0C, 104362025:04)
+man(300733743:0V.@entry, 115689346:49)
+aoj:01(301206474:1L, 104940496:1P)
+and:01(300988232:34.@entry, 202603699:1I)
+mod(115689206:0C, 104362025:04)
+aoj:01(300393852:2A, 105611062:2L.@topic.@def)
+mod(104377057:0L.@topic.@indef, 115689206:0C)
+man:01(300988232:34.@entry, 400160834:2T)
+aoj(300733743:0V.@entry, 104377057:0L.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(300733743:0V.@entry, 104377057:0L.@topic.@indef)
+aoj:01(300988232:34.@entry, 105611062:2L.@topic.@def)
+plc(:01, 115689346:49)
+aoj:01(202603699:1I, 104940496:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:989]
+{org:en}
+Thickness and permeability of the aquifer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(:01.@entry, 109201998:10.@def)
+mod(:01.@entry, 109201998:10.@def)
+and:01(104940496:0G.@entry, 104936403:02)
+and:01(104940496:0G.@entry, 104936403:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:990]
+{org:en}
+The aquifer must be capable of absorbing large amounts of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300308015:0M.@entry.@obligation, 109201998:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100033615:1D.@pl, 107935504:1O)
+aoj(300308015:0M.@entry.@obligation, 109201998:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100033615:1D.@pl, 107935504:1O)
+obj(200395698:0X.@progress, 100033615:1D.@pl)
+obj(300308015:0M.@entry.@obligation, 200395698:0X.@progress)
+obj(300308015:0M.@entry.@obligation, 200395698:0X.@progress)
+aoj(300527870:17, 100033615:1D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:991]
+{org:en}
+Presence of piezometric surface depressions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101233802:02.@entry, 100112674:0Y.@pl)
+mod(101233802:02.@entry, 100112674:0Y.@pl)
+mod(100112674:0Y.@pl, 302471091:0Q)
+aoj(303161422:0E, 100112674:0Y.@pl)
+aoj(303161422:0E, 100112674:0Y.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:992]
+{org:en}
+Depressions in the water table or piezometric surface below well fields are positive factors, because recharge can then flow towards pumping areas and is not lost to the margins of the aquifer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(105858317:2F.@entry.@pl, :02:02)
+and:02(201099592:4G.@entry.@not, 200217427:3E.@ability)
+aoj:01(600000131:1K, 104362025:1C.@entry)
+obj:02(600000080:3J, 200788057:3R.@progress)
+plc(100112674:02.@topic.@pl, :01:01)
+mod:02(200217427:3E.@ability, 600000080:3J)
+rsn(105858317:2F.@entry.@pl, :02:02)
+and:02(201099592:4G.@entry.@not, 200217427:3E.@ability)
+aoj:01(600000131:1K, 104362025:1C.@entry)
+obj:02(600000080:3J, 200788057:3R.@progress)
+plc(100112674:02.@topic.@pl, :01:01)
+mod:02(200217427:3E.@ability, 600000080:3J)
+mod:01(101097119:1V.@pl, 104572344:1Q)
+aoj(300358678:26, 105858317:2F.@entry.@pl)
+mod:02(105120683:4S.@def.@pl, 109201998:57.@def)
+bas:01(600000131:1K, 101097119:1V.@pl)
+aoj(105858317:2F.@entry.@pl, 100112674:02.@topic.@pl)
+gol:02(201099592:4G.@entry.@not, 105120683:4S.@def.@pl)
+aoj(105858317:2F.@entry.@pl, 100112674:02.@topic.@pl)
+gol:02(201099592:4G.@entry.@not, 105120683:4S.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(303161422:10, 104362025:1C.@entry)
+obj:02(200788057:3R.@progress, 102735688:3Z.@pl)
+or:01(104362025:1C.@entry, 109476123:0L.@def)
+man:02(200217427:3E.@ability, 400117620:39)
+obj(:02, 115689206:2W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:993]
+{org:en}
+Topography of the recharge area.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105064541:02.@entry, 102735688:0T.@def)
+mod(105064541:02.@entry, 102735688:0T.@def)
+mod(102735688:0T.@def, 115689206:0K)
+mod(102735688:0T.@def, 115689206:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:994]
+{org:en}
+The phreatic or piezometric head must lie below the elevation of the recharge facility because the head difference is the force that drives the infiltration of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(200834259:14.@entry.@obligation, :02:02)
+obj:02(201026975:3R, 100976698:42.@def)
+mod(100578549:28.@def, 115689206:1Z)
+bas(600000091:18, 103281052:1I.@def)
+rsn(200834259:14.@entry.@obligation, :02:02)
+obj:02(201026975:3R, 100976698:42.@def)
+mod(100578549:28.@def, 115689206:1Z)
+bas(600000091:18, 103281052:1I.@def)
+aoj(:02, 104748836:2Y.@topic.@def)
+man(200834259:14.@entry.@obligation, 600000091:18)
+mod(104748836:2Y.@topic.@def, 101318381:2T)
+or:01(303161422:0I.@entry, 302777931:06)
+obj(200834259:14.@entry.@obligation, 101318381:0U.@topic.@def)
+obj:02(100976698:42.@def, 107935504:4I)
+obj(200834259:14.@entry.@obligation, 101318381:0U.@topic.@def)
+obj:02(100976698:42.@def, 107935504:4I)
+aoj(:01, 101318381:0U.@topic.@def)
+mod(103281052:1I.@def, 100578549:28.@def)
+agt:02(201026975:3R, 105035353:3G.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:995]
+{org:en}
+The topography and morphology of the recharge area are also very important
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301275562:1V.@entry, :01)
+mod(102735688:1C.@def, 115689206:13)
+mod(:01, 102735688:1C.@def)
+aoj(301275562:1V.@entry, :01)
+mod(102735688:1C.@def, 115689206:13)
+mod(:01, 102735688:1C.@def)
+man(400031899:1Q, 400047534:1L)
+man(301275562:1V.@entry, 400031899:1Q)
+man(301275562:1V.@entry, 400031899:1Q)
+and:01(106078327:0L.@entry.@topic.@def, 105064541:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:996]
+{org:en}
+if recharge has to occur at the surface, the recharge facility will require storage areas of great horizontal extent.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(202774169:1Y.@entry.@will, 200723349:0L.@obligation)
+aoj(301278818:2N, 105123416:34)
+mod(102735688:2E.@pl, 105123416:34)
+con(202774169:1Y.@entry.@will, 200723349:0L.@obligation)
+aoj(301278818:2N, 105123416:34)
+mod(102735688:2E.@pl, 105123416:34)
+obj(200723349:0L.@obligation, 115689206:05)
+obj(202774169:1Y.@entry.@will, 102735688:2E.@pl)
+mod(100578549:1K.@topic.@def, 115689206:1B)
+agt(202774169:1Y.@entry.@will, 100578549:1K.@topic.@def)
+agt(202774169:1Y.@entry.@will, 100578549:1K.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301232635:2T, 105123416:34)
+mod(102735688:2E.@pl, 100811355:26)
+plc(200723349:0L.@obligation, 104362025:0Y.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:997]
+{org:en}
+If the recharge is carried out using wells, however, morphology is less important.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(301275562:22.@entry, 202774207:0L)
+man(202774207:0L, 201158572:0X.@progress)
+man(301275562:22.@entry, 400099868:1X)
+con(301275562:22.@entry, 202774207:0L)
+man(202774207:0L, 201158572:0X.@progress)
+man(301275562:22.@entry, 400099868:1X)
+man(301275562:22.@entry, 400027384:1A)
+aoj(301275562:22.@entry, 106078327:1J)
+aoj(301275562:22.@entry, 106078327:1J)
+obj(201158572:0X.@progress, 104572344:13.@pl)
+obj(202774207:0L, 115689206:09.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:998]
+{org:en}
+Land price and land-use regulations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100805034:0P.@entry.@pl, 100947128:0L)
+mod:01(105141683:06, 109334396:02)
+mod(100805034:0P.@entry.@pl, 100947128:0L)
+mod:01(105141683:06, 109334396:02)
+and:01(109334396:0G.@entry, 105141683:06)
+mod(100947128:0L, :01)
+mod(100947128:0L, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:999]
+{org:en}
+The morphology of a recharge site is not the only factor influencing choice
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100161243:1Z.@entry, 106078327:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(108622950:0V.@indef, 115689206:0M)
+mod(105858317:1G, 303161004:1B.@not)
+mod(100161243:1Z.@entry, 106078327:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(108622950:0V.@indef, 115689206:0M)
+mod(105858317:1G, 303161004:1B.@not)
+obj(202536557:1N.@progress, 100161243:1Z.@entry)
+mod(100161243:1Z.@entry, 105858317:1G)
+mod(100161243:1Z.@entry, 105858317:1G)
+mod(106078327:06.@topic.@def, 108622950:0V.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1000]
+{org:en}
+the cost of land and regulations in force can also influence the choice of recharge methods.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202536557:1H.@entry.@ability, 113275847:06.@topic.@def)
+plc(113275847:06.@topic.@def, 105035353:12)
+obj(100161243:1V.@def, 105660268:2E.@pl)
+agt(202536557:1H.@entry.@ability, 113275847:06.@topic.@def)
+plc(113275847:06.@topic.@def, 105035353:12)
+obj(100161243:1V.@def, 105660268:2E.@pl)
+man(202536557:1H.@entry.@ability, 400047534:1C)
+and:01(100805034:0N.@entry.@pl, 109334396:0E)
+obj(202536557:1H.@entry.@ability, 100161243:1V.@def)
+obj(202536557:1H.@entry.@ability, 100161243:1V.@def)
+mod(113275847:06.@topic.@def, :01)
+mod(105660268:2E.@pl, 115689206:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1001]
+{org:en}
+Treatment of Water for Recharge
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100658082:02.@entry, 115689206:0P)
+obj(100658082:02.@entry, 115689206:0P)
+aoj(303162572:0L, 115689206:0P)
+mod(115689206:0P, 107935504:0F)
+mod(115689206:0P, 107935504:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1002]
+{org:en}
+An artificial groundwater recharge facility is economically viable if recharge is continuous and operations and maintenance costs are reasonable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(300094941:1Q.@entry, 303162782:3S)
+and:01(100765791:36.@entry, 100409211:2R.@pl)
+mod(115689206:0S, 115669379:0G)
+aoj(300073465:05, 100578549:11.@topic.@indef)
+con(300094941:1Q.@entry, 303162782:3S)
+and:01(100765791:36.@entry, 100409211:2R.@pl)
+mod(115689206:0S, 115669379:0G)
+aoj(300073465:05, 100578549:11.@topic.@indef)
+mod(:02, 115689206:20)
+man(300094941:1Q.@entry, 400123229:1D)
+mod(113275847:3I.@topic.@pl, :02)
+aoj(300094941:1Q.@entry, 100578549:11.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(300094941:1Q.@entry, 100578549:11.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(303162782:3S, 113275847:3I.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100578549:11.@topic.@indef, 115689206:0S)
+and:02(:01.@entry, 300594413:2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1003]
+{org:en}
+The main costs are those associated with replacement of filtration systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000030:0L.@entry.@pl, 113275847:0B.@topic.@pl)
+mod(113275847:0B.@topic.@pl, 301512527:06)
+obj(100197772:17, 104377057:1X.@pl)
+aoj(600000030:0L.@entry.@pl, 113275847:0B.@topic.@pl)
+mod(113275847:0B.@topic.@pl, 301512527:06)
+obj(100197772:17, 104377057:1X.@pl)
+gol(200713167:0R.@past, 100197772:17)
+obj(200713167:0R.@past, 600000030:0L.@entry.@pl)
+obj(200713167:0R.@past, 600000030:0L.@entry.@pl)
+mod(104377057:1X.@pl, 100191980:1M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1004]
+{org:en}
+As far as possible the recharge water must be free of substances that can cause plugging of the aquifer formation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(303161231:1C.@entry.@obligation, 600000412:02)
+obj(115691124:2A, 100925207:2Y.@def)
+aoj(201645601:24.@ability, 100019613:1K.@pl)
+man(303161231:1C.@entry.@obligation, 600000412:02)
+obj(115691124:2A, 100925207:2Y.@def)
+aoj(201645601:24.@ability, 100019613:1K.@pl)
+obj(303161231:1C.@entry.@obligation, 100019613:1K.@pl)
+mod(107935504:0Y.@topic.@def, 115689206:0P)
+aoj(303161231:1C.@entry.@obligation, 107935504:0Y.@topic.@def)
+aoj(303161231:1C.@entry.@obligation, 107935504:0Y.@topic.@def)
+mod(100925207:2Y.@def, 109201998:2Q)
+obj(201645601:24.@ability, 115691124:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1005]
+{org:en}
+The suspended solids content is the main factor affecting cost, because no economic method exists to remove them from recharge water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(113275847:1O.@entry, 202603699:2L)
+obj(200173338:2V, 600000020:32)
+aoj(302351692:06, 105809192:0N.@def)
+obj(200019448:1E.@progress, 113275847:1O.@entry)
+man(300840212:25, 600000125:22)
+rsn(113275847:1O.@entry, 202603699:2L)
+obj(200173338:2V, 600000020:32)
+aoj(302351692:06, 105809192:0N.@def)
+obj(200019448:1E.@progress, 113275847:1O.@entry)
+man(300840212:25, 600000125:22)
+pur(202603699:2L, 200173338:2V)
+mod(113275847:1O.@entry, 105858317:17)
+aoj(300840212:25, 105660268:2E)
+aoj(202603699:2L, 105660268:2E)
+mod(113275847:1O.@entry, 105809192:0N.@def)
+mod(107935504:3L, 115689206:3C)
+mod(113275847:1O.@entry, 105809192:0N.@def)
+mod(107935504:3L, 115689206:3C)
+mod(105809192:0N.@def, 113860793:0G.@pl)
+mod(105858317:17, 301512527:12)
+src(200173338:2V, 107935504:3L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1006]
+{org:en}
+The bacterial quality of recharge water is more important in the case of surface recharge, because the filtration process in the unsaturated zone will remove bacteria.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(301275562:1E.@entry, 200173338:48.@will)
+obj(200173338:48.@will, 115689384:4F.@pl)
+mod(115689206:2B, 302471091:23)
+man(301275562:1E.@entry, 400099341:19)
+aoj(300393852:3N, 105611062:3Y.@def)
+rsn(301275562:1E.@entry, 200173338:48.@will)
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+mod(115689206:2B, 302471091:23)
+man(301275562:1E.@entry, 400099341:19)
+aoj(300393852:3N, 105611062:3Y.@def)
+mod(107935504:10, 115689206:0R)
+man(301275562:1E.@entry, 600000134:1O)
+mod(100029677:38.@def, 100191980:2X)
+aoj(302833544:06, 104723816:0G.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301275562:1E.@entry, 104723816:0G.@topic.@def)
+plc(100029677:38.@def, 105611062:3Y.@def)
+aoj(301275562:1E.@entry, 104723816:0G.@topic.@def)
+plc(100029677:38.@def, 105611062:3Y.@def)
+mod(104723816:0G.@topic.@def, 107935504:10)
+obj(600000134:1O, 115689206:2B)
+agt(200173338:48.@will, 100029677:38.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1007]
+{org:en}
+Suspended solids (40-70%) and bacteria (25-75%) can be eliminated using settling tanks and filters (sand and gravel), which will eliminate approximately 20% of all suspended solids.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200470701:1L.@entry.@ability, :02:02.@topic)
+qua(113860793:4W.@pl, "20%":4D)
+cnt(:04, :05.@parenthesis)
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+cnt(:04, :05.@parenthesis)
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+obj(201158572:1W.@progress, 200413876:22.@progress)
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+man(200470701:1L.@entry.@ability, 201158572:1W.@progress)
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+cnt:02(115689384:0W.@entry.@pl, "25-75%":16.@parenthesis)
+man(200470701:3N.@will, 400007015:3X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1008]
+{org:en}
+When the suspended solids are colloids, it is necessary to remove them by flocculation or coagulation using suitable products such as aluminum sulfate and sodium aluminate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(300343552:1C.@entry, 114588219:0W.@pl)
+obj(600000068:3K, 114824140:4K)
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+tim(300343552:1C.@entry, 114588219:0W.@pl)
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+obj(201158572:2W.@progress, 103748886:3B.@pl)
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+mod(114824140:4K, :02)
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+aoj(114588219:0W.@pl, 113860793:0L.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301020885:32, 103748886:3B.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1009]
+{org:en}
+Activated carbon filters are mainly used to remove organic material, above all pesticides, herbicides, and other toxic organic compounds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:11.@entry, 103339643:0I.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:01(301093142:3B, 103081859:3I.@entry.@pl)
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+obj(200173338:18, 103729951:1N)
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+obj(201158572:11.@entry, 103339643:0I.@topic.@pl)
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+obj(200173338:18, 103729951:1N)
+mod(103339643:0I.@topic.@pl, 300034924:02)
+mod:01(103081859:3I.@entry.@pl, 600000031:2Z)
+man(201158572:11.@entry, 400535216:0U)
+qua(:01, 600000011:1Y)
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+pur(201158572:11.@entry, 200173338:18)
+and:01(114906850:2J.@pl, 114980215:27.@pl)
+pur(201158572:11.@entry, 200173338:18)
+and:01(114906850:2J.@pl, 114980215:27.@pl)
+bas(600000072:1X, :01)
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+mod(103339643:0I.@topic.@pl, 102961851:0B)
+aoj:01(302449430:35, 103081859:3I.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1010]
+{org:en}
+Removal of algae is another problem.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105687338:0U.@entry, 100216723:02.@topic)
+aoj(105687338:0U.@entry, 100216723:02.@topic)
+obj(100216723:02.@topic, 115668556:0D.@pl)
+mod(105687338:0U.@entry, 600000066:0M)
+mod(105687338:0U.@entry, 600000066:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1011]
+{org:en}
+Algae that are present in recharge water should be removed by filters, or they will grow in the recharge basin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+or(200094460:2E.@entry.@will, 200173338:1H.@should.@past)
+agt(200173338:1H.@should.@past, 103339643:1S.@pl)
+mod(102801525:2Z.@def, 115689206:2Q)
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+agt(200173338:1H.@should.@past, 103339643:1S.@pl)
+mod(102801525:2Z.@def, 115689206:2Q)
+mod(107935504:11, 115689206:0S)
+plc(200094460:2E.@entry.@will, 102801525:2Z.@def)
+plc(301731351:0H, 107935504:11)
+obj(200094460:2E.@entry.@will, 600000020:24.@topic)
+obj(200094460:2E.@entry.@will, 600000020:24.@topic)
+aoj(301731351:0H, 115668556:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200173338:1H.@should.@past, 115668556:02.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1012]
+{org:en}
+Algae grow and die very quickly and the organic matter produced may generate unpleasant odors and consume much oxygen, producing an anaerobic environment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(:02.@entry, :01.@entry)
+obj(201621555:1R.@past, 100020827:1K.@topic.@def)
+qua:02(114648100:3E, 600000155:39)
+man(400085811:0X, 400031899:0S)
+and:02(200600903:31.@entry.@may, 201627355:27.@may)
+man(:01.@entry, 400085811:0X)
+and(:02.@entry, :01.@entry)
+obj(201621555:1R.@past, 100020827:1K.@topic.@def)
+qua:02(114648100:3E, 600000155:39)
+man(400085811:0X, 400031899:0S)
+and:02(200600903:31.@entry.@may, 201627355:27.@may)
+man(:01.@entry, 400085811:0X)
+obj(201621555:3Q, 108567235:4D.@indef)
+man(:02.@entry, 201621555:3Q)
+obj(:01.@entry, 115668556:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:02(301801600:2G, 104980008:2R.@pl)
+agt(:02.@entry, 100020827:1K.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301093142:1D, 100020827:1K.@topic.@def)
+agt(:02.@entry, 100020827:1K.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301093142:1D, 100020827:1K.@topic.@def)
+obj:02(201627355:27.@may, 104980008:2R.@pl)
+obj:02(200600903:31.@entry.@may, 114648100:3E)
+and:01(200224295:0K.@entry, 200094460:0B)
+aoj(300069060:43, 108567235:4D.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1013]
+{org:en}
+Algae also reduce carbon dioxide content, which leads to precipitation of calcium carbonate and the consequent plugging of the aquifer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200045817:0D.@entry, 115668556:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(114798450:2C, 114632648:24)
+gol(202774203:1E, :01)
+obj(202774203:1E, 105809192:0Z)
+agt(200045817:0D.@entry, 115668556:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(114798450:2C, 114632648:24)
+gol(202774203:1E, :01)
+obj(202774203:1E, 105809192:0Z)
+aoj:01(303162480:2U, 115691124:35.@entry.@def)
+man(200045817:0D.@entry, 400047534:08)
+obj:01(115691124:35.@entry.@def, 109201998:3L.@def)
+obj(200045817:0D.@entry, 105809192:0Z)
+obj(200045817:0D.@entry, 105809192:0Z)
+and:01(115691124:35.@entry.@def, 105061149:1N)
+mod(105809192:0Z, 114796969:0K)
+obj:01(105061149:1N, 114798450:2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1014]
+{org:en}
+It is possible to use chlorine, which is an algaecide, to oxidize part of the organic matter.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301821266:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj:01(301093142:28, 100020827:2F.@def)
+obj:01(200238867:1O.@entry, 103892891:1W)
+aoj(301821266:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj:01(301093142:28, 100020827:2F.@def)
+obj:01(200238867:1O.@entry, 103892891:1W)
+and:01(200238867:1O.@entry, 201158572:0K)
+aoj:01(115694728:1A.@indef, 114634591:0O)
+obj(301821266:08.@entry, :01:01)
+obj:01(201158572:0K, 114634591:0O)
+mod:01(103892891:1W, 100020827:2F.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1015]
+{org:en}
+While recharge water is percolating through the unsaturated zone it loses oxygen and enriches itself with carbon dioxide.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:01.@entry, 600000004:01)
+man(201457954:0Q.@progress, 600000026:12)
+obj:01(200171586:2E.@entry, 600000145:2N)
+agt:01(200171586:2E.@entry, 600000016:1U.@topic)
+mod(107935504:0H, 115689206:08)
+man(:01.@entry, 600000004:01)
+man(201457954:0Q.@progress, 600000026:12)
+obj:01(200171586:2E.@entry, 600000145:2N)
+agt:01(200171586:2E.@entry, 600000016:1U.@topic)
+mod(107935504:0H, 115689206:08)
+obj:01(201099592:1X, 114648100:23)
+and:01(200171586:2E.@entry, 201099592:1X)
+aoj(300393852:1E, 105611062:1P.@def)
+agt:01(201099592:1X, 600000016:1U.@topic)
+obj(600000004:01, 201457954:0Q.@progress)
+obj(600000026:12, 105611062:1P.@def)
+obj(600000026:12, 105611062:1P.@def)
+obj:01(600000018:2U, 114796969:2Z)
+man:01(200171586:2E.@entry, 600000018:2U)
+obj(201457954:0Q.@progress, 107935504:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1016]
+{org:en}
+To reduce this effect, recharge water is often oxygenated before infiltration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(200185465:1D.@entry, 200045817:05)
+mod(107935504:0Y.@topic, 115689206:0P)
+man(200185465:1D.@entry, 400059547:17)
+pur(200185465:1D.@entry, 200045817:05)
+mod(107935504:0Y.@topic, 115689206:0P)
+man(200185465:1D.@entry, 400059547:17)
+man(200185465:1D.@entry, 600000062:1O)
+mod(104809642:0H, 600000017:0C)
+obj(200185465:1D.@entry, 107935504:0Y.@topic)
+obj(200045817:05, 104809642:0H)
+obj(600000062:1O, 100976698:1V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1017]
+{org:en}
+Indirect Artificial Recharge (IAR)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+equ(500323836:0W.@parenthesis, 115689206:0M.@entry)
+equ(500323836:0W.@parenthesis, 115689206:0M.@entry)
+aoj(300073465:0B, 115689206:0M.@entry)
+aoj(300762355:02, 115689206:0M.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1018]
+{org:en}
+This method involves surface spreading of water in excavated basins.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200401538:0E.@entry, 105660268:07.@topic)
+aoj(303155309:1H, 102801525:1R.@pl)
+obj(201378556:0V.@progress, 107935504:18)
+aoj(200401538:0E.@entry, 105660268:07.@topic)
+aoj(303155309:1H, 102801525:1R.@pl)
+obj(201378556:0V.@progress, 107935504:18)
+man(200401538:0E.@entry, 201378556:0V.@progress)
+plc(200401538:0E.@entry, 102801525:1R.@pl)
+mod(105660268:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(201378556:0V.@progress, 302471091:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1019]
+{org:en}
+For effective artificial recharge highly permeable soils are required, and it is necessary to maintain a layer of water over these soils.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300343552:2B.@entry, 202774169:1R)
+mod(109335240:1H.@pl, 115689206:0R)
+mod(101463259:2Z.@indef, 107935504:38)
+man(201017643:2O, 600000040:3E)
+aoj(300044132:06, 115689206:0R)
+and(300343552:2B.@entry, 202774169:1R)
+mod(109335240:1H.@pl, 115689206:0R)
+mod(101463259:2Z.@indef, 107935504:38)
+man(201017643:2O, 600000040:3E)
+aoj(300044132:06, 115689206:0R)
+obj(202774169:1R, :6G.@topic)
+obj(300343552:2B.@entry, 201017643:2O)
+man(301772032:17, 400089267:10)
+mod(109335240:3P.@pl, 600000022:3J.@pl)
+aoj(300343552:2B.@entry, 600000016:25.@topic)
+aoj(301772032:17, 109335240:1H.@pl)
+aoj(301772032:17, 109335240:1H.@pl)
+obj(600000040:3E, 109335240:3P.@pl)
+obj(201017643:2O, 101463259:2Z.@indef)
+aoj(300073465:0G, 115689206:0R)
+pur(202774169:1R, 109335240:1H.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1020]
+{org:en}
+When direct discharge is practiced, the amount of water entering the aquifer depends on three factors
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(202663848:27.@entry, 202561332:0R)
+obj(201082606:1M.@progress, 107935504:1G)
+qua(105858317:2O.@pl, "3":2I)
+tim(202663848:27.@entry, 202561332:0R)
+obj(201082606:1M.@progress, 107935504:1G)
+qua(105858317:2O.@pl, "3":2I)
+aoj(300005473:07, 100123234:0E)
+obj(202663848:27.@entry, 105858317:2O.@pl)
+obj(202561332:0R, 100123234:0E)
+aoj(202663848:27.@entry, 100033615:16.@topic.@def)
+gol(201082606:1M.@progress, 109201998:1Z.@def)
+mod(100033615:16.@topic.@def, 107935504:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1021]
+{org:en}
+the infiltration rate, the percolation rate, and the aquifer's capacity for horizontal water movement or spreading.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(:01.@entry, :02:02)
+mod:01(113325010:0J.@def, 100976698:06)
+and:01(113325010:15.@def, 113325010:0J.@def)
+pur(:01.@entry, :02:02)
+mod:01(113325010:0J.@def, 100976698:06)
+and:01(113325010:15.@def, 113325010:0J.@def)
+mod:02(100279835:2N, 107935504:2H)
+mod:01(100720951:1T.@entry.@def, 109201998:1J)
+aoj:02(301232635:26, 100279835:2N)
+and:01(100720951:1T.@entry.@def, 113325010:15.@def)
+or:02(201378556:2Z.@entry.@progress, 100279835:2N)
+mod:01(113325010:15.@def, 100192149:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1022]
+{org:en}
+In a homogenous aquifer, the infiltration rate is equal to the percolation rate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(300889831:1G.@entry, 109201998:0I.@indef)
+aoj(303162231:07, 109201998:0I.@indef)
+mod(113325010:25.@def, 100192149:1T)
+plc(300889831:1G.@entry, 109201998:0I.@indef)
+aoj(303162231:07, 109201998:0I.@indef)
+mod(113325010:25.@def, 100192149:1T)
+obj(300889831:1G.@entry, 113325010:25.@def)
+aoj(300889831:1G.@entry, 113325010:18.@topic.@def)
+mod(113325010:18.@topic.@def, 100976698:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1023]
+{org:en}
+At the surface of the aquifer, however, clogging occurs due to the deposition of particles carried by water in suspension or in solution, to algal growth, to colloidal swelling and soil dispersion, and to microbial activity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200723349:1F.@entry, 200182037:16.@topic.@progress)
+aoj:03(303014485:5R, 100407535:61.@entry)
+gol(200235110:2L.@past, :03)
+aoj:03(302832586:3Z, 108438067:45)
+obj(100208943:1X.@def, 106326406:2B.@pl)
+mod:03(100368592:58, :02)
+obj(200723349:1F.@entry, 200182037:16.@topic.@progress)
+aoj:03(303014485:5R, 100407535:61.@entry)
+gol(200235110:2L.@past, :03)
+aoj:03(302832586:3Z, 108438067:45)
+obj(100208943:1X.@def, 106326406:2B.@pl)
+mod:03(100368592:58, :02)
+or:01(100190783:3M.@entry, 100209132:35)
+mod(104362025:09.@def, 109201998:0O.@def)
+obj(600000001:1M, 100208943:1X.@def)
+aoj:03(302903946:4G, 100368592:58)
+agt(200235110:2L.@past, 107935504:2W)
+man(200182037:16.@topic.@progress, 600000070:0X)
+rsn(200723349:1F.@entry, 600000001:1M)
+and:03(100368592:58, 108438067:45)
+and:03(100368592:58, 108438067:45)
+plc(200235110:2L.@past, :01:01)
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+obj(200235110:2L.@past, 106326406:2B.@pl)
+and:02(109335240:53.@entry, 114315192:4Q)
+and:03(100407535:61.@entry, 100368592:58)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1024]
+{org:en}
+Recharge using spreading basins is most effective where there are no impeding layers between the land surface and the aquifer and where clear water is available for recharge (although relatively turbid water can be tolerated with this method better than with well recharge).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300044132:16.@entry, 400536271:11)
+obj:02(600000018:6E, 105660268:6O)
+man:03(202603699:1V, 600000125:1Z)
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+and:01(109201998:3F.@entry.@def, 104362025:2Z.@def)
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+bas:02(300523364:6V, 600000018:76)
+obj:03(202451370:22.@progress, 101463259:2B.@pl)
+man(300044132:16.@entry, 400536271:11)
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+man:03(202603699:1V, 600000125:1Z)
+obj(201158572:0B.@progress, 201378556:0H.@progress)
+obj:02(600000018:76, 115689206:7G)
+and:01(109201998:3F.@entry.@def, 104362025:2Z.@def)
+mod(102801525:0R.@topic.@pl, 115689206:02)
+bas:02(300523364:6V, 600000018:76)
+obj:03(202451370:22.@progress, 101463259:2B.@pl)
+pur:03(300183053:4C, 115689206:4Q)
+man:02(303161434:5K, 400160834:59)
+man:02(202109404:64.@ability, 600000018:6E)
+plc(300044132:16.@entry, :03:03)
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+man:03(600000024:2I, 101463259:2B.@pl)
+aoj:03(300183053:4C, 107935504:43.@topic)
+aoj:02(303161434:5K, 107935504:5R)
+obj:02(202109404:64.@ability, 107935504:5R)
+aoj(300044132:16.@entry, 102801525:0R.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:02(300523364:6V, 105660268:6O)
+aoj:03(202603699:1V, 101463259:2B.@pl)
+aoj:02(300523364:6V, 105660268:6O)
+aoj:03(202603699:1V, 101463259:2B.@pl)
+plc:03(300183053:4C, 115689346:3R.@entry)
+mod:02(115689206:7G, 104572344:7B)
+mod:01(104362025:2Z.@def, 109334396:2U)
+obj(201378556:0H.@progress, 102801525:0R.@topic.@pl)
+man:02(300523364:6V, 400099341:9L)
+obj:03(600000024:2I, :01)
+aoj:03(300428404:3X, 107935504:43.@topic)
+and:03(115689346:3R.@entry, 115689346:1J)
+plc:03(202603699:1V, 115689346:3R.@entry)
+[W]
+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1025]
+{org:en}
+The most common problem in recharging by surface spreading is clogging of the surface material by suspended sediment in the recharge water or by microbial growth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200182037:1S.@entry.@progress, 105687338:0I.@topic)
+aoj(300485711:0B, 105687338:0I.@topic)
+aoj:01(303014485:43, 108438067:4D.@entry)
+mod(103729951:2G.@def, 104362025:28)
+obj(201378556:1F.@progress, 104362025:17)
+agt(200182037:1S.@entry.@progress, 105687338:0I.@topic)
+aoj(300485711:0B, 105687338:0I.@topic)
+aoj:01(303014485:43, 108438067:4D.@entry)
+mod(103729951:2G.@def, 104362025:28)
+obj(201378556:1F.@progress, 104362025:17)
+mod:01(107935504:3R.@def, 115689206:3I)
+obj(200182037:1S.@entry.@progress, 103729951:2G.@def)
+ins(200518288:0T.@progress, 104362025:17)
+aoj:01(302351692:2S, 109428967:32)
+ins(200182037:1S.@entry.@progress, :01)
+man(300485711:0B, 400536271:06)
+man(300485711:0B, 400536271:06)
+plc:01(109428967:32, 107935504:3R.@def)
+or:01(108438067:4D.@entry, 109428967:32)
+pur(105687338:0I.@topic, 200518288:0T.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1026]
+{org:en}
+Removal of fine suspended sediment is difficult in coarse-grained materials.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300744916:14.@entry, 100216723:02.@topic)
+aoj(302351692:0I, 109428967:0S)
+obj(100216723:02.@topic, 109428967:0S)
+aoj(300744916:14.@entry, 100216723:02.@topic)
+aoj(302351692:0I, 109428967:0S)
+obj(100216723:02.@topic, 109428967:0S)
+mod(103729951:1W.@pl, 302231355:1H)
+plc(300744916:14.@entry, 103729951:1W.@pl)
+aoj(300850183:0D, 109428967:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1027]
+{org:en}
+Recharge methods may be classified as follows
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200654625:0Q.@entry.@may, 105660268:0B.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200654625:0Q.@entry.@may, 105660268:0B.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105660268:0B.@topic.@pl, 115689206:02)
+man(200654625:0Q.@entry.@may, 600000181:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1028]
+{org:en}
+basins and lagoons
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(109328746:0D.@entry.@pl, 102801525:02.@pl)
+and(109328746:0D.@entry.@pl, 102801525:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1029]
+{org:en}
+channels
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+103006105:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+103006105:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1030]
+{org:en}
+ditches
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+103214253:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+103214253:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1031]
+{org:en}
+holes
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+103526198:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+103526198:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1032]
+{org:en}
+flooding
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115690440:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115690440:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1033]
+{org:en}
+Basins
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+102801525:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+102801525:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1034]
+{org:en}
+Basins are large shallow depressions where recharge water is stored.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100112674:0R.@entry.@pl, 102801525:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(107935504:1I, 115689206:19)
+aoj(300691696:0J, 100112674:0R.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(100112674:0R.@entry.@pl, 102801525:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(107935504:1I, 115689206:19)
+aoj(300691696:0J, 100112674:0R.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300527870:0D, 100112674:0R.@entry.@pl)
+plc(202281093:1R, 100112674:0R.@entry.@pl)
+obj(202281093:1R, 107935504:1I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1035]
+{org:en}
+Their shape and dimensions are generally adapted to local topography.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200299580:17.@entry, :01:01)
+and:01(105093581:0I.@entry.@pl.@topic, 100027807:08.@topic)
+mod(105064541:1O, 301106405:1I)
+obj(200299580:17.@entry, :01:01)
+and:01(105093581:0I.@entry.@pl.@topic, 100027807:08.@topic)
+mod(105064541:1O, 301106405:1I)
+man(200299580:17.@entry, 400041954:0X)
+gol(200299580:17.@entry, 105064541:1O)
+mod(:01, 600000020:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1036]
+{org:en}
+Many basins need scheduled maintenance to improve the capacity of the bed for infiltration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201189113:0E.@entry, 102801525:07.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202774185:18, 100720951:1K.@def)
+obj(200678282:0J.@past, 100765791:0T)
+aoj(201189113:0E.@entry, 102801525:07.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202774185:18, 100720951:1K.@def)
+obj(200678282:0J.@past, 100765791:0T)
+pur(100765791:0T, 202774185:18)
+qua(102801525:07.@topic.@pl, 600000028:02)
+obj(201189113:0E.@entry, 100765791:0T)
+mod(100720951:1K.@def, 102818832:20.@def)
+pur(202774185:18, 100976698:28)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1037]
+{org:en}
+If rainwater is used for recharge, one basin is usually sufficient.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(302335828:1L.@entry, 201158572:0I)
+pur(201158572:0I, 115689206:0Q)
+qua(102801525:14.@topic, "1":10)
+con(302335828:1L.@entry, 201158572:0I)
+pur(201158572:0I, 115689206:0Q)
+qua(102801525:14.@topic, "1":10)
+man(302335828:1L.@entry, 400535718:1D)
+aoj(302335828:1L.@entry, 102801525:14.@topic)
+obj(201158572:0I, 115689732:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1038]
+{org:en}
+If stream water is used, it is better to use a series of basins (Figures 1-3).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(300523364:0X.@entry, 201158572:0L)
+obj(201158572:0L, 107935504:0C)
+obj(201158572:17, 102801525:1N.@pl)
+con(300523364:0X.@entry, 201158572:0L)
+obj(201158572:0L, 107935504:0C)
+obj(201158572:17, 102801525:1N.@pl)
+man(300523364:0X.@entry, 400099341:28)
+aoj(300523364:0X.@entry, 201158572:17)
+mod(107935504:0C, 107406765:05)
+mod(102801525:1N.@pl, 600000577:1B)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1039]
+{org:en}
+In this case water is taken from the river by a single channel where it arrives at the first basin, and then slowly flows into the others.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200523095:0O.@entry, 600000186:02)
+man:01(400161630:33, 400117620:2Y)
+mod(103006105:1L.@indef, 300539389:1E)
+src(200523095:0O.@entry, 109411430:13.@def)
+man(200523095:0O.@entry, 600000186:02)
+man:01(400161630:33, 400117620:2Y)
+mod(103006105:1L.@indef, 300539389:1E)
+src(200523095:0O.@entry, 109411430:13.@def)
+gol:01(200217427:3A.@entry, 600000063:3P.@def)
+agt(200523095:0O.@entry, 103006105:1L.@indef)
+mod:01(102801525:2N, "1":2H)
+and:01(200217427:3A.@entry, 202005948:22)
+obj(200523095:0O.@entry, 107935504:0F.@topic)
+gol:01(202005948:22, 102801525:2N)
+gol:01(202005948:22, 102801525:2N)
+obj(:01, 600000016:1Z)
+plc(:01, 103006105:1L.@indef)
+man:01(200217427:3A.@entry, 400161630:33)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1040]
+{org:en}
+Some water returns to the river, and in this way the basins operate like settling basins.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200341285:1Q.@entry, 200879028:0D)
+obj(200413876:23.@progress, 102801525:2C.@pl)
+man(200341285:1Q.@entry, 600000123:1Y)
+and(200341285:1Q.@entry, 200879028:0D)
+obj(200413876:23.@progress, 102801525:2C.@pl)
+man(200341285:1Q.@entry, 600000123:1Y)
+gol(200879028:0D, 109411430:0S.@def)
+obj(200341285:1Q.@entry, 102801525:1J.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200879028:0D, 107935504:07.@topic)
+plc(200341285:1Q.@entry, 100172710:1B)
+mod(100172710:1B, 600000017:16)
+obj(600000123:1Y, 200413876:23.@progress)
+qua(107935504:07.@topic, 600000293:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1041]
+{org:en}
+By using a bypass between basins, it is possible to avoid interruption of water recharge during scheduled maintenance.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(301821266:16.@entry, 201158572:05.@progress)
+obj(600000010:0K, 102801525:0S.@pl)
+mod(107367812:1O, 115689206:2A)
+dur(200811375:1I, 100765791:30)
+man(301821266:16.@entry, 201158572:05.@progress)
+obj(600000010:0K, 102801525:0S.@pl)
+mod(107367812:1O, 115689206:2A)
+dur(200811375:1I, 100765791:30)
+man(201158572:05.@progress, 600000010:0K)
+obj(301821266:16.@entry, 200811375:1I)
+obj(200678282:2Q.@past, 100765791:30)
+aoj(301821266:16.@entry, 600000016:10.@topic)
+mod(115689206:2A, 107935504:24)
+obj(200811375:1I, 107367812:1O)
+obj(201158572:05.@progress, 105548203:0D.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1042]
+{org:en}
+Figure 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "1":09)
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "1":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1043]
+{org:en}
+Scheme of artificial groundwater recharge in the Ruhr Valley, Germany (by permission of Ruhrverband, D-45128 Essen, Germany)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105905348:02.@entry, 115689206:0Z)
+plc(500323610:1F.@def, 500003258:1S)
+mod(115689206:0Z, 115669379:0N)
+mod(105905348:02.@entry, 115689206:0Z)
+plc(500323610:1F.@def, 500003258:1S)
+mod(115689206:0Z, 115669379:0N)
+plc:01(500003281:33, 500003258:3A)
+aoj(300073465:0C, 115689206:0Z)
+plc:01(500323906:2I, 500003281:33)
+plc(115689206:0Z, 500323610:1F.@def)
+obj:01(106689297:24.@entry, 500323906:2I)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 500323610:1F.@def)
+mod:01(500003281:33, 500324041:2V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1044]
+{org:en}
+Artificial recharge using basins is the most widely used method, on account of its practicality and ease of associated maintenance.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(105660268:1N.@entry, 400535862:1V)
+mod(:01, 600000016:29)
+mod(102801525:0S.@topic.@pl, 115689206:0D)
+man(201158572:1I.@past, 400495663:1B)
+man(105660268:1N.@entry, 400535862:1V)
+mod(:01, 600000016:29)
+mod(102801525:0S.@topic.@pl, 115689206:0D)
+man(201158572:1I.@past, 400495663:1B)
+obj(400535862:1V, :01)
+obj(201158572:1I.@past, 105660268:1N.@entry)
+aoj(303162424:32, 100765791:3D)
+aoj(300073465:02, 115689206:0D)
+aoj(105660268:1N.@entry, 102801525:0S.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(104708113:2U.@entry, 105151088:2D)
+and:01(104708113:2U.@entry, 105151088:2D)
+obj(201158572:0M.@progress, 102801525:0S.@topic.@pl)
+man(400495663:1B, 400536271:16)
+mod(:01, 100765791:3D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1045]
+{org:en}
+Basins fall into three categories, depending on their floors, as follows
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202705680:09.@entry, 102801525:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202663848:11.@progress, 103365592:1K.@pl)
+mod(105838765:0P.@pl, 600000004:0J)
+obj(202705680:09.@entry, 102801525:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202663848:11.@progress, 103365592:1K.@pl)
+mod(105838765:0P.@pl, 600000004:0J)
+gol(202705680:09.@entry, 105838765:0P.@pl)
+man(202705680:09.@entry, 202663848:11.@progress)
+mod(103365592:1K.@pl, 600000020:1E.@pl)
+man(202663848:11.@progress, 200150776:1V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1046]
+{org:en}
+with natural bottom (after excavation)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(600000018:02.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj:01(600000002:0N.@entry, 100941974:0T)
+man(600000018:02.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj:01(600000002:0N.@entry, 100941974:0T)
+mod(102878222:0F, 301335708:07)
+obj(600000018:02.@entry, 102878222:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1047]
+{org:en}
+with bottom covered with vegetation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000018:02.@entry, 102878222:07)
+obj(600000018:0M, 101065057:0R)
+obj(600000018:02.@entry, 102878222:07)
+obj(600000018:0M, 101065057:0R)
+man(200048633:0E, 600000018:0M)
+obj(200048633:0E, 102878222:07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1048]
+{org:en}
+with bottom covered with an artificial bed of sand
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000018:02.@entry, 102878222:07)
+aoj(300073465:0U, 102818832:15.@indef)
+obj(600000018:0M, 102818832:15.@indef)
+obj(600000018:02.@entry, 102878222:07)
+aoj(300073465:0U, 102818832:15.@indef)
+obj(600000018:0M, 102818832:15.@indef)
+man(200048633:0E, 600000018:0M)
+obj(200048633:0E, 102878222:07)
+mod(102818832:15.@indef, 115019030:1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1049]
+{org:en}
+Figure 2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "2":09)
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "2":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1050]
+{org:en}
+Aerial view of waterworks in the Ruhr Valley (Germany), showing slow-rate sand filtration basins
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:1M.@progress, 100881649:09.@entry)
+obj(200923307:1M.@progress, 102801525:2K.@pl)
+plc(104563790:0H, 500323610:0Z.@def)
+agt(200923307:1M.@progress, 100881649:09.@entry)
+obj(200923307:1M.@progress, 102801525:2K.@pl)
+plc(104563790:0H, 500323610:0Z.@def)
+mod(102801525:2K.@pl, 100191980:29)
+aoj(301380267:02, 100881649:09.@entry)
+mod(102801525:2K.@pl, 113325010:1Z)
+mod(100881649:09.@entry, 104563790:0H)
+aoj(300980527:1U, 102801525:2K.@pl)
+cnt(500323610:0Z.@def, 500003258:1C.@parenthesis)
+mod(100191980:29, 115019030:24)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1051]
+{org:en}
+Figure 3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "3":09)
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "3":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1052]
+{org:en}
+Infiltration basins
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(102801525:0F.@entry.@pl, 100976698:02)
+mod(102801525:0F.@entry.@pl, 100976698:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1053]
+{org:en}
+Channels
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+103006105:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+103006105:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1054]
+{org:en}
+The infiltration potential of rivers and channels is increased by deepening the bed and constructing barrages to enlarge the8areal extent of the riverbed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:1J.@entry, 114482620:0J.@topic.@def)
+mod(114482620:0J.@topic.@def, 100976698:06)
+obj:02(200154778:37, 105123416:3P.@def)
+obj:02(201583142:2I.@entry.@progress, 100987863:2V.@pl)
+obj(200153263:1J.@entry, 114482620:0J.@topic.@def)
+mod(114482620:0J.@topic.@def, 100976698:06)
+obj:02(200154778:37, 105123416:3P.@def)
+obj:02(201583142:2I.@entry.@progress, 100987863:2V.@pl)
+obj:02(200551210:1W.@progress, 102818832:2A.@def)
+and:02(201583142:2I.@entry.@progress, 200551210:1W.@progress)
+mod:02(105123416:3P.@def, 302640503:3J)
+man(200153263:1J.@entry, :02)
+and:01(103006105:17.@entry.@pl, 109411430:0W.@pl)
+and:01(103006105:17.@entry.@pl, 109411430:0W.@pl)
+mod:02(105123416:3P.@def, 109415671:43.@def)
+pur:02(100987863:2V.@pl, 200154778:37)
+mod(114482620:0J.@topic.@def, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1055]
+{org:en}
+Barrages must be removed before flood seasons to prevent damage to the courses of rivers and channels.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200173338:0J.@entry.@obligation, 100987863:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202450505:1F, 100403092:1N)
+obj(600000062:0R, 115236475:14.@pl)
+obj(200173338:0J.@entry.@obligation, 100987863:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202450505:1F, 100403092:1N)
+obj(600000062:0R, 115236475:14.@pl)
+and:01(103006105:2N.@entry.@pl, 109411430:2C.@pl)
+man(200173338:0J.@entry.@obligation, 600000062:0R)
+mod(100038262:21.@def.@pl, :01)
+pur(200173338:0J.@entry.@obligation, 202450505:1F)
+to(100403092:1N, 100038262:21.@def.@pl)
+mod(115236475:14.@pl, 100329819:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1056]
+{org:en}
+They are reconstructed later to resume recharge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200151448:0B.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+obj(200350104:0Y, 115689206:15)
+obj(200151448:0B.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+obj(200350104:0Y, 115689206:15)
+man(200151448:0B.@entry, 400508157:0P)
+pur(200151448:0B.@entry, 200350104:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1057]
+{org:en}
+Ditches
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+103214253:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+103214253:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1058]
+{org:en}
+Parallel ditches (Figure 4) do not distribute water deeply, and are usually located very close to one another.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(302126430:26.@entry, 202201644:11.@emphasis.@not)
+aoj(301718158:02, 103214253:0B.@topic.@pl)
+obj(303161323:2J, 600000463:2S)
+man(302126430:26.@entry, 400535718:1Y)
+and(302126430:26.@entry, 202201644:11.@emphasis.@not)
+aoj(301718158:02, 103214253:0B.@topic.@pl)
+obj(303161323:2J, 600000463:2S)
+man(302126430:26.@entry, 400535718:1Y)
+obj(202201644:11.@emphasis.@not, 107935504:1C)
+man(302126430:26.@entry, 303161323:2J)
+man(202201644:11.@emphasis.@not, 400305570:1I)
+aoj(302126430:26.@entry, 103214253:0B.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(100556992:0K.@entry, "4":0R)
+mod:01(100556992:0K.@entry, "4":0R)
+agt(202201644:11.@emphasis.@not, 103214253:0B.@topic.@pl)
+man(303161323:2J, 400031899:2E)
+cnt(103214253:0B.@topic.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1059]
+{org:en}
+They are usually arranged in three different ways
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200735571:0J.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+qua(100172710:1B, "3":0V)
+obj(200735571:0J.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+qua(100172710:1B, "3":0V)
+man(200735571:0J.@entry, 400535718:0B)
+plc(200735571:0J.@entry, 100172710:1B)
+aoj(300490413:11, 100172710:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1060]
+{org:en}
+with a "zigzag" course following the contours and land slope
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000018:02.@entry, 100038262:0S.@indef)
+mod:01(109437454:1V.@entry, 109334396:1Q)
+obj(400393149:0Z, :01)
+obj(600000018:02.@entry, 100038262:0S.@indef)
+mod:01(109437454:1V.@entry, 109334396:1Q)
+obj(400393149:0Z, :01)
+mod(100038262:0S.@indef, 113887319:0F.@single_quote)
+aoj(400393149:0Z, 100038262:0S.@indef)
+and:01(109437454:1V.@entry, 105851517:1D.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1061]
+{org:en}
+with branches from a main channel
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000018:02.@entry, 108401248:07.@pl)
+obj(600000018:02.@entry, 108401248:07.@pl)
+mod(103006105:0S.@indef, 301512527:0N)
+frm(108401248:07.@pl, 103006105:0S.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1062]
+{org:en}
+or
+{/org}
+{unl}
+or(:02.@entry, :01)
+or(:02.@entry, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1063]
+{org:en}
+with ditches arranged perpendicular to the main channel.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000018:02.@entry, 103214253:07.@pl)
+obj(303164400:0O, 103006105:1E.@def)
+obj(600000018:02.@entry, 103214253:07.@pl)
+obj(303164400:0O, 103006105:1E.@def)
+gol(200735571:0F.@past, 303164400:0O)
+obj(200735571:0F.@past, 103214253:07.@pl)
+mod(103006105:1E.@def, 301512527:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1064]
+{org:en}
+The excess of recharge water flowing from the ditches is collected in a discharge channel.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201384439:1N.@entry, 107935504:0P.@topic)
+mod(107935504:0P.@topic, 115689206:0G)
+obj(200217427:0V.@progress, 107935504:0P.@topic)
+obj(201384439:1N.@entry, 107935504:0P.@topic)
+mod(107935504:0P.@topic, 115689206:0G)
+obj(200217427:0V.@progress, 107935504:0P.@topic)
+mod(103006105:2C.@indef, 100123234:22)
+plc(201384439:1N.@entry, 103006105:2C.@indef)
+plc(201384439:1N.@entry, 103006105:2C.@indef)
+src(200217427:0V.@progress, 103214253:1C.@def.@pl)
+mod(107935504:0P.@topic, 105118437:06.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1065]
+{org:en}
+Ditches vary in width from 0.3-1.8 m; the slope must be very slight to minimize erosion and to increase the wetted section.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303160998:0A.@entry, 103214253:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(200427802:21, 113475538:2A)
+pur(303158470:1R.@entry.@obligation, :01:01)
+qua(106832464:11, "1.8":0T)
+aoj(303160998:0A.@entry, 103214253:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(200427802:21, 113475538:2A)
+pur(303158470:1R.@entry.@obligation, :01:01)
+qua(106832464:11, "1.8":0T)
+obj:01(200153263:2P.@entry, 104164989:39.@def)
+frm(105136150:0I, 106832464:11)
+and:01(200153263:2P.@entry, 200427802:21)
+plc(303160998:0A.@entry, 105136150:0I)
+plc(303160998:0A.@entry, 105136150:0I)
+man(303158470:1R.@entry.@obligation, 400031899:1M)
+aoj(303158470:1R.@entry.@obligation, 109437454:18.@topic.@def)
+obj:01(200072730:32.@past, 104164989:39.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1066]
+{org:en}
+These methods may differ in areas with irregular topographic surfaces.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202666239:0K.@entry.@may, 105660268:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303163822:1F, 104362025:1R.@pl)
+obj(600000019:10, 104362025:1R.@pl)
+aoj(202666239:0K.@entry.@may, 105660268:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303163822:1F, 104362025:1R.@pl)
+obj(600000019:10, 104362025:1R.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:10, 102735688:0U.@pl)
+plc(202666239:0K.@entry.@may, 102735688:0U.@pl)
+plc(202666239:0K.@entry.@may, 102735688:0U.@pl)
+mod(105660268:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+aoj(300594146:15, 104362025:1R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1067]
+{org:en}
+Figure 4.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "4":09)
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "4":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1068]
+{org:en}
+Artificial groundwater recharge using ditches
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103214253:14.@entry.@pl, 115689206:0P)
+mod(115689206:0P, 115669379:0D)
+mod(103214253:14.@entry.@pl, 115689206:0P)
+mod(115689206:0P, 115669379:0D)
+aoj(300073465:02, 115689206:0P)
+obj(201158572:0Y.@progress, 103214253:14.@entry.@pl)
+obj(201158572:0Y.@progress, 103214253:14.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1069]
+{org:en}
+Holes
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+103526198:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+103526198:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1070]
+{org:en}
+Holes are generally small and relatively shallow, and are used in areas where the ground has low permeability.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201158572:1O.@entry, :01)
+man:01(301391351:0M, 400041954:0C)
+obj(200065370:2J, 104940496:2R)
+plc(200065370:2J, 102735688:1W.@pl)
+and(201158572:1O.@entry, :01)
+man:01(301391351:0M, 400041954:0C)
+obj(200065370:2J, 104940496:2R)
+plc(200065370:2J, 102735688:1W.@pl)
+and:01(300691696:17.@entry, 301391351:0M)
+plc(201158572:1O.@entry, 102735688:1W.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 103526198:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(201158572:1O.@entry, 103526198:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(201158572:1O.@entry, 103526198:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301206474:2N, 104940496:2R)
+aoj(200065370:2J, 103462594:2C.@def)
+man:01(300691696:17.@entry, 400160834:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1071]
+{org:en}
+Abandoned quarries are often used.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:0V.@entry, 103949442:0C.@topic.@pl)
+obj(201158572:0V.@entry, 103949442:0C.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301313004:02, 103949442:0C.@topic.@pl)
+man(201158572:0V.@entry, 400059547:0P)
+man(201158572:0V.@entry, 400059547:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1072]
+{org:en}
+Suspended solids in the water settle on the bottom of the hole while the walls remain permeable to the recharge water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(202776151:0W.@entry, 202637592:29.@should)
+plc(113860793:0C.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0Q.@def)
+mod(102878222:1A.@def, 103526198:1O.@def)
+dur(202776151:0W.@entry, 202637592:29.@should)
+plc(113860793:0C.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0Q.@def)
+mod(102878222:1A.@def, 103526198:1O.@def)
+ben(301772032:2G, 107935504:36.@def)
+obj(202776151:0W.@entry, 102878222:1A.@def)
+gol(202637592:29.@should, 301772032:2G)
+agt(202776151:0W.@entry, 113860793:0C.@topic.@pl)
+agt(202776151:0W.@entry, 113860793:0C.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202637592:29.@should, 104546855:23.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302351692:02, 113860793:0C.@topic.@pl)
+mod(107935504:36.@def, 115689206:2X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1073]
+{org:en}
+Floods
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100329819:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+100329819:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1074]
+{org:en}
+This method is used on level ground, where waters are spread directly on the natural surface to produce a thin water layer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:0H.@entry, 105660268:07.@topic)
+aoj(300988232:30, 101463259:3B.@indef)
+pur(201378556:1K, 201621555:2Q)
+mod(103462594:0V, 105093890:0P)
+obj(201158572:0H.@entry, 105660268:07.@topic)
+aoj(300988232:30, 101463259:3B.@indef)
+pur(201378556:1K, 201621555:2Q)
+mod(103462594:0V, 105093890:0P)
+mod(104362025:2F.@def, 301335708:27)
+plc(201378556:1K, 103462594:0V)
+mod(105660268:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+man(201378556:1K, 400051848:1R)
+plc(201158572:0H.@entry, 103462594:0V)
+mod(101463259:3B.@indef, 107935504:35)
+plc(201158572:0H.@entry, 103462594:0V)
+mod(101463259:3B.@indef, 107935504:35)
+plc(201378556:1K, 104362025:2F.@def)
+obj(201378556:1K, 107935504:19.@pl)
+obj(201621555:2Q, 101463259:3B.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1075]
+{org:en}
+The ground must retain its natural vegetation cover.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200610010:0I.@entry.@obligation, 103462594:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100988893:1C, 301335708:0T)
+agt(200610010:0I.@entry.@obligation, 103462594:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100988893:1C, 301335708:0T)
+mod(100988893:1C, 600000016:0P)
+obj(200610010:0I.@entry.@obligation, 100988893:1C)
+obj(200610010:0I.@entry.@obligation, 100988893:1C)
+mod(100988893:1C, 101065057:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1076]
+{org:en}
+Direct Artificial Recharge (DAR)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+equ(500323796:0U.@parenthesis, 115689206:0K.@entry)
+equ(500323796:0U.@parenthesis, 115689206:0K.@entry)
+aoj(300073465:09, 115689206:0K.@entry)
+aoj(300005473:02, 115689206:0K.@entry)
+aoj(300005473:02, 115689206:0K.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1077]
+{org:en}
+This is usually carried out using wells.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:0I.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+obj(201158572:0U.@progress, 104572344:10.@pl)
+obj(202774207:0I.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+obj(201158572:0U.@progress, 104572344:10.@pl)
+man(202774207:0I.@entry, 201158572:0U.@progress)
+man(202774207:0I.@entry, 400535718:0A)
+man(202774207:0I.@entry, 400535718:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1078]
+{org:en}
+Radial wells and (to a lesser extent) infiltration galleries are also used in direct recharge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:20.@entry, :02:02)
+mod:02(103411544:1H.@entry.@pl.@topic, 100976698:14)
+aoj(300005473:28, 115689206:2F)
+obj(201158572:20.@entry, :02:02)
+mod:02(103411544:1H.@entry.@pl.@topic, 100976698:14)
+aoj(300005473:28, 115689206:2F)
+mod:01(105123416:0W.@entry.@indef, 301393681:0P)
+man(201158572:20.@entry, 400047534:1V)
+aoj:02(302373055:02, 104572344:09.@pl)
+scn(201158572:20.@entry, 115689206:2F)
+scn(201158572:20.@entry, 115689206:2F)
+to:02(104572344:09.@pl.@topic, :01:01.@parenthesis)
+and:02(103411544:1H.@entry.@pl.@topic, 104572344:09.@pl.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1079]
+{org:en}
+While an artificial recharge well can be compared with a pumping well operated in reverse, in fact the hydraulic behavior is very different.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(300490413:3O.@entry, 200652900:17.@ability)
+obj(200341285:20, 100559916:2C)
+obj(200652900:17.@ability, 104572344:0V.@indef)
+man(300490413:3O.@entry, 400031899:3J)
+dur(300490413:3O.@entry, 200652900:17.@ability)
+obj(200341285:20, 100559916:2C)
+obj(200652900:17.@ability, 104572344:0V.@indef)
+man(300490413:3O.@entry, 400031899:3J)
+agt(200341285:20, 104572344:1V.@indef)
+aoj(300490413:3O.@entry, 101220984:37.@topic.@def)
+mod(104572344:0V.@indef, 115689206:0M)
+obj(600000018:1G, 104572344:1V.@indef)
+man(300490413:3O.@entry, 600000184:2L)
+aoj(300073465:0B, 104572344:0V.@indef)
+man(300490413:3O.@entry, 600000184:2L)
+aoj(300073465:0B, 104572344:0V.@indef)
+man(200652900:17.@ability, 600000018:1G)
+mod(101220984:37.@topic.@def, 303073751:2X)
+obj(200788057:1N.@progress, 104572344:1V.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1080]
+{org:en}
+A HTM1 pumping well HTM2 is considered to be in hydraulic equilibrium if its pumping level is stationary over a fixed period, and if the cone of influence remains unchanged over time.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200691312:0U.@entry, :01)
+obj:01(600000040:4V, 100028270:50)
+obj(200788057:09.@progress, 104572344:0H.@topic.@indef)
+aoj:01(300347707:36, 106843520:3C.@indef)
+plc(202603699:18, 105659365:1O)
+man:01(301060445:2O, 600000040:2Z)
+con(200691312:0U.@entry, :01)
+obj:01(600000040:4V, 100028270:50)
+obj(200788057:09.@progress, 104572344:0H.@topic.@indef)
+aoj:01(300347707:36, 106843520:3C.@indef)
+plc(202603699:18, 105659365:1O)
+man:01(301060445:2O, 600000040:2Z)
+man:01(202637592:4D.@entry, 600000040:4V)
+gol(200691312:0U.@entry, 202603699:18)
+aoj:01(301060445:2O, 105093890:2F.@topic)
+obj:01(202637592:4D.@entry, 103089348:3V.@def)
+obj:01(200788057:27.@progress, 105093890:2F.@topic)
+obj(200691312:0U.@entry, 104572344:0H.@topic.@indef)
+mod:01(103089348:3V.@def, 100157081:43)
+obj(200691312:0U.@entry, 104572344:0H.@topic.@indef)
+mod:01(103089348:3V.@def, 100157081:43)
+and:01(202637592:4D.@entry, 301060445:2O)
+mod:01(105093890:2F.@topic, 600000016:23)
+mod(105659365:1O, 303073751:1E)
+obj:01(600000040:2Z, 106843520:3C.@indef)
+gol:01(202637592:4D.@entry, 300355258:4L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1081]
+{org:en}
+In HTM1 recharge wells HTM2 the recharge cone (the inverse of the pumping well cone) spreads, even if the water level inside the well remains stationary.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201378556:2F.@entry, 600000137:2O)
+obj(202637592:3S, 105093890:36.@def)
+obj:01(113858833:1H.@entry.@def, 103089348:29.@def)
+cnt(103089348:17.@topic.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod(105093890:36.@def, 107935504:30)
+man(201378556:2F.@entry, 600000137:2O)
+obj(202637592:3S, 105093890:36.@def)
+obj:01(113858833:1H.@entry.@def, 103089348:29.@def)
+cnt(103089348:17.@topic.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod(105093890:36.@def, 107935504:30)
+mod(104572344:0J.@pl, 115689206:0A)
+obj(201378556:2F.@entry, 103089348:17.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000187:3C, 105093890:36.@def)
+mod:01(103089348:29.@def, 104572344:24)
+plc(201378556:2F.@entry, 104572344:0J.@pl)
+gol(202637592:3S, 301060445:40)
+plc(201378556:2F.@entry, 104572344:0J.@pl)
+gol(202637592:3S, 301060445:40)
+obj:01(200788057:1W.@progress, 103089348:29.@def)
+mod(103089348:17.@topic.@def, 115689206:0Y)
+obj(600000187:3C, 104572344:3N.@def)
+obj(600000137:2O, 202637592:3S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1082]
+{org:en}
+Near the recharge well the saturated thickness increases, due to the formation of a recharge cone.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200153263:1D.@entry, 600000139:02)
+mod(103089348:2N.@indef, 115689206:2E)
+obj(600000001:1O, 100925207:1Z.@def)
+man(200153263:1D.@entry, 600000139:02)
+mod(103089348:2N.@indef, 115689206:2E)
+obj(600000001:1O, 100925207:1Z.@def)
+mod(104572344:0K.@def, 115689206:0B)
+rsn(200153263:1D.@entry, 600000001:1O)
+obj(600000139:02, 104572344:0K.@def)
+obj(200153263:1D.@entry, 104936403:13.@topic.@def)
+obj(200153263:1D.@entry, 104936403:13.@topic.@def)
+obj(200456357:0T.@past, 104936403:13.@topic.@def)
+obj(100925207:1Z.@def, 103089348:2N.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1083]
+{org:en}
+Another difference between pumping wells and recharge wells is that recharge tends to reduce ground subsidence, rather than promoting it.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202439047:2E.@entry, 104748836:0A.@topic)
+obj(200045817:2N, 115669212:31)
+obj:01(200788057:0W.@progress, 104572344:14.@pl)
+obj(600000024:0L, :01)
+obj(201080235:3P.@progress, 600000016:3Z)
+aoj(202439047:2E.@entry, 104748836:0A.@topic)
+obj(200045817:2N, 115669212:31)
+obj:01(200788057:0W.@progress, 104572344:14.@pl)
+obj(600000024:0L, :01)
+obj(201080235:3P.@progress, 600000016:3Z)
+obj(202439047:2E, 200045817:2N)
+mod(104748836:0A.@topic, 600000066:02)
+obj(600000151:3D, 201080235:3P.@progress)
+aoj(202439047:2E, 115689206:25)
+aoj(600000024:0L, 104748836:0A.@topic)
+mod(115669212:31, 103462594:2U)
+aoj(600000024:0L, 104748836:0A.@topic)
+mod(115669212:31, 103462594:2U)
+mod:01(104572344:1N.@entry.@pl, 115689206:1E.@entry)
+and:01(104572344:1N.@entry.@pl, 104572344:14.@pl)
+man(202439047:2E, 600000151:3D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1084]
+{org:en}
+From a structural viewpoint, too, these wells operate under different conditions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+src(200341285:1C.@entry, 115691630:0K.@indef)
+aoj(300490413:1Q, 105798863:20.@pl)
+man(200341285:1C.@entry, 600000003:1K)
+src(200341285:1C.@entry, 115691630:0K.@indef)
+aoj(300490413:1Q, 105798863:20.@pl)
+man(200341285:1C.@entry, 600000003:1K)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1085]
+{org:en}
+In a pumping well the flow of water tends to pull fine sand or other fine materials into the well, removing these elements from the ground and increasing hydraulic conductivity nearby.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1086]
+{org:en}
+Water Recharge Wells
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(104572344:0H.@entry.@pl, 115689206:08)
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+mod(115689206:08, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1087]
+{org:en}
+There are two factors to consider in DWR by wells
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1088]
+{org:en}
+efficiency and cost.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+:01.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+:01.@entry
+[/W]
+and:01(113275847:0H.@entry, 105644527:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1089]
+{org:en}
+The cheapest process is to inject recharge water by force after removing the valve from the bottom of the pump.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:1090]
+{org:en}
+In this way the flow resistance through the pump impeller is very high.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100202284:0N.@topic.@def, 100329227:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1091]
+{org:en}
+Another method is to alternate recharge periods with pumping periods in order to flush the well
+{/org}
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+mod(105660268:0A.@topic, 600000066:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1092]
+{org:en}
+while this operation is not expensive it is potentially dangerous because air contained in recharge water may block the aquifer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1093]
+{org:en}
+A well filter may be located some meters above the top of the water recharge level or aquifer to eliminate any danger of aquifer blockage by the air carried into the system in the recharge water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(105093890:27.@def, 115689206:1Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1094]
+{org:en}
+In this way air may free itself easily through the top of filters and arrive at the surface through little breather pipes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(201475953:0T.@may, 600000026:1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1095]
+{org:en}
+Breather pipes around 5-7 cm in diameter may start at the top of filters and end a few centimeters below ground level.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1096]
+{org:en}
+Using this system it is possible to alternate recharge operations with pumping, because air is conveyed along the space between the covering and the pump pipes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000105:2Y, 106389553:38.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1097]
+{org:en}
+It is always preferable to recharge the aquifer with a flow lower (perhaps 85%) than the pumping flow
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+bas:01(600000364:1X.@entry, "85%":25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1098]
+{org:en}
+to control the system it is sufficient to install a regulation valve in the recharge pipe.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(101904461:1T.@indef, 100805034:1I)
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+plc(101904461:1T.@indef, 103944672:2F.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1099]
+{org:en}
+The duration of recharge and pumping phases is not always the same
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+tim:01(115689206:0I.@topic, 105051249:06.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1100]
+{org:en}
+usually a pumping period of two hours for every 24 hours' recharging gives good results.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua(105131023:1H.@pl, "24":1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1101]
+{org:en}
+Mixed Systems of Water Recharge
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(303161752:02, 104377057:0E.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1102]
+{org:en}
+These represent the best recharging methods, because many of the problems caused by transport of fine materials are eliminated
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(200825447:08.@entry, 200470701:3A)
+obj(113570236:2E, 103729951:2W.@pl)
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+obj(200518288:0R.@progress, 105660268:12.@def.@pl)
+met(201645601:24, 113570236:2E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1103]
+{org:en}
+in this way the risk of aquifer obstruction is reduced.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200045817:1D.@entry.@past, 100172710:0A)
+mod(100562280:0Y, 109201998:0Q)
+plc(200045817:1D.@entry.@past, 100172710:0A)
+mod(100562280:0Y, 109201998:0Q)
+obj(100802238:0I.@topic.@def, 100562280:0Y)
+obj(200045817:1D.@entry.@past, 100802238:0I.@topic.@def)
+obj(200045817:1D.@entry.@past, 100802238:0I.@topic.@def)
+mod(100172710:0A, 600000017:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1104]
+{org:en}
+Figure 5 shows a mixed system in which the first aquifer carries out a filtration function and the second is at the final level of recharge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0B.@entry, 100556992:02.@topic)
+agt:01(202774207:1N, 109201998:1F)
+aoj:01(202603699:30.@entry, :5V)
+mod(104377057:0P.@indef, 303161752:0J)
+mod:01(109201998:1F, "1":19)
+agt(200923307:0B.@entry, 100556992:02.@topic)
+agt:01(202774207:1N, 109201998:1F)
+aoj:01(202603699:30.@entry, :5V)
+mod(104377057:0P.@indef, 303161752:0J)
+mod:01(109201998:1F, "1":19)
+aoj:01(300349894:3A, 105093890:3G.@def)
+plc(:01, 104377057:0P.@indef)
+mod:01(100720565:2C.@indef, 100191980:21)
+mod:01(105093890:3G.@def, 115689206:3P)
+obj(200923307:0B.@entry, 104377057:0P.@indef)
+obj:01(202774207:1N, 100720565:2C.@indef)
+obj(200923307:0B.@entry, 104377057:0P.@indef)
+obj:01(202774207:1N, 100720565:2C.@indef)
+plc:01(202603699:30.@entry, 105093890:3G.@def)
+and:01(202603699:30.@entry, 202774207:1N)
+mod(100556992:02.@topic, "5":09)
+mod:01(:5V, "2":2T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1105]
+{org:en}
+Figure 5.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "5":09)
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "5":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1106]
+{org:en}
+Mixed system of water recharge
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(104377057:08.@entry, 115689206:0O)
+obj(104377057:08.@entry, 115689206:0O)
+mod(115689206:0O, 107935504:0I)
+mod(104377057:08.@entry, 303161752:02)
+mod(104377057:08.@entry, 303161752:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1107]
+{org:en}
+basins and recharge wells in combination
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000051:0S, 104572344:0M.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000051:0S, 100378985:0V)
+aoj(600000051:0S, 104572344:0M.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000051:0S, 100378985:0V)
+and:01(115689206:0D.@entry, 102801525:02.@pl)
+mod(104572344:0M.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod(104572344:0M.@entry.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1108]
+{org:en}
+When basins and recharge wells work in combination the basins recharge the first aquifer
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200518288:1S.@entry, 200150096:0X.@should)
+plc(200150096:0X.@should, 100378985:15)
+mod(109201998:2B, "1":25)
+tim(200518288:1S.@entry, 200150096:0X.@should)
+plc(200150096:0X.@should, 100378985:15)
+mod(109201998:2B, "1":25)
+obj(200518288:1S.@entry, 109201998:2B)
+and:01(115689206:0I.@entry, 102801525:07.@pl)
+agt(200518288:1S.@entry, 102801525:1L.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(104572344:0R.@pl, :01)
+mod(104572344:0R.@pl, :01)
+agt(200150096:0X.@should, 104572344:0R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1109]
+{org:en}
+wells pump water from this aquifer and then inject it into a lower one.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200086320:1A.@entry, 200788057:08)
+mod(109201998:0T, 600000017:0O)
+aoj(301206474:1R, 600000027:1X.@indef)
+obj(200086320:1A.@entry, 600000016:1H)
+and(200086320:1A.@entry, 200788057:08)
+mod(109201998:0T, 600000017:0O)
+aoj(301206474:1R, 600000027:1X.@indef)
+obj(200086320:1A.@entry, 600000016:1H)
+src(200788057:08, 109201998:0T)
+gol(200086320:1A.@entry, 600000027:1X.@indef)
+agt(200788057:08, 104572344:02.@topic.@pl)
+agt(200086320:1A.@entry, 104572344:02.@topic.@pl)
+man(301206474:1R, 400099341:2U)
+man(301206474:1R, 400099341:2U)
+man(200086320:1A.@entry, 400117620:15)
+obj(200788057:08, 107935504:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1110]
+{org:en}
+A ring zone of impermeable material of radio HTM1 is located around every well.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302126430:1J.@entry, 105611062:09.@topic.@indef)
+mod(105611062:09.@topic.@indef, 104092609:04)
+mod(104572344:24, 600000301:1Y)
+aoj(302126430:1J.@entry, 105611062:09.@topic.@indef)
+mod(105611062:09.@topic.@indef, 104092609:04)
+mod(104572344:24, 600000301:1Y)
+mod(HTM1:1B, 104041544:15)
+obj(600000090:1R, 104572344:24)
+aoj(301772609:0H, 103729951:0T)
+plc(302126430:1J.@entry, 600000090:1R)
+cnt(103729951:0T, HTM1:1B)
+cnt(103729951:0T, HTM1:1B)
+mod(105611062:09.@topic.@indef, 103729951:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1111]
+{org:en}
+This is necessary to slow water flow to ensure minimum circulation in the aquifer, so that recharge water arrives into the well sufficiently filtered and mixed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300343552:0A.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+obj(202005948:30, 107935504:2U)
+mod(100329227:0Y, 107935504:0S)
+mod(107935504:2U, 115689206:2L)
+obj(200440580:0N, 100329227:0Y)
+and:01(200184117:4C.@entry, 201458664:3Z)
+aoj(300343552:0A.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+obj(202005948:30, 107935504:2U)
+mod(100329227:0Y, 107935504:0S)
+mod(107935504:2U, 115689206:2L)
+obj(200440580:0N, 100329227:0Y)
+and:01(200184117:4C.@entry, 201458664:3Z)
+mod(100368302:1L, 303161105:1D)
+man(200440580:0N, 400535857:2D)
+obj(:01, 104572344:3H.@def)
+plc(100368302:1L, 109201998:24.@def)
+pur(300343552:0A.@entry, 200440580:0N)
+gol(202005948:30, 104572344:3H.@def)
+obj(202774184:16, 100368302:1L)
+gol(202005948:30, 104572344:3H.@def)
+obj(202774184:16, 100368302:1L)
+pur(100329227:0Y, 202774184:16)
+man:01(201458664:3Z, 400145571:3M)
+obj(400535857:2D, 202005948:30)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1112]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is the radius of the basin joined to every well
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105102101:0E.@entry.@def, :29.@topic)
+gol(201291069:0Y, 104572344:1E)
+aoj(105102101:0E.@entry.@def, :29.@topic)
+gol(201291069:0Y, 104572344:1E)
+obj(201291069:0Y, 102801525:0S.@def)
+mod(105102101:0E.@entry.@def, 102801525:0S.@def)
+mod(104572344:1E, 600000301:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1113]
+{org:en}
+this radius is calculated so that its area is equivalent to the area calculated by Thiessen polygons.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200637259:0H.@entry, 600000084:0S)
+obj(300890351:1C, 102735688:1U.@def)
+obj(600000084:0S, 300890351:1C)
+man(200637259:0H.@entry, 600000084:0S)
+obj(300890351:1C, 102735688:1U.@def)
+obj(600000084:0S, 300890351:1C)
+mod(113866144:2M.@pl, 115696202:2D)
+mod(105102101:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+agt(200637259:1Z, 113866144:2M.@pl)
+obj(200637259:0H.@entry, 105102101:07.@topic)
+obj(200637259:1Z, 102735688:1U.@def)
+obj(200637259:1Z, 102735688:1U.@def)
+aoj(300890351:1C, 102735688:14.@topic)
+mod(102735688:14.@topic, 600000016:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1114]
+{org:en}
+By way of example, Figure 6 illustrates a recharge scheme at Cavaillon-Cheval Blanc (Durance River, France).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201668421:0U.@entry, 600000332:02)
+mod(100556992:0L.@topic, "6":0S)
+plc(105905348:1H.@indef, 500323678:1R)
+man(201668421:0U.@entry, 600000332:02)
+mod(100556992:0L.@topic, "6":0S)
+plc(105905348:1H.@indef, 500323678:1R)
+obj(201668421:0U.@entry, 105905348:1H.@indef)
+agt(201668421:0U.@entry, 100556992:0L.@topic)
+obj(600000332:02, 105820620:0C)
+obj(600000332:02, 105820620:0C)
+mod(105905348:1H.@indef, 115689206:18)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1115]
+{org:en}
+Recharge water arrives in the well through a removable sand and gravel filter.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202005948:0H.@entry, 107935504:0B.@topic)
+mod(103339643:21.@indef, :01)
+obj(600000026:11, 103339643:21.@indef)
+obj(202005948:0H.@entry, 107935504:0B.@topic)
+mod(103339643:21.@indef, :01)
+obj(600000026:11, 103339643:21.@indef)
+gol(202005948:0H.@entry, 104572344:0W.@def)
+mod(107935504:0B.@topic, 115689206:02)
+man(202005948:0H.@entry, 600000026:11)
+and:01(114698884:1U.@entry, 115019030:1L)
+and:01(114698884:1U.@entry, 115019030:1L)
+mod(103339643:21.@indef, 301526582:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1116]
+{org:en}
+The basin is 12 m deep and measures 70 HTM1 in plan.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200647094:0T.@entry, 300149120:0K)
+aoj(300149120:0K, 102801525:06.@topic.@def)
+plc(HTM1:15, 103954199:1D)
+and(200647094:0T.@entry, 300149120:0K)
+aoj(300149120:0K, 102801525:06.@topic.@def)
+plc(HTM1:15, 103954199:1D)
+obj(200647094:0T.@entry, HTM1:15)
+qua(106832464:0I, "12":0F)
+agt(200647094:0T.@entry, 102801525:06.@topic.@def)
+man(300149120:0K, 106832464:0I)
+man(300149120:0K, 106832464:0I)
+qua(HTM1:15, "70":12)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1117]
+{org:en}
+Five recharge wells are located inside the basin
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(302126430:0Q.@entry, 600000267:0Y)
+mod(104572344:0G.@pl, 115689206:07)
+man(302126430:0Q.@entry, 600000267:0Y)
+mod(104572344:0G.@pl, 115689206:07)
+qua(104572344:0G.@pl, "5":02)
+aoj(302126430:0Q.@entry, 104572344:0G.@pl)
+obj(600000267:0Y, 102801525:19.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1118]
+{org:en}
+the total flow rate is 700 L sec-1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(106832356:0T.@entry, 113325010:0H.@topic.@def)
+mod(113325010:0H.@topic.@def, 100329227:0C)
+obj(600000025:0Y, 115669500:0V)
+aoj(106832356:0T.@entry, 113325010:0H.@topic.@def)
+mod(113325010:0H.@topic.@def, 100329227:0C)
+obj(600000025:0Y, 115669500:0V)
+aoj(600000025:0Y, 106832356:0T.@entry)
+qua(106832356:0T.@entry, "700":0P)
+qua(113325010:0H.@topic.@def, 303160907:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1119]
+{org:en}
+Figure 6.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "6":09)
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "6":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1120]
+{org:en}
+Mixed system of water recharge at Cavaillon-Cheval Blanc, France
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104377057:08.@entry, 115689206:0O)
+mod(115689206:0O, 107935504:0I)
+mod(104377057:08.@entry, 115689206:0O)
+mod(115689206:0O, 107935504:0I)
+plc(115689206:0O, 500323678:10)
+mod(104377057:08.@entry, 303161752:02)
+plc(500323678:10, 500003942:1O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1121]
+{org:en}
+Evaluation of Aquifer Recharge Area by Piezometric Map Analysis
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100874806:02.@entry, 102735688:0X)
+aoj(303161422:15, 100634276:1L)
+mod(115689206:0O, 109201998:0G)
+obj(100874806:02.@entry, 102735688:0X)
+aoj(303161422:15, 100634276:1L)
+mod(115689206:0O, 109201998:0G)
+mod(102735688:0X, 115689206:0O)
+aoj(600000035:2U, 102735688:0X)
+aoj(600000035:2U, 102735688:0X)
+mod(100634276:1L, 103720163:1H)
+obj(600000035:2U, 100634276:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1122]
+{org:en}
+Aquifer recharge is affected by the amount of water that infiltrates the groundwater flow.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200019448:0M.@entry, 115689206:0A.@topic)
+mod(100329227:2F.@def, 115669379:23)
+obj(201913363:1N, 107935504:1C)
+obj(200019448:0M.@entry, 115689206:0A.@topic)
+mod(100329227:2F.@def, 115669379:23)
+obj(201913363:1N, 107935504:1C)
+mod(100033615:12.@def, 107935504:1C)
+agt(200019448:0M.@entry, 100033615:12.@def)
+agt(200019448:0M.@entry, 100033615:12.@def)
+mod(115689206:0A.@topic, 109201998:02)
+gol(201913363:1N, 100329227:2F.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1123]
+{org:en}
+Groundwater represents only one step in the hydrologic cycle
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200825447:0E.@entry, 115669379:02.@topic)
+mod(107341038:1L.@def, 303161193:1A)
+mod(100285557:0Y, 303161004:0P)
+aoj(200825447:0E.@entry, 115669379:02.@topic)
+mod(107341038:1L.@def, 303161193:1A)
+mod(100285557:0Y, 303161004:0P)
+tim(100285557:0Y, 107341038:1L.@def)
+obj(200825447:0E.@entry, 100285557:0Y)
+obj(200825447:0E.@entry, 100285557:0Y)
+aoj(600000089:0U, 100285557:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1124]
+{org:en}
+for this reason measurements of other components of the cycle may be useful in estimating the scale of water resources by calculating the HTM1 hydrologic balance HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(302495922:1Y.@entry.@may, 200672433:28.@progress)
+mod(105154676:32.@pl, 107935504:2W)
+mod(103081021:13.@pl, 107341038:1L.@def)
+mod(100996969:0H.@pl, 600000017:06)
+mod(102777100:4B.@def, 303161193:40)
+pur(302495922:1Y.@entry.@may, 200672433:28.@progress)
+mod(105154676:32.@pl, 107935504:2W)
+mod(103081021:13.@pl, 107341038:1L.@def)
+mod(100996969:0H.@pl, 600000017:06)
+mod(102777100:4B.@def, 303161193:40)
+mod(101902877:2N.@def, 105154676:32.@pl)
+mod(100996969:0H.@pl, 103081021:13.@pl)
+obj(200637259:3F.@progress, 102777100:4B.@def)
+obj(200672433:28.@progress, 101902877:2N.@def)
+pur(302495922:1Y.@entry.@may, 100996969:0H.@pl)
+obj(600000035:7Y, 200637259:3F.@progress)
+pur(302495922:1Y.@entry.@may, 100996969:0H.@pl)
+obj(600000035:7Y, 200637259:3F.@progress)
+mod(103081021:13.@pl, 600000031:0X)
+mod(100996969:0H.@pl, 105651680:0A)
+aoj(600000035:7Y, 105154676:32.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1125]
+{org:en}
+The hydrologic balance supposes that the amount of water entering the aquifer is the same as that leaving it, less an amount that represents the water storage fluctuation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200917300:0P.@entry, 300355611:2F)
+obj(200825447:3O, 104770911:4H.@def)
+aoj(100033615:3C.@indef, 600000030:2N)
+gol(201082606:1N.@progress, 109201998:20.@def)
+aoj(300355611:2F, 107935504:1H.@topic)
+obj(201082606:1N.@progress, 107935504:1H.@topic)
+obj(200917300:0P.@entry, 300355611:2F)
+obj(200825447:3O, 104770911:4H.@def)
+aoj(100033615:3C.@indef, 600000030:2N)
+gol(201082606:1N.@progress, 109201998:20.@def)
+aoj(300355611:2F, 107935504:1H.@topic)
+obj(201082606:1N.@progress, 107935504:1H.@topic)
+agt(200825447:3O, 100033615:3C.@indef)
+mod(102777100:0H.@topic.@def, 303161193:06)
+mod(104770911:4H.@def, 100811355:49)
+obj(200136991:2S.@progress, 600000016:30)
+agt(200917300:0P.@entry, 102777100:0H.@topic.@def)
+mod(104770911:4H.@def, 107935504:43)
+agt(200917300:0P.@entry, 102777100:0H.@topic.@def)
+mod(104770911:4H.@def, 107935504:43)
+agt(200136991:2S.@progress, 600000030:2N)
+bas(300355611:2F, 600000030:2N)
+qua(107935504:1H.@topic, 100033615:17.@def)
+qua(100033615:3C.@indef, 400099868:34)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1126]
+{org:en}
+storage variation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100194969:0A.@entry, 100811355:02)
+mod(100194969:0A.@entry, 100811355:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1127]
+{org:en}
+where HTM1 (income) is rainfall, recharge from surficial water, other aquifers, wells, or other sources
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(:01, 115689346:02.@entry)
+cnt(HTM1:08.@topic, 113255145:0E.@parenthesis)
+or:01(109201998:27.@pl, 115689206:12)
+mod:01(104263614:2X.@entry.@pl, 600000031:2R)
+plc(:01, 115689346:02.@entry)
+cnt(HTM1:08.@topic, 113255145:0E.@parenthesis)
+or:01(109201998:27.@pl, 115689206:12)
+mod:01(104263614:2X.@entry.@pl, 600000031:2R)
+frm:01(115689206:12, 107935504:1Q)
+or:01(104263614:2X.@entry.@pl, 104572344:2H.@pl)
+or:01(115689206:12, 115689316:0P)
+aoj(:01, HTM1:08.@topic)
+aoj(:01, HTM1:08.@topic)
+mod:01(109201998:27.@pl, 600000031:21)
+or:01(104572344:2H.@pl, 109201998:27.@pl)
+aoj:01(302806098:1G, 107935504:1Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1128]
+{org:en}
+and HTM1 (outflow) is superficial streamwater, runoff, evapo-transpiration, surficial and underground drainage, catchments, springs, and other hydraulic elements.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(:02.@entry, :50)
+and:02(113569774:1R, 100183357:1D)
+and:02(104288272:3I.@pl, 102983357:36.@pl)
+mod:02(105868954:4B.@entry.@pl, 600000031:3V)
+aoj:02(superfi1ial(aoj>thing):0O, 115694476:10)
+and(:02.@entry, :50)
+and:02(113569774:1R, 100183357:1D)
+and:02(104288272:3I.@pl, 102983357:36.@pl)
+mod:02(105868954:4B.@entry.@pl, 600000031:3V)
+aoj:02(superfi1ial(aoj>thing):0O, 115694476:10)
+mod:02(115668933:2W, :01)
+and:02(105868954:4B.@entry.@pl, 104288272:3I.@pl)
+and:02(100183357:1D, 115694476:10)
+and:02(115668933:2W, 113569774:1R)
+aoj(:02.@entry, HTM1:06.@topic)
+mod:02(113569774:1R, 115695177:1L)
+aoj(:02.@entry, HTM1:06.@topic)
+mod:02(113569774:1R, 115695177:1L)
+and:02(102983357:36.@pl, 115668933:2W)
+mod:02(105868954:4B.@entry.@pl, 303073751:41)
+cnt(HTM1:06.@topic, 113529295:0C.@parenthesis)
+and:01(303160997:2K.@entry, 302806098:26)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1129]
+{org:en}
+The method depends on knowledge of every element of the water balance in a particular area, and on their quantification.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0D.@entry, 105660268:06.@topic.@def)
+plc(102777100:1S.@def, :01:01)
+mod(105868954:17, 102777100:1S.@def)
+aoj(202663848:0D.@entry, 105660268:06.@topic.@def)
+plc(102777100:1S.@def, :01:01)
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+mod:01(101003570:2Z.@entry, 600000020:2T.@pl)
+obj(100023271:0O, 105868954:17)
+and:01(101003570:2Z.@entry, 102735688:2G.@indef)
+obj(202663848:0D.@entry, 100023271:0O)
+obj(202663848:0D.@entry, 100023271:0O)
+mod(102777100:1S.@def, 107935504:1M)
+mod(105868954:17, 600000301:11)
+mod:01(102735688:2G.@indef, 300311044:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1130]
+{org:en}
+In practice it is necessary to find all terms of the equation through direct measurements or estimation, leaving aquifer recharge (which is more difficult to obtain) as a value to calculate indirectly.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300343552:0K.@entry, 400166512:02)
+man(200637259:52, 400058359:5C)
+gol(200136991:2Z.@progress, :02.@parenthesis)
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+man(200637259:52, 400058359:5C)
+gol(200136991:2Z.@progress, :02.@parenthesis)
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+aoj:02(300744916:43.@entry, 202238085:4G)
+obj(200715239:0X, 105855904:16.@pl)
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+obj(600000061:4O, 104979425:4T.@indef)
+man(200715239:0X, 200136991:2Z.@progress)
+mod(115689206:3F, 109201998:37)
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+aoj(300343552:0K.@entry, 200715239:0X)
+obj(200136991:2Z.@progress, 115689206:3F)
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+qua(100185307:1J.@def, 105855904:16.@pl)
+man(:02.@parenthesis, 600000061:4O)
+aoj:01(300005473:20, 100996969:27.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1131]
+{org:en}
+Stoertz and Bradbury described a method for calculating the spatial distribution of water income and outflow, using as starting points a piezometric map and some estimates regarding hydraulic conductivity and the thickness of the aquifer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200987071:0N.@entry.@past, :01)
+mod:05(:02, 107935504:2E)
+qua:04(100875246:4K.@entry.@pl, 600000034:4F)
+man:05(201158572:34.@entry.@progress, 600000023:3A)
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+man:05(201158572:34.@entry.@progress, 600000023:3A)
+aoj:04(303161422:3V, 103720163:47.@indef)
+and:05(201158572:34.@entry.@progress, 200637259:1A.@progress)
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+aoj:05(302841066:1Q, 101083077:1Y.@def)
+agt(:05, 105660268:0Z.@indef)
+and:01(500006795:0E.@entry.@topic, 500323477:02.@topic)
+and:03(104936403:5Z.@entry.@def, 115669512:5E)
+mod:05(103974215:3M.@pl, 301009865:3D)
+obj:05(101083077:1Y.@def, :02:02)
+obj(200987071:0N.@entry.@past, 105660268:0Z.@indef)
+and:02(113529295:2V.@entry, 113255145:2K)
+obj:04(600000057:4U, :03)
+obj(200987071:0N.@entry.@past, 105660268:0Z.@indef)
+and:02(113529295:2V.@entry, 113255145:2K)
+obj:04(600000057:4U, :03)
+obj:05(600000023:3A, 103974215:3M.@pl)
+obj:05(200637259:1A.@progress, 101083077:1Y.@def)
+obj:05(201158572:34.@entry.@progress, :04:04)
+mod:03(115669512:5E, 303073751:54)
+aoj:04(600000057:4U, 100875246:4K.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1132]
+{org:en}
+The application of a two- or three-dimensional mathematical model as a basis for water balance model analysis is essential to the process.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300900616:37.@entry, 100036061:06.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(100898804:2P, 107935504:2B)
+aoj:01(300660809:0V, 100898804:1Q.@entry)
+or:01(100898804:1Q.@entry, "2":0N.@indef)
+aoj(300900616:37.@entry, 100036061:06.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(100898804:2P, 107935504:2B)
+aoj:01(300660809:0V, 100898804:1Q.@entry)
+or:01(100898804:1Q.@entry, "2":0N.@indef)
+pur:01(105793554:21.@indef, 100634276:2V)
+obj(100036061:06.@topic.@def, :01:01)
+obj:01(600000032:1W, 105793554:21.@indef)
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+mod:01(100898804:2P, 102777100:2H)
+ben(300900616:37.@entry, 100029677:3O.@def)
+mod:01(100898804:2P, 102777100:2H)
+aoj:01(300915141:1D, 100898804:1Q.@entry)
+aoj:01(600000032:1W, 100898804:1Q.@entry)
+mod:01(100634276:2V, 100898804:2P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1133]
+{org:en}
+Water-balance processes lead to groundwater flow between cells, considering all nodes have a fixed load that may be calculated by piezometry.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774203:0Q.@entry, 600000318:1U)
+obj(200065370:2G.@should, 103679986:2T.@indef)
+obj(600000024:1F, 100006484:1N.@pl)
+aoj(600000024:1F, 100329227:1A)
+agt(200637259:3A.@may, 115695848:3O)
+man(202774203:0Q.@entry, 600000318:1U)
+obj(200065370:2G.@should, 103679986:2T.@indef)
+obj(600000024:1F, 100006484:1N.@pl)
+aoj(600000024:1F, 100329227:1A)
+agt(200637259:3A.@may, 115695848:3O)
+obj(600000318:1U, 200065370:2G.@should)
+gol(202774203:0Q.@entry, 100329227:1A)
+mod(103679986:2T.@indef, 300347707:2N)
+mod(102777100:08, 107935504:02)
+aoj(202774203:0Q.@entry, 100029677:0G.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200637259:3A.@may, 103679986:2T.@indef)
+aoj(202774203:0Q.@entry, 100029677:0G.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200637259:3A.@may, 103679986:2T.@indef)
+mod(100029677:0G.@topic.@pl, 102777100:08)
+mod(100329227:1A, 115669379:0Y)
+qua(103827107:2A.@pl, 600000011:26)
+aoj(200065370:2G.@should, 103827107:2A.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1134]
+{org:en}
+The difference between income and outflow for individual cells is the recharge, or drainage, through the water table.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 104748836:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000024:0H, :01)
+obj(600000045:2N, 109476123:35.@def)
+aoj(:02.@entry, 104748836:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000024:0H, :01)
+obj(600000045:2N, 109476123:35.@def)
+mod(100006484:1N.@pl, 300493460:1C)
+or:02(115668933:2D.@entry, 115689206:20.@def)
+and:01(113529295:10.@entry, 113255145:0P)
+mod(:02.@entry, 600000045:2N)
+mod(:02.@entry, 600000045:2N)
+pur(:01, 100006484:1N.@pl)
+aoj(600000024:0H, 104748836:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1135]
+{org:en}
+It must be emphasized that flows calculated by this way depend very much on the conductivity values used, and on values for loads obtained by piezometric interpolation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774625:0D.@entry.@obligation, 202663848:1M.@topic.@should)
+obj:01(201158572:2U, 104979425:2N.@def.@pl)
+and:01(104979425:37.@entry.@pl, 104979425:2N.@def.@pl)
+man(202663848:1M.@topic.@should, 400053744:1Y)
+agt(200637259:0Z, 100172710:1I)
+obj(202774625:0D.@entry.@obligation, 202663848:1M.@topic.@should)
+obj:01(201158572:2U, 104979425:2N.@def.@pl)
+and:01(104979425:37.@entry.@pl, 104979425:2N.@def.@pl)
+man(202663848:1M.@topic.@should, 400053744:1Y)
+agt(200637259:0Z, 100172710:1I)
+agt:01(202238085:3O, 105802730:4C)
+obj(202663848:1M.@topic.@should, :01:01)
+obj(200637259:0Z, 100329227:0T.@pl)
+obj:01(202238085:3O, 103679986:3I.@pl)
+aoj(202663848:1M.@topic.@should, 100329227:0T.@pl)
+mod:01(104979425:2N.@def.@pl, 115669512:2A)
+aoj(202663848:1M.@topic.@should, 100329227:0T.@pl)
+mod:01(104979425:2N.@def.@pl, 115669512:2A)
+pur:01(104979425:37.@entry.@pl, 103679986:3I.@pl)
+man(400053744:1Y, 400031899:1T)
+mod(100172710:1I, 600000017:1D)
+aoj:01(303161422:40, 105802730:4C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1136]
+{org:en}
+In many situations (for example, with regard to pollutant management) it is sufficient to know the direction of water recharge flow during dry and rainy periods.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(302335828:26.@entry, 113925752:0A.@pl)
+qua(113925752:0A.@pl, 600000028:05)
+mod(100329227:3L, 107935504:36)
+mod(106197215:2T.@def, 100329227:3L)
+mod:01(101133281:1O, 114857278:1E)
+scn(302335828:26.@entry, 113925752:0A.@pl)
+qua(113925752:0A.@pl, 600000028:05)
+mod(100329227:3L, 107935504:36)
+mod(106197215:2T.@def, 100329227:3L)
+mod:01(101133281:1O, 114857278:1E)
+and:02(303161889:45.@entry, 300799953:3X)
+obj(200594337:2K, 106197215:2T.@def)
+obj:01(600000100:0Z.@entry, 101133281:1O)
+aoj(:02, 106843520:4B.@pl)
+aoj(302335828:26.@entry, 200594337:2K)
+man:01(600000100:0Z.@entry, 600000094:0M)
+aoj(302335828:26.@entry, 200594337:2K)
+man:01(600000100:0Z.@entry, 600000094:0M)
+mod(100329227:3L, 115689206:3C)
+dur(100329227:3L, 106843520:4B.@pl)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 113925752:0A.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1137]
+{org:en}
+The resulting iso-fluctuation maps, when integrated with other data, permit the evaluation of the volume of water stored into the aquifer as a HTM1 water balance factor HTM2 , and the estimation of local pumping effects.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200802318:1Z.@entry, 103720163:0W.@topic.@def.@pl)
+gol(200466651:17.@past, 108462320:1T.@pl)
+aoj:01(600000032:3Z, 109201998:3R.@def)
+obj:01(200788057:60.@progress, 104809642:68.@pl)
+obj(200340704:06.@progress, 103720163:0W.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+gol(200466651:17.@past, 108462320:1T.@pl)
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+obj:01(202281093:3B, 107935504:35)
+obj(600000033:12, 200466651:17.@past)
+and:01(105803379:5G.@entry.@def, 100874806:2D.@def)
+mod:01(105858317:4N.@indef, 107935504:49)
+mod:01(104990220:2V.@def, 107935504:35)
+mod(104770911:0K, 303163416:0G)
+obj(200802318:1Z.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(108462320:1T.@pl, 600000031:1N)
+obj:01(600000032:3Z, 105858317:4N.@indef)
+obj(200802318:1Z.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(108462320:1T.@pl, 600000031:1N)
+obj:01(600000032:3Z, 105858317:4N.@indef)
+obj:01(100874806:2D.@def, 104990220:2V.@def)
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+mod:01(104809642:68.@pl, 301106405:5U)
+tim(103720163:0W.@topic.@def.@pl, 600000033:12)
+gol:01(202281093:3B, 109201998:3R.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1138]
+{org:en}
+Figures 7a and b show piezometric results for two different years.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0Q.@entry, 100556992:02.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:1N, 115201505:1X.@pl)
+aoj(303161422:0V, 115698567:17.@pl)
+agt(200923307:0Q.@entry, 100556992:02.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:1N, 115201505:1X.@pl)
+aoj(303161422:0V, 115698567:17.@pl)
+and:01(105400978:0K.@entry.@topic, "a":0E.@topic)
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+obj(200923307:0Q.@entry, 115698567:17.@pl)
+mod(100556992:02.@pl, :02)
+qua(115201505:1X.@pl, "2":1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1139]
+{org:en}
+The pictures are superposed in Figure 7c.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201469445:0J.@entry, 103931044:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(201469445:0J.@entry, 103931044:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+plc(201469445:0J.@entry, 100556992:0X)
+plc(201469445:0J.@entry, 100556992:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1140]
+{org:en}
+Differences in value (positive or negative) have been attributed to every crossing point, and the value contours then mapped (Figure 7d).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200380698:3B.@entry.@past, 202774826:1J.@complete)
+plc(104748836:02.@topic.@pl, 104979425:0G)
+mod(105851517:2X.@topic.@def.@pl, 104979425:2R)
+man(200380698:3B.@entry.@past, 400117620:36)
+and(200380698:3B.@entry.@past, 202774826:1J.@complete)
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+mod(105851517:2X.@topic.@def.@pl, 104979425:2R)
+man(200380698:3B.@entry.@past, 400117620:36)
+mod(103974215:2C, 600000301:1X)
+obj(200380698:3B.@entry.@past, :02:02.@parenthesis)
+or:01(300075515:0Z.@entry, 300358678:0N)
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+agt(200380698:3B.@entry.@past, 105851517:2X.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 104979425:0G)
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+mod:02(100556992:3J.@entry, "7d":3Q)
+obj(201691798:23.@progress, 103974215:2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1141]
+{org:en}
+Figure 7.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "7":09)
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "7":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1142]
+{org:en}
+Evaluation of aquifer recharge area by piezometric map analysis
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100874806:02.@entry, 102735688:0X)
+aoj(303161422:15, 100634276:1L)
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+aoj(600000035:2U, 102735688:0X)
+mod(100634276:1L, 103720163:1H)
+obj(600000035:2U, 100634276:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1143]
+{org:en}
+In this example the recharge area is located in the southwest corner of the map and the drainage area in the northeast corner
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(302126430:13.@entry, 105820620:0A)
+mod(105820620:0A, 600000017:05)
+mod(103109486:1S.@def, 108561714:1I)
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+this distinction is less clear if we consider only Figures 7a and 7b.
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+[S:1145]
+{org:en}
+Advantages and Disadvantages of Artificial Groundwater Recharge
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1146]
+{org:en}
+Advantages
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+
+[S:1147]
+{org:en}
+Artificial recharge offers several potential advantages
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+
+[S:1148]
+{org:en}
+Aquifers may be used for the storage and distribution of water, and for removing contaminants by natural cleaning processes that take place as polluted rain and surface water infiltrate the soil and percolate down through the various geological formations.
+{/org}
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+The technology is sound and generally well understood, both by technicians and the general population.
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+Very little special equipment is needed to construct drainage wells.
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+[S:1151]
+{org:en}
+In rock formations with high structural integrity, few additional materials (concrete, soft stone, coral rock blocks, or metal rods) may be needed to construct the wells.
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+{org:en}
+Groundwater recharge stores water during the wet season for use in the dry season, when demand is highest.
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+Aquifer water can be improved by recharging with high-quality injected water.
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+Recharge can increase the sustainable water yield of an aquifer significantly.
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+{org:en}
+Recharge methods are environmentally attractive, particularly in arid regions.
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+Most aquifer recharge systems are easy to operate.
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+[S:1157]
+{org:en}
+In many river basins, controlling surface water runoff to provide aquifer recharge reduces sedimentation problems.
+{/org}
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+[S:1158]
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+Recharge with less saline surface waters or treated effluents often improves the quality of saline aquifers, facilitating use of their water for agriculture and livestock.
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+{org:en}
+Disadvantages
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+[/W]
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+In the absence of financial incentives, laws, or other regulations to encourage landowners to maintain drainage wells, they may fall into disrepair and ultimately become sources of groundwater contamination.
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+There is potential for contamination of the groundwater from injected surface runoff water, especially from agricultural fields and road surfaces.
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+In most cases, surface runoff water is not pre-treated before injection.
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+Recharge can degrade the aquifer unless quality control of the injected water is adequate.
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+man(200207728:0F.@entry.@ability, 600000147:0Z)
+mod(100803617:1E.@topic, 107935504:22.@def)
+obj(600000147:0Z, 300051045:2B)
+obj(200207728:0F.@entry.@ability, 109201998:0R.@def)
+obj(200086320:1T.@past, 107935504:22.@def)
+agt(200207728:0F.@entry.@ability, 115689206:02.@topic)
+agt(200207728:0F.@entry.@ability, 115689206:02.@topic)
+mod(100803617:1E.@topic, 300261486:16)
+aoj(300051045:2B, 100803617:1E.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1164]
+{org:en}
+Groundwater recharge may not be economically feasible unless significant volumes can be injected into an aquifer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301822563:1B.@entry.@may.@not, 115689206:0E.@topic)
+gol(200086320:2I.@ability, 109201998:2Z.@indef)
+obj(600000147:1K, 200086320:2I.@ability)
+aoj(301822563:1B.@entry.@may.@not, 115689206:0E.@topic)
+gol(200086320:2I.@ability, 109201998:2Z.@indef)
+obj(600000147:1K, 200086320:2I.@ability)
+man(301822563:1B.@entry.@may.@not, 400123229:0Y)
+mod(115689206:0E.@topic, 115669379:02)
+man(301822563:1B.@entry.@may.@not, 600000147:1K)
+man(301822563:1B.@entry.@may.@not, 600000147:1K)
+aoj(300625055:1R, 104990220:23.@pl)
+obj(200086320:2I.@ability, 104990220:23.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1165]
+{org:en}
+A very full knowledge of the hydrogeology of an aquifer is required before any full-scale recharge project is implemented. (In karstic terrain, dye tracer studies can assist here.)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+seq(202408965:34, 202774169:1P.@entry)
+mod(105910453:2T, 115689206:2K)
+mod(106115701:10.@def, 109201998:1E.@indef)
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+aoj(300106020:09, 100023271:0E.@topic.@indef)
+mod:01(104345028:4D.@topic.@pl, 104462707:46)
+seq(202408965:34, 202774169:1P.@entry)
+mod(105910453:2T, 115689206:2K)
+mod(106115701:10.@def, 109201998:1E.@indef)
+aoj:01(303158413:3L, 108674563:3T)
+aoj(300106020:09, 100023271:0E.@topic.@indef)
+mod:01(104345028:4D.@topic.@pl, 104462707:46)
+mod(105910453:2T, 600000052:25)
+mod(100023271:0E.@topic.@indef, 106115701:10.@def)
+man:01(202414710:4P.@entry.@ability, 400108479:4W)
+obj(202408965:34, 105910453:2T)
+obj(202774169:1P.@entry, 100023271:0E.@topic.@indef)
+agt:01(202414710:4P.@entry.@ability, 104345028:4D.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202774169:1P.@entry, 100023271:0E.@topic.@indef)
+agt:01(202414710:4P.@entry.@ability, 104345028:4D.@topic.@pl)
+mod(106115701:10.@def, 303160971:0V)
+man(300106020:09, 400031899:04)
+mod:01(104462707:46, 114985383:42)
+mod(105910453:2T, 303162580:29)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1166]
+{org:en}
+Disturbances of soil and vegetation cover during the construction of water traps may cause environmental damage to the project area.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201645601:2M.@entry.@may, 100333829:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104474466:2C.@pl, 107935504:26)
+obj(100333829:02.@topic.@pl, 100988893:15)
+mod(100403092:36, 302943151:2S)
+aoj(201645601:2M.@entry.@may, 100333829:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104474466:2C.@pl, 107935504:26)
+obj(100333829:02.@topic.@pl, 100988893:15)
+mod(100403092:36, 302943151:2S)
+and:01(101065057:0U.@entry, 109335240:0L)
+obj(100403092:36, 102735688:3S.@def)
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+gol(201645601:2M.@entry.@may, 100403092:36)
+gol(201645601:2M.@entry.@may, 100403092:36)
+dur(100988893:15, 100873381:1Q.@def)
+mod(102735688:3S.@def, 105910453:3K)
+obj(100873381:1Q.@def, 104474466:2C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1167]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1168]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1169]
+{org:en}
+AGR
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323668:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323668:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1170]
+{org:en}
+Artificial groundwater recharge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300073465:02, 115689206:0P.@entry)
+aoj(300073465:02, 115689206:0P.@entry)
+mod(115689206:0P.@entry, 115669379:0D)
+mod(115689206:0P.@entry, 115669379:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1171]
+{org:en}
+Aquifer
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+109201998:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+109201998:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1172]
+{org:en}
+A lithologic unit (or combination of units) having an appreciable capacity to store and transmit water that is recoverable in economically usable quantities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:1A.@progress, :02.@entry)
+plc:03(301956060:35, 105108740:44.@pl)
+pur(100720951:1W.@indef, :03:03)
+aoj:02(303162667:04, 105869857:0F.@indef)
+aoj(200065370:1A.@progress, :02.@entry)
+plc:03(301956060:35, 105108740:44.@pl)
+pur(100720951:1W.@indef, :03:03)
+aoj:02(303162667:04, 105869857:0F.@indef)
+obj:03(201435380:2I.@entry, 107935504:2R)
+obj:01(100378985:0O.@entry, 105869857:13.@pl)
+man:03(303161201:3X, 400123229:3K)
+and:03(201435380:2I.@entry, 202281093:28)
+or:02(:01.@entry.@parenthesis, 105869857:0F.@indef)
+aoj:03(303161201:3X, 105108740:44.@pl)
+or:02(:01.@entry.@parenthesis, 105869857:0F.@indef)
+aoj:03(303161201:3X, 105108740:44.@pl)
+aoj(300624416:1K, 100720951:1W.@indef)
+obj(200065370:1A.@progress, 100720951:1W.@indef)
+aoj:03(301956060:35, 107935504:2R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1173]
+{org:en}
+Artificial recharge
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300073465:02, 115689206:0D.@entry)
+aoj(300073465:02, 115689206:0D.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1174]
+{org:en}
+A potentially advantageous method of storing water underground in times of water surplus to meet demand in times of shortage.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(105660268:0T.@entry.@indef, 100028270:1W.@pl)
+tim(101061333:2R, 100028270:31.@pl)
+man(100028270:1W.@pl, 600000541:1H)
+man(300064479:0G, 400300891:04)
+tim(105660268:0T.@entry.@indef, 100028270:1W.@pl)
+tim(101061333:2R, 100028270:31.@pl)
+man(100028270:1W.@pl, 600000541:1H)
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+pur(115669511:2B, 201079480:2M)
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+mod(100028270:31.@pl, 115689467:3A)
+mod(105660268:0T.@entry.@indef, 107935504:1B)
+mod(100028270:31.@pl, 115689467:3A)
+mod(100028270:1W.@pl, 115669511:2B)
+obj(202281093:13.@progress, 107935504:1B)
+obj(201079480:2M, 101061333:2R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1175]
+{org:en}
+Available HTM1 or HTM2 exploitable groundwater resources
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01, 105154676:1D.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 105154676:1D.@entry.@pl)
+or:01(303160852:0P.@entry, 300183053:02)
+mod(105154676:1D.@entry.@pl, 115669379:11)
+mod(105154676:1D.@entry.@pl, 115669379:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1176]
+{org:en}
+Water resources that can be exploited if certain socioeconomic conditions are satisfied.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201162754:0U.@ability, 105154676:08.@entry.@pl)
+mod(105798863:1T.@pl, 302717021:1F)
+obj(201816431:28, 105798863:1T.@pl)
+obj(201162754:0U.@ability, 105154676:08.@entry.@pl)
+mod(105798863:1T.@pl, 302717021:1F)
+obj(201816431:28, 105798863:1T.@pl)
+con(201162754:0U.@ability, 201816431:28)
+mod(105154676:08.@entry.@pl, 107935504:02)
+mod(105154676:08.@entry.@pl, 107935504:02)
+aoj(300309740:17, 105798863:1T.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1177]
+{org:en}
+Climate modification
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103778302:0A.@entry, 114519366:02)
+mod(103778302:0A.@entry, 114519366:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1178]
+{org:en}
+Artificial processes that increase meteoric precipitation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200153263:0S, 100029677:0D.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300979234:11, 105061149:1A)
+agt(200153263:0S, 100029677:0D.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300979234:11, 105061149:1A)
+obj(200153263:0S, 105061149:1A)
+aoj(300073465:02, 100029677:0D.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300073465:02, 100029677:0D.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1179]
+{org:en}
+DAR
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323796:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323796:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1180]
+{org:en}
+Direct artificial recharge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300005473:02, 115689206:0K.@entry)
+aoj(300005473:02, 115689206:0K.@entry)
+aoj(300073465:09, 115689206:0K.@entry)
+aoj(300073465:09, 115689206:0K.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1181]
+{org:en}
+Desalinization
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115691060:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115691060:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1182]
+{org:en}
+Removal of dissolved minerals (including salt, but also other chemicals) from seawater, brackish water, or treated wastewater.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+frm(:02.@entry, :03)
+or:03(107935504:2R, 115008847:28)
+obj:01(600000007:0X, 105717342:17)
+mod:01(114806838:1S.@entry.@pl, 600000132:1D)
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+obj:01(600000007:0X, 105717342:17)
+mod:01(114806838:1S.@entry.@pl, 600000132:1D)
+or:03(115669276:39.@entry, 107935504:2R)
+aoj:01(600000007:0X, 114806838:1S.@entry.@pl)
+obj:02(200338559:0D.@past, 114662574:0N.@pl)
+and:02(:01.@entry.@parenthesis, 100216723:02)
+aoj:03(301074062:2I, 107935504:2R)
+and:02(:01.@entry.@parenthesis, 100216723:02)
+aoj:03(301074062:2I, 107935504:2R)
+obj:02(100216723:02, 114662574:0N.@pl)
+mod:01(114806838:1S.@entry.@pl, 600000031:1M)
+obj:03(200078760:31.@past, 115669276:39.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1183]
+{org:en}
+EGR
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324064:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500324064:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1184]
+{org:en}
+Exploitable groundwater resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303160852:02, 105154676:0Q.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(303160852:02, 105154676:0Q.@entry.@pl)
+mod(105154676:0Q.@entry.@pl, 115669379:0E)
+mod(105154676:0Q.@entry.@pl, 115669379:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1185]
+{org:en}
+IAR
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323836:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323836:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1186]
+{org:en}
+Indirect artificial recharge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689206:0M.@entry, 300762355:02)
+mod(115689206:0M.@entry, 300762355:02)
+aoj(300073465:0B, 115689206:0M.@entry)
+aoj(300073465:0B, 115689206:0M.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1187]
+{org:en}
+NGR
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324205:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500324205:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1188]
+{org:en}
+Natural groundwater resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105154676:0M.@entry.@pl, 301335708:02)
+mod(105154676:0M.@entry.@pl, 301335708:02)
+mod(105154676:0M.@entry.@pl, 115669379:0A)
+mod(105154676:0M.@entry.@pl, 115669379:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1189]
+{org:en}
+Natural water resources
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105154676:0G.@entry.@pl, 301335708:02)
+mod(105154676:0G.@entry.@pl, 301335708:02)
+mod(105154676:0G.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0A)
+mod(105154676:0G.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1190]
+{org:en}
+Water resources present in the environment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200772967:0I, 105154676:08.@entry.@pl)
+obj(200772967:0I, 105154676:08.@entry.@pl)
+plc(200772967:0I, 108567235:0X.@def)
+mod(105154676:08.@entry.@pl, 107935504:02)
+mod(105154676:08.@entry.@pl, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1191]
+{org:en}
+PWR
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324253:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500324253:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1192]
+{org:en}
+Potential water resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105154676:0I.@entry.@pl, 300044353:02)
+mod(105154676:0I.@entry.@pl, 300044353:02)
+mod(105154676:0I.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0C)
+mod(105154676:0I.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1193]
+{org:en}
+Pollutants
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+114857278:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+114857278:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1194]
+{org:en}
+Contaminant materials or organisms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+:01.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+:01.@entry
+[/W]
+mod:01(103729951:0E.@pl, 114821984:02)
+mod:01(103729951:0E.@pl, 114821984:02)
+or:01(100004475:0R.@entry.@pl, 103729951:0E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1195]
+{org:en}
+Not all pollution is caused directly by human activities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201645601:0N.@entry, 114516743:0A.@topic)
+aoj(301258617:16, 100407535:1C.@pl)
+obj(201645601:0N.@entry, 114516743:0A.@topic)
+aoj(301258617:16, 100407535:1C.@pl)
+man(201645601:0N.@entry, 400051848:0U)
+aoj(201645601:0N.@entry, 100407535:1C.@pl)
+aoj(201645601:0N.@entry, 100407535:1C.@pl)
+qua(114516743:0A.@topic, 600000011:06.@not)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1196]
+{org:en}
+Natural water pollution may be regarded as changes in the constituents and properties of water independent of human activities that are significantly greater than the expected normal variations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202133185:0X.@entry.@may, 600000313:16)
+aoj(301278818:48, 100407535:3A.@pl)
+mod(100191142:19.@pl, 100407535:3A.@pl)
+obj(200059376:4P.@past, 100194969:55.@def.@pl)
+mod(114516743:0G.@topic, 107935504:0A)
+man(301278818:48, 400006259:3U)
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+mod(100191142:19.@pl, 100407535:3A.@pl)
+obj(200059376:4P.@past, 100194969:55.@def.@pl)
+mod(114516743:0G.@topic, 107935504:0A)
+man(301278818:48, 400006259:3U)
+and:01(104012260:25.@entry.@pl, 106312966:1O.@def.@pl)
+mod(114516743:0G.@topic, 301335708:02)
+bas(301278818:48, 100194969:55.@def.@pl)
+mod(:01, 107935504:2J)
+obj(202133185:0X.@entry.@may, 114516743:0G.@topic)
+aoj(301258617:34, 100407535:3A.@pl)
+obj(202133185:0X.@entry.@may, 114516743:0G.@topic)
+aoj(301258617:34, 100407535:3A.@pl)
+plc(100191142:19.@pl, :01:01)
+aoj(301593649:4Y, 100194969:55.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000313:16, 100191142:19.@pl)
+man(301278818:48, 400099341:75)
+aoj(300727564:2P, 107935504:2J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1197]
+{org:en}
+Potential groundwater resources
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105154676:0O.@entry.@pl, 300044353:02)
+mod(105154676:0O.@entry.@pl, 300044353:02)
+mod(105154676:0O.@entry.@pl, 115669379:0C)
+mod(105154676:0O.@entry.@pl, 115669379:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1198]
+{org:en}
+The maximum volume of groundwater that can be replaced by artificial methods.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104990220:0E.@entry.@def, 115669379:0O)
+agt(200162688:1C.@ability, 105660268:1Z.@pl)
+mod(104990220:0E.@entry.@def, 115669379:0O)
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+aoj(300073465:1O, 105660268:1Z.@pl)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:1199]
+{org:en}
+Seawater intrusion
+{/org}
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+mod(100049530:0B.@entry, 115008847:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1200]
+{org:en}
+Increase in groundwater salinity at a given location and depth as a result of human impact (s).
+{/org}
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+and:01(105094725:1N.@entry.@indef, 100027167:1A.@indef)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1201]
+{org:en}
+Intrusion can result from a variety of influences.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200340704:0G.@entry.@ability, 100049530:02.@topic)
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+src(200340704:0G.@entry.@ability, 104751305:0U.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1202]
+{org:en}
+However, a particular groundwater problem worldwide is saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(100049530:1V.@entry, 400027384:02)
+aoj(301567694:18, 105687338:10.@topic.@indef)
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+mod(109201998:2G.@pl, 300462909:28)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:1203]
+{org:en}
+Here excessive pumping may cause lateral or upward movement of saline water into wells.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1204]
+{org:en}
+Storage coefficient
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(113586122:0A.@entry, 100811355:02)
+mod(113586122:0A.@entry, 100811355:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1205]
+{org:en}
+The volume of water, measured as a fraction of a cubic foot, released from storage in each "column" of an aquifer (with an equivalent base value and a height equal to the full thickness of the aquifer).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200647094:0N.@entry.@past, 201757994:1R.@past)
+aoj:02(300889831:4Q, :01)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1206]
+{org:en}
+TDS
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
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+[/W]
+[W]
+115669789:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1207]
+{org:en}
+Total dissolved solids.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(113860793:0I.@entry.@pl, 303160907:02)
+qua(113860793:0I.@entry.@pl, 303160907:02)
+aoj(301506258:08, 113860793:0I.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301506258:08, 113860793:0I.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1208]
+{org:en}
+WWR
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323965:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323965:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1209]
+{org:en}
+Wastewater regeneration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101047937:0D.@entry, 115669276:02)
+mod(101047937:0D.@entry, 115669276:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1210]
+{org:en}
+Wastewater recovery HTM1 or HTM2 regeneration
+{/org}
+{unl}
+or(101047937:0Z.@entry, 100045907:0D)
+or(101047937:0Z.@entry, 100045907:0D)
+mod(100045907:0D, 115669276:02)
+mod(100045907:0D, 115669276:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1211]
+{org:en}
+A process by which wastewater is treated to permit reuse for irrigation, industry, and municipal supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200078760:0Y, 100029677:04.@entry.@indef)
+and:01(113563522:2T.@entry, 100923444:25)
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+pur(115689531:1G, :01:01.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1212]
+{org:en}
+Regeneration is similar to wastewater treatment prior to discharge to lakes or rivers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301409581:0I.@entry, 101047937:02.@topic)
+to(100123234:1N, :01:01)
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+to(100123234:1N, :01:01)
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+aoj(600000365:1E, 100658082:14)
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+or:01(109411430:29.@entry.@pl, 109328904:20.@pl)
+obj(600000365:1E, 100123234:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1213]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1214]
+{org:en}
+Chiesa G. (1992).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323292:02.@entry, "1992":0D.@parenthesis)
+tim(500323292:02.@entry, "1992":0D.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1215]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 La Ricarica Artificiale Delle Falde HTM2 , 293 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(500324152:07.@entry, 115669681:1I)
+mod(500324152:07.@entry, 115669681:1I)
+qua(115669681:1I, "293":1E)
+qua(115669681:1I, "293":1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1216]
+{org:en}
+GEO-GRAPH.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324082:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500324082:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1217]
+{org:en}
+In Italian. Describes the different methods of artificial groundwater recharge, and the principles and methods of controlling and calculating the volume of water necessary for aquifer recharge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(:02.@entry, :03)
+obj:03(200637259:3O.@entry.@progress, 104990220:44.@def)
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+and:02(:01.@entry, 200987071:0E)
+mod:03(104990220:44.@def, 107935504:4E)
+aoj:02(300490413:0S, 105660268:12.@def.@pl)
+plc:02(200987071:0E, 109716047:05)
+mod:03(115689206:56, 109201998:4Y)
+and:03(200637259:3O.@entry.@progress, 200663160:38.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1218]
+{org:en}
+Custodio E. and Llamas M.R. (1996).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(:01.@entry, "1996":0V.@parenthesis)
+tim(:01.@entry, "1996":0V.@parenthesis)
+and:01(500323399:0I.@entry, 500323269:02)
+and:01(500323399:0I.@entry, 500323269:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1219]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 Hidrologia Subterranea HTM2 . (2 vols. 2359 pp.) Barcelona
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324099:07.@entry
+[/W]
+qua:01(115689976:14.@pl, "2":12)
+[W]
+500324099:07.@entry
+[/W]
+qua:01(115689976:14.@pl, "2":12)
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+mod:01(115669681:1F.@entry, 115689976:14.@pl)
+mod(110324357:1K.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1220]
+{org:en}
+Ediciones Omega, S.A.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324063:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500324063:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1221]
+{org:en}
+This handbook provi8es a wealth of useful information on virtually all areas of hydrology, hydrogeology, and hydrochemistry.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200406963:0G.@entry, 106421301:07.@topic)
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+mod:01(106084469:38.@entry, 303160971:33)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1222]
+{org:en}
+It contains authoritative coverage of the basic theories and principles, and indicates the data required for study and management of groundwater resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200923793:2E.@entry, 202701210:05)
+mod(105123760:0S, :01.@entry)
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+obj(202701210:05, 105123760:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1223]
+{org:en}
+National Research Council (1994).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323645:02.@entry, "1994":0T.@parenthesis)
+tim(500323645:02.@entry, "1994":0T.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1224]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 Groundwater Recharge Using Waters of Impaired Quality HTM2 . 283 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201158572:0S.@progress, 115689206:0J.@entry)
+qua(115669681:20.@entry, "283":1W)
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+obj(201158572:0S.@progress, 107935504:0Y)
+aoj(301274261:18, 104723816:1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1225]
+{org:en}
+Washington DC
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323548:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323548:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1226]
+{org:en}
+National Academy Press.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100627013:0J.@entry, 301105840:02)
+mod(100627013:0J.@entry, 301105840:02)
+mod(100627013:0J.@entry, 102669885:0B)
+mod(100627013:0J.@entry, 102669885:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1227]
+{org:en}
+O'Hare M.P., Fairchild D.M., Hajali P.A. and Canter L.W. (1997).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(:01.@entry, "1997":1O.@parenthesis)
+and:01(500323089:0F, 500323398:02)
+tim(:01.@entry, "1997":1O.@parenthesis)
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+and:01(500323140:0V, 500323089:0F)
+and:01(500323374:1B.@entry, 500323140:0V)
+and:01(500323374:1B.@entry, 500323140:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1228]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 Artificial Recharge of Groundwater HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(115689206:0I.@entry, 115669379:0U)
+obj(115689206:0I.@entry, 115669379:0U)
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+aoj(300073465:07, 115689206:0I.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1229]
+{org:en}
+Lewis Publishers
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323862:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323862:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1230]
+{org:en}
+This describes existing groundwater recharge projects.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200987071:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(105910453:1B.@pl, 115689206:12)
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+obj(200987071:07.@entry, 105910453:1B.@pl)
+mod(115689206:12, 115669379:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1231]
+{org:en}
+Examples are used to illustrate the common techniques used, show the variety of purposes for which recharge is planned, and provide concrete examples of the problems these projects sometimes face.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:0F.@entry, 105820620:02.@topic.@pl)
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+[S:1232]
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+Perez-Paricio A. and Carrera J. (1998).
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+[S:1233]
+{org:en}
+Preliminary study for deep injection experiments at the Cornella site, Barcelona.
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+HTM1 Third International Symposium on Artificial Recharge of Groundwater (TISAR). 21-25 September HTM2 , pp 325-330.
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+Amsterdam
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+A.A. Balkema.
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+[S:1237]
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+Describes the deep artificial groundwater recharge method applied at a site in Spain.
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+[S:1238]
+{org:en}
+Pyne R.D.G. (1995).
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+tim(500323452:02.@entry, "1995":0F.@parenthesis)
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+[S:1239]
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+Artificial Recharge of Groundwater.
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+[S:1240]
+{org:en}
+Groundwater Recharge and Wells
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+[S:1241]
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+376 pp.
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+qua(115669681:06.@entry, "376":02)
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+[S:1242]
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+Boca Raton, FL
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+[S:1243]
+{org:en}
+Lewis Publishers.
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+This book reviews the technical constraints on recharge, and various issues that have been addressed and resolved through research and experience at many sites.
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+[S:1245]
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+The book presents aquifer storage recovery (ASR) technology and traces its evolution since 1975 in the United States.
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+[S:1246]
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+The suggested procedures outlined should help achieve success with groundwater recharge through wells.
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+[S:1247]
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+Selected case studies are examined.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:1248]
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+Water Research Association (1970).
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1249]
+{org:en}
+Artificial Groundwater Recharge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:1250]
+{org:en}
+Reading Conference, 21-24 September.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:1251]
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+2 volumes. 481 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua(104990220:0A.@pl.@entry, "2":02)
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+
+[S:1252]
+{org:en}
+Marlow: Water Research Association.
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+
+[S:1253]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
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+{/unl}
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+
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+Dr. Roberto Spandre HTM1 was born on 30 April 1950.
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+He took his M.Sc. in Hydrogeology at Complutense University, Madrid, Spain, and his Ph.D. in Geology at the University of Pisa, Italy.
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+Since 1979 he has been Professor of Hydrology at UNAM (Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico), Mexico City.
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+In 1980 he was appointed Senior Geologist (Libya) at the Geological Research Center, Florence, Italy.
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+From 1981-91 he was Research Hydrogeologist at the Universidad Autonoma of Madrid, and was also employed by the Foreign Office Ministry of Italy.
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+Since 1991 he has been Research Hydrogeologist and Titular Professor in the Earth Sciences Department at the University of Pisa.
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+Dr. Spandre has undertaken research projects for the European Community, the Italian Ministry of Universities and Scientific and Technologic Research, the National Research Council of Italy, the Italian Foreign Office, and UNEP.
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+
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+He has worked throughout Spain and in Cuba, El Salvador, Ecuador, Colombia, Mexico (DF, Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosi8 Michoacan), Angola, Libya, India, the Czech Republic, the United States, and Argentina.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1262]
+{org:en}
+He is a member of AGID (Association of Geoscientists for International Development), IAH (International Association of Hydrogeologists), IAEH (International Association of Environmental Hydrology), UNCCD (Convention to Combat Desertificacion), HTM1 ALHSUD HTM2 (Asociacian Latinoamericana de Hidrologia para el Desarrollo), and the CST (Committee on Science and Technology) of the United Nations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(500323785:99.@entry.@def.@parenthesis, 500323671:6W)
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+cnt:01(500323698:3S, 500324112:3Y.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1263]
+{org:en}
+He has more than 70 publications to his credit.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:05.@entry, 600000021:02.@topic)
+mod(100037200:16, 600000021:12)
+to(101101958:0M.@pl, 100037200:16)
+aoj(200065370:05.@entry, 600000021:02.@topic)
+mod(100037200:16, 600000021:12)
+to(101101958:0M.@pl, 100037200:16)
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+bas(200065370:05.@entry, 101101958:0M.@pl)
+bas(200065370:05.@entry, 101101958:0M.@pl)
+qua(101101958:0M.@pl, "70":0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1264]
+{org:en}
+BETWEEN THE GREAT RIVERS
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000010:02.@entry, 109411430:0K.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000010:02.@entry, 109411430:0K.@def.@pl)
+mod(109411430:0K.@def.@pl, 301278818:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1265]
+{org:en}
+WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(107935504:02.@entry, :01:01)
+plc(107935504:02.@entry, :01:01)
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+and:01(500005162:0V.@entry.@def, 115668722:0F.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1266]
+{org:en}
+BETWEEN THE GREAT RIVERS
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000010:02.@entry, 109411430:0K.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000010:02.@entry, 109411430:0K.@def.@pl)
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+mod(109411430:0K.@def.@pl, 301278818:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1267]
+{org:en}
+WATER IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(107935504:02.@entry, :01:01)
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+and:01(500005162:0V.@entry.@def, 115668722:0F.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1268]
+{org:en}
+David B. Brooks
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323014:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323014:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1269]
+{org:en}
+Environment and Natural Resources Division, International Development Research Center, Canada
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(100385791:10.@entry, 100725506:29)
+aoj(301568375:1A, 100725506:29)
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+plc(100725506:29, 500003493:2H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1270]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1271]
+{org:en}
+Fresh water, Irrigation, Middle East and North Africa / MENA, Rainwater harvesting, Supplemental Irrigation, Virtual water, Water management, Water institutions, Water recycling, Water saving,Water scarcity,Water wars
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105116953:5K, 107935504:5E)
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+mod(200175804:22.@progress, 115689732:1S)
+mod(105116953:5K, 107935504:5E)
+aoj(300205295:02, 107935504:08)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1272]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1273]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1274]
+{org:en}
+Physical Sources of Stress
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104263614:0B.@entry.@pl, 107085375:0M)
+mod(104263614:0B.@entry.@pl, 107085375:0M)
+mod(104263614:0B.@entry.@pl, 300627004:02)
+mod(104263614:0B.@entry.@pl, 300627004:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1275]
+{org:en}
+Quantity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105108740:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+105108740:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1276]
+{org:en}
+Economic Stress
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107085375:0B.@entry, 300840212:02)
+mod(107085375:0B.@entry, 300840212:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1277]
+{org:en}
+Water Quality
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104723816:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+mod(104723816:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1278]
+{org:en}
+Ecological Stress
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302906478:02, 107085375:0D.@entry)
+aoj(302906478:02, 107085375:0D.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1279]
+{org:en}
+Equity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+113333420:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+113333420:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1280]
+{org:en}
+Political Stress
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301814385:02, 107085375:0C.@entry)
+aoj(301814385:02, 107085375:0C.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1281]
+{org:en}
+Conclusion
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1282]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1283]
+{org:en}
+Nomenclature
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115669502:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115669502:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1284]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1285]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1286]
+{org:en}
+Summary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1287]
+{org:en}
+The nations of the Middle East and North Africa have always been short of water.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1288]
+{org:en}
+What they face today is not so much a crisis over water as a chronic problem escalating to serious proportions because older problems are deepening at the same time as newer ones become evident.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1289]
+{org:en}
+With a few exceptions, the nations in this region have already reached or are fast approaching the limits of their indigenous water supplies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+agt(200743344:1T.@complete, 108166552:0T.@topic.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1290]
+{org:en}
+Water quality is declining across the region as a result of casual disposal of wastewater, over-pumping of groundwater and disregard of ecological protection provided by leaving water in place.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:02(600000171:1B, 100043609:1X)
+man:02(200406963:4G, 400535875:56)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1291]
+{org:en}
+Though some forces, such as more pricing of water, and technological advances, particularly for wastewater and for use of groundwater, can mitigate their problems, others such a climate change , population growth and higher incomes will exacerbate them.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(201820901:6M.@entry.@will, 200198850:3X.@ability)
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+[S:1292]
+{org:en}
+Except for those few nations with enough energy to run desalination plants or enough money to seek exploit distant sources, greater efficiency in water use and shifts of water from one sector to another are the only big options left.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The former may be promoted (if only mildly) by existing institutions
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+the latter almost never are.
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+
+[S:1295]
+{org:en}
+However, given that most nations in the Middle East and North Africa continue to use 60 to 90% of their fresh water for irrigation, while their economies provide, in most cases less than 10% of their gross domestic product, they really have no alternative.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1296]
+{org:en}
+Ironically but happily, the same policies that are required for more sustainable water management are also those needed for economic and social development in their increasingly urbanized nations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1297]
+{org:en}
+Governments in the region must shift from today's emphasis on technical ways to increase the supply of fresh water to socio-economic ways to reduce water demand through efficiency and to reallocate demand from agricultural to urban and industrial uses.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1298]
+{org:en}
+Though policies to promote greater efficiency can be implemented quickly, policies to reallocate water must be implemented slowly, at least in those nations where large parts of the population remains dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1299]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1300]
+{org:en}
+Fresh water has been the key natural resource during the three millennia for which we have recorded history in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA).
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Some regions of the world are drier, and others have higher populations or larger economies, but no other region of the world embraces such a large area with so many people striving so hard for economic growth on the basis of so little water
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1302]
+{org:en}
+MENA has 5% of the world's population but only 1% of its fresh water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1303]
+{org:en}
+Excluding island and city states, there are only 20 nations with internal renewable fresh water availability below 1000 cubic metres per capita (a commonly used determinant of water stress)
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300657198:39, 103753077:3F.@pl)
+man(400501291:3M, 108166552:1I.@pl)
+man:02(105692419:4E.@entry.@indef, 400516615:40)
+mod(100024720:0S.@pl, :01)
+aoj(300205295:2E, 115668897:2Q)
+mod(103753077:3F.@pl, 115668897:2Q)
+mod:02(107085375:4Z, 107935504:4T)
+obj(400535921:02, 100024720:0S.@pl)
+aoj(300925820:24, 115668897:2Q)
+man(400501291:3M, 103753077:3F.@pl)
+mod:02(105692419:4E.@entry.@indef, 302494923:49)
+man(202603699:16.@entry, 400535921:02)
+qua(108166552:1I.@pl, "20":1F)
+mod(115668897:2Q, 300948670:1V)
+man(202603699:16.@entry, 400535921:02)
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+mod(115668897:2Q, 300948670:1V)
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+mod(115668897:2Q, 107935504:2K)
+qua(103753077:3F.@pl, "1000":34)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1304]
+{org:en}
+15 of them are found in MENA.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202775107:0H.@entry, :10.@topic)
+pof(:10.@topic, 600000020:08)
+obj(202775107:0H.@entry, :10.@topic)
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+plc(202775107:0H.@entry, 500323520:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1305]
+{org:en}
+The others are Hungary, South Africa and three countries in East Africa.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 600000063:06.@topic.@def)
+qua:01(108168978:1D.@entry.@pl, "3":17)
+aoj(:01.@entry, 600000063:06.@topic.@def)
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+and:01(108168978:1D.@entry.@pl, 500004270:0Q)
+and:01(108168978:1D.@entry.@pl, 500004270:0Q)
+and:01(500004270:0Q, 500004048:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1306]
+{org:en}
+Three Sources of Crisis
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(107417644:0J, 104263614:08.@entry.@pl)
+qua(107417644:0J, 104263614:08.@entry.@pl)
+qua(104263614:08.@entry.@pl, "3":02)
+qua(104263614:08.@entry.@pl, "3":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1307]
+{org:en}
+Throughout MENA, the origin of water stress stems from three interacting problems
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(104923743:0T.@topic.@def, 107085375:19)
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+obj(600000103:02, 500323520:0D)
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+obj(200176137:1G.@entry, 104923743:0T.@topic.@def)
+mod(104923743:0T.@topic.@def, 104923743:0N)
+agt(202376958:1X.@progress, 105687338:29.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1308]
+{org:en}
+Quantity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105108740:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+105108740:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1309]
+{org:en}
+The demand for fresh water in the region exceeds the naturally occurring, renewable supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202669081:17.@entry, 101061333:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300205295:0H, 107935504:0N)
+pur(101061333:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0N)
+agt(202669081:17.@entry, 101061333:06.@topic.@def)
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+pur(101061333:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0N)
+man(200723349:1T.@progress, 400038625:1J.@def)
+man(202669081:17.@entry, 200723349:1T.@progress)
+man(202669081:17.@entry, 200723349:1T.@progress)
+aoj(300925820:24, 113563522:2E.@entry)
+plc(107935504:0N, 105221895:10.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1310]
+{org:en}
+Quality
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+104723816:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+104723816:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1311]
+{org:en}
+Much of the region's limited water is polluted from growing volumes of human, industrial, and agricultural wastes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200492706:18.@entry, 600000224:02.@topic)
+and:01(302790222:2S.@entry, 301188648:2C)
+mod(104990220:1U.@pl, 303070879:1M)
+obj(200492706:18.@entry, 600000224:02.@topic)
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+mod(107935504:0Z.@def, 105221895:0E)
+obj(104990220:1U.@pl, 115689751:35.@pl)
+mod(600000224:02.@topic, 107935504:0Z.@def)
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+src(200492706:18.@entry, 104990220:1U.@pl)
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+aoj(:01, 115689751:35.@pl)
+aoj(300529191:0R, 107935504:0Z.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1312]
+{org:en}
+Equity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+113333420:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+113333420:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1313]
+{org:en}
+The same water is subject to competing political demands -- in some cases from different sectors within one nation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300071559:0K.@entry, 107935504:0B.@topic)
+aoj(400159040:2Y, 108166552:32)
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+agt(201072262:0V.@progress, 101061333:1F.@pl)
+aoj(300071559:0K.@entry, 107935504:0B.@topic)
+aoj(400159040:2Y, 108166552:32)
+frm(102974697:1Y.@pl, 104165551:2J.@pl)
+agt(201072262:0V.@progress, 101061333:1F.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:29, 104165551:2J.@pl)
+obj(300071559:0K.@entry, 101061333:1F.@pl)
+aoj(600000006:2R, 104165551:2J.@pl)
+plc(300071559:0K.@entry, 102974697:1Y.@pl)
+aoj(300355611:06, 107935504:0B.@topic)
+plc(300071559:0K.@entry, 102974697:1Y.@pl)
+aoj(300355611:06, 107935504:0B.@topic)
+qua(102974697:1Y.@pl, 600000034:1T)
+aoj(301814385:15, 101061333:1F.@pl)
+obj(600000006:2R, 108166552:32)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1314]
+{org:en}
+in others, between nations where the water flows across or along or under an international border.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(600000010:0D.@entry, 600000063:05)
+obj(:02, 102875013:2L.@indef)
+obj(200217427:19, 107935504:13.@def)
+plc(600000010:0D.@entry, 600000063:05)
+obj(:02, 102875013:2L.@indef)
+obj(200217427:19, 107935504:13.@def)
+aoj(301568375:27, 102875013:2L.@indef)
+plc(200217427:19, 108166552:0L.@pl)
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+obj(600000010:0D.@entry, 108166552:0L.@pl)
+obj(600000010:0D.@entry, 108166552:0L.@pl)
+or:01(600000003:1Y.@entry, 600000105:1P)
+man(200217427:19, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1315]
+{org:en}
+If water scarcity has been a source of stress since history began, water quality is a new source but one that is coming to dominate the crisis in many parts of the world.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(104263614:2K.@entry.@indef, 104263614:0V.@complete.@indef)
+qua(103892891:49.@pl, 600000028:44)
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+aoj(104263614:2K.@entry.@indef, 104723816:23.@topic)
+mod(104723816:23.@topic, 107935504:1X)
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+mod(104723816:23.@topic, 107935504:1X)
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+qua(105670972:4M.@def, 103892891:49.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1316]
+{org:en}
+And the politics of water is probably of greater concern in this region than anywhere else in the world.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105670710:1F.@entry, 100611972:0A.@topic.@def.@pl)
+man(301278818:17, 400099341:2Y)
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+aoj(105670710:1F.@entry, 100611972:0A.@topic.@def.@pl)
+man(301278818:17, 400099341:2Y)
+plc(105670710:1F.@entry, 105221895:1V)
+mod(100611972:0A.@topic.@def.@pl, 107935504:0M)
+man(105670710:1F.@entry, 400138611:0V)
+plc(:4H, 105670972:2S.@def)
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+bas(105670710:1F.@entry, :4H)
+mod(105221895:1V, 600000017:1Q)
+mod(105670710:1F.@entry, 301278818:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1317]
+{org:en}
+Physical Sources of Stress
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104263614:0B.@entry.@pl, 107085375:0M)
+mod(104263614:0B.@entry.@pl, 107085375:0M)
+mod(104263614:0B.@entry.@pl, 300627004:02)
+mod(104263614:0B.@entry.@pl, 300627004:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1318]
+{org:en}
+Water is the limiting resource for development in most countries of the MENA.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105154676:0O.@entry.@def, 107935504:02.@topic)
+qua(108168978:1L.@pl, 600000067:1G)
+plc(100250259:11, 108168978:1L.@pl)
+aoj(105154676:0O.@entry.@def, 107935504:02.@topic)
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+plc(100250259:11, 108168978:1L.@pl)
+aoj(302004385:0F, 105154676:0O.@entry.@def)
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+pur(105154676:0O.@entry.@def, 100250259:11)
+qua(500323520:22.@def, 108168978:1L.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1319]
+{org:en}
+According to common criteria for water availability
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000046:02.@entry, 115689586:0M.@pl)
+mod(115668897:15, 107935504:0Z)
+obj(600000046:02.@entry, 115689586:0M.@pl)
+mod(115668897:15, 107935504:0Z)
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+pur(115689586:0M.@pl, 115668897:15)
+pur(115689586:0M.@pl, 115668897:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1320]
+{org:en}
+Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Sudan, Syria and Turkey are fairly well endowed with water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300671091:1R.@entry.@past, :01)
+and:01(500004423:0U.@topic, 500004404:0N.@topic)
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+and:01(500004423:0U.@topic, 500004404:0N.@topic)
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+and:01(500003877:08.@topic, 500003863:02.@topic)
+man(300671091:1R.@entry.@past, 400011093:1M)
+and:01(500004073:0E.@topic, 500003877:08.@topic)
+obj(300671091:1R.@entry.@past, 107935504:24)
+obj(300671091:1R.@entry.@past, 107935504:24)
+and:01(500004404:0N.@topic, 500004073:0E.@topic)
+and:01(101794158:14.@entry.@topic, 500004423:0U.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1321]
+{org:en}
+Algeria, Egypt, Israel and Morocco form a middle group
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200144850:11.@entry, :01)
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+and:01(114763059:0T.@entry.@topic, 500003371:0I.@topic)
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+obj(200144850:11.@entry, 100031264:1F.@indef)
+obj(200144850:11.@entry, 100031264:1F.@indef)
+and:01(500003371:0I.@topic, 115690374:0B.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1322]
+{org:en}
+and Jordan, Libya, Tunisia and countries of the Arabian peninsula are least well endowed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202201268:2B.@entry, :2C)
+mod(:01, 109388848:1M.@def)
+man(400011093:26, 600000669:20)
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+mod(:01, 109388848:1M.@def)
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+and:01(500004083:0E, 115690533:06)
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+and:01(500004442:0L, 500004083:0E)
+obj(202201268:2B.@entry, :01:01)
+obj(202201268:2B.@entry, :01:01)
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+man(600000669:20, 400536271:3L)
+aoj(303044462:1E, 109388848:1M.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1323]
+{org:en}
+For Palestinians, the West Bank is relatively well off but the Gaza Strip is perennially short of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(303161469:2J.@contrast.@entry, 500003378:1T.@topic.@def)
+aoj(303162386:1C, 500003374:0O.@topic.@def)
+man(303161469:2J.@contrast.@entry, 400227818:27)
+and(303161469:2J.@contrast.@entry, 500003378:1T.@topic.@def)
+aoj(303162386:1C, 500003374:0O.@topic.@def)
+man(303161469:2J.@contrast.@entry, 400227818:27)
+obj(303161469:2J.@contrast.@entry, 107935504:2S)
+aoj(303161469:2J.@contrast.@entry, 500003378:1T.@topic.@def)
+aoj(303161469:2J.@contrast.@entry, 500003378:1T.@topic.@def)
+man(303162386:1C, 400160834:11)
+pur(303162386:1C, 109713357:06.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1324]
+{org:en}
+However, all nations share one common characteristic
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201063930:0N.@entry, 600000070:02)
+qua(108166552:0F.@topic.@pl, 600000011:0B)
+aoj(400159040:0T, 104731497:14)
+man(201063930:0N.@entry, 600000070:02)
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+aoj(400159040:0T, 104731497:14)
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+agt(201063930:0N.@entry, 108166552:0F.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300485711:0X, 104731497:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1325]
+{org:en}
+declining water availability per capita.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(400501291:0V, 115668897:0I.@entry)
+aoj(400501291:0V, 115668897:0I.@entry)
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+obj(200431826:02.@progress, 115668897:0I.@entry)
+obj(200431826:02.@progress, 115668897:0I.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1326]
+{org:en}
+The Middle East and North Africa are highly varied in geography and climate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300355083:1A.@entry, :01)
+and:02(114519366:1Y.@entry, 106122178:1K)
+aoj(300355083:1A.@entry, :01)
+and:02(114519366:1Y.@entry, 106122178:1K)
+man(300355083:1A.@entry, 400089267:13)
+scn(300355083:1A.@entry, :02:02)
+scn(300355083:1A.@entry, :02:02)
+and:01(500005162:0M.@entry.@topic.@def, 115668722:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1327]
+{org:en}
+Coastal plains merge in a few kilometres to mountain ranges, which then plummet to rift valleys with the lowest land elevations on earth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202776063:0H.@entry, 115688961:0A.@topic.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1328]
+{org:en}
+Rainfall ranges from over 1000 mm per year to nil.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1329]
+{org:en}
+The average is about 250 mm, but averages are highly misleading.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1330]
+{org:en}
+The dominant hydrological characteristic in MENA is the combination of aridity and uncertainty.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:1331]
+{org:en}
+Seasonal and spatial variations of rainfall are sharp but predictable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(:01, 100194969:0N.@topic.@pl)
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+
+[S:1332]
+{org:en}
+Most of the rain will fall in four winter months.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(600000078:02.@topic, 105045208:0E.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1333]
+{org:en}
+The thin coastal strip of Lebanon gets nearly 2500 Mcm of rain per year
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1334]
+{org:en}
+just 50 km to the east across the Lebanon Mountains, the Beka'a Valley, where most of the agriculture is located, gets less than 1000.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(302126430:2Z, 600000078:28.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1335]
+{org:en}
+The most important and least predictable variations in rainfall are neither seasonal nor spatial but annual.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man:01(600000177:0P.@entry, 400536271:36)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1336]
+{org:en}
+Reliable flow (defined as what can be expected nine years out of ten) is less than 10%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(100329227:0B.@topic, 400099868:23.@entry)
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+obj:01(600000235:1O, "10":1V)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:1337]
+{org:en}
+As a result, extreme years in rainfall in the region must be treated as normal, not abnormal, and water planning and management must focus on risk minimization, not maximum utilization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202676496:3Y.@entry.@obligation, 200078760:1R.@obligation)
+gol(200078760:1R.@obligation, :01.@entry)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1338]
+{org:en}
+Global climate change will only make the current situation worse.
+{/org}
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+mod(113925752:1F.@def, 300666058:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1339]
+{org:en}
+Different scenarios imply different results for many parts of the world, but almost all models project higher temperatures, lower rainfall, and longer droughts for MENA.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1340]
+{org:en}
+Even if such models remain highly uncertain in detail, it would be foolish to ignore their broad results.
+{/org}
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+[S:1341]
+{org:en}
+Quantity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1342]
+{org:en}
+Economic Stress
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107085375:0B.@entry, 300840212:02)
+mod(107085375:0B.@entry, 300840212:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1343]
+{org:en}
+Each of the states of the Arabian Peninsula is consuming more water than its annual renewable supply, as are Israel, Jordan, and Libya.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:1344]
+{org:en}
+Egypt, Syria, and the Sudan are fast approaching the same situation.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1345]
+{org:en}
+Some projections for the Jordan River basin suggest that by 2025 household, urban and industrial uses will take every drop of fresh water available, leaving none for agriculture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100327366:3J, 107935504:3X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1346]
+{org:en}
+The Arab region as a whole is already using three-fifths of its total renewable supply regardless of cost.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1347]
+{org:en}
+All of these countries are in trouble
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(400536059:0T.@entry, 600000166:02.@topic)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1348]
+{org:en}
+their water use is unsustainable, which implies that their economic growth is not sustainable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(200929839:16, 600000120:10.@topic)
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+aoj(200929839:16, 600000120:10.@topic)
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+mod(100947128:0E.@topic, 600000020:02.@pl)
+mod(100947128:0E.@topic, 600000020:02.@pl)
+aoj(302806261:2C.@not, 108438067:1Y.@topic)
+obj(200929839:16, 302806261:2C.@not)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1349]
+{org:en}
+Principal Sources of Water Supply
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104263614:0C.@entry.@pl, 113563522:0T)
+mod(104263614:0C.@entry.@pl, 113563522:0T)
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+mod(104263614:0C.@entry.@pl, 303161143:02)
+mod(104263614:0C.@entry.@pl, 303161143:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1350]
+{org:en}
+Rivers are the best known sources of water, and those in MENA include two of the greatest in the world, the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 109411430:02.@topic.@pl)
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+mod:02(:5G.@def, 301278818:2B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1351]
+{org:en}
+The Blue Nile, which carries the bulk of the flow, originates in Ethiopia, and the White Nile in Uganda
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500005904:2K.@entry.@def, 500005266:06.@def)
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+obj(200235110:0Q, 100329227:1E.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1352]
+{org:en}
+they join in Khartoum.
+{/org}
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+plc(201291069:07.@entry, 500004408:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1353]
+{org:en}
+Both the Tigris and the Euphrates originate in Turkey
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(201628449:10.@entry, 101794158:1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1354]
+{org:en}
+they join near the southeastern corner of Iraq.
+{/org}
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+aoj(300827743:0L, 103109486:0Y.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1355]
+{org:en}
+A few medium-sized rivers, such as the Jordan and the Orontes, also occur, mainly in the nations to the east of the Mediterranean.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200723349:1Y.@entry, 109411430:0L.@topic.@pl)
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+man(200723349:1Y.@entry, 400047534:1T)
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+man(200723349:1Y.@entry, 400535216:25)
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+plc(200723349:1Y.@entry, 108166552:2J.@def.@pl)
+plc(200723349:1Y.@entry, 108166552:2J.@def.@pl)
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+to(108166552:2J.@def.@pl, 108561351:2Y.@def)
+obj(600000029:0T, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1356]
+{org:en}
+As well many short or ephemeral streams occur, typically fed by springs in the mountains which flow down and then spill into the sea or seep into the desert.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200723349:16.@entry, 600000243:02)
+or:02(202071974:3U.@entry, 200429642:38)
+man(200189511:1N.@entry, 400128168:1D)
+or:01(301756292:0O.@entry, 300709021:0F)
+man:02(200429642:38, 400117620:33)
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+man(200189511:1N.@entry, 400128168:1D)
+or:01(301756292:0O.@entry, 300709021:0F)
+man:02(200429642:38, 400117620:33)
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+gol:02(200429642:38, 109426788:3N.@def)
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+gol:02(202071974:3U.@entry, 108505573:48.@def)
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+gol:02(202071974:3U.@entry, 108505573:48.@def)
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+or:01(300709021:0F, 600000028:0A)
+man:03(200217427:2P, 600000183:2U)
+and:03(:02.@entry, 200217427:2P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1357]
+{org:en}
+Aquifers of various types are also common.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300485711:11.@entry, 109201998:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303160904:0E, 104504486:0M.@pl)
+aoj(300485711:11.@entry, 109201998:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303160904:0E, 104504486:0M.@pl)
+mod(109201998:02.@topic.@pl, 104504486:0M.@pl)
+man(300485711:11.@entry, 400047534:0W)
+man(300485711:11.@entry, 400047534:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1358]
+{org:en}
+Some are replenished regularly by rainfall and thus constitute renewable resources
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202620587:1I.@entry, 200453803:0B)
+obj(200453803:0B, 600000195:02.@topic)
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+man(202620587:1I.@entry, 400121135:1D)
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+agt(200453803:0B, 115689316:10)
+aoj(300925820:1T, 105154676:23.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1359]
+{org:en}
+others contain water buried in sediments eons ago and thus constitute nonrenewable resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 600000063:02)
+obj:01(202701210:09, 107935504:0H)
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+aoj(:01.@entry, 600000063:02)
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+plc:01(201234625:0N, 109428967:0X.@pl)
+obj:01(202620587:1P.@entry, 105154676:2D.@pl)
+man:01(201234625:0N, 600000148:1C)
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+and:01(202620587:1P.@entry, 202701210:09)
+obj:01(201234625:0N, 107935504:0H)
+aoj:01(300925820:23.@not, 105154676:2D.@pl)
+man:01(600000148:1C, 109536584:17.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1360]
+{org:en}
+Some of these aquifers are truly huge, as with the Nubian Aquifer underlying parts of Chad, Egypt, Libya and the Sudan.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161154:0Z.@entry, 600000195:02.@topic)
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+obj(600000018:18, 103892891:27.@pl)
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+mod(109201998:0G.@pl, 600000022:0A.@pl)
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+mod(103892891:27.@pl, :01)
+and:01(500004083:2T, 115690374:2M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1361]
+{org:en}
+Many of the large aquifers originated from sediments under the sea, and the contained water is too salty for direct use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301073822:2T.@entry, 109201998:0K.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+obj(600000009:1J, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1362]
+{org:en}
+However, others, as with the Mountain Aquifer the ridge separating Israel and Palestine, and the Disi Aquifer underlying parts of Jordan and Saudi Arabia, contain potable water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:03(202664575:34.@progress, 103892891:3F.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1363]
+{org:en}
+One remarkable set of aquifers emerges from the seabed off the coast of Lebanon, some with enough volume to yield fresh water "slicks" at the surface of the sea.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(104362025:4A.@def, 109426788:4P.@def)
+mod(104990220:2S, 600000275:2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1364]
+{org:en}
+Over time, as surface sources have become fully committed and as technology has permitted deeper drilling, there has been a shift from surface to underground water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202603699:3I.@entry.@complete, 600000040:02)
+man:01(200603981:2U, 600000247:2N)
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+man:01(200149583:14.@should.@complete, 400010466:1B)
+man:01(200802318:2D.@entry.@complete, 200603981:2U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1365]
+{org:en}
+Even so, only about 10% of total supply for the region comes from underground sources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200341917:1K.@entry, 400535197:0B)
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+obj(200341917:1K.@entry, 113563522:0Z.@topic)
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+qua(113563522:0Z.@topic, 600000076:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1366]
+{org:en}
+However, in Israel and Jordan, the share of underground water approaches 50%, and in the Arabian peninsula 100% (if desalination is put to one side).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+Major fresh water aquifers remain to be developed (indeed, to be discovered), but they are deeper or lower in quality or further from points of consumption, any of which means higher costs.
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+Nevertheless, the share of water drawn from aquifers is bound to grow, especially to supply urban areas, where consumers can pay higher prices than can farmers.
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+Recycling Water
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+The nutrient value of recycled sewage water is high, and, with appropriate controls, can be used by farmers.
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+The use of treated sewage water for irrigating crops is accepted practice in countries such as Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Morocco and Tunisia.
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+In some countries, raw sewage continues to be used, which risks the spread of cholera and other diseases.
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+By early in the next century, many countries in MENA will use only recycled water for irrigation.
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+Only water that has received tertiary treatment, which implies marginal costs (above those of sewage collection) of at least
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+As well, there are growing concerns about the long-term effects on soils of continued recycling of waste water, and some Israeli scientists recommend desalination prior to reuse, a step that would add significantly to cost.
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+{org:en}
+Alternative Sources of Water
+{/org}
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+In addition to the sources mentioned to now, there are many currently small, but potentially much larger, sources of supply in MENA.
+{/org}
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+Desalination of sea water
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+Imports of water overland or by sea
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+Most of the low-capital/decentralized options are not only technically proven, but also cost effective compared with new conventional water supply.
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+Even in areas such as Gaza, it is possible to design low-cost systems with cisterns scaled to families that will provide for all drinking and cooking needs (5 to 7 litres/person-day) in most years.
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+Similarly, rainwater harvesting methods, such as construction of small earth dams and micro-catchments, most of which were developed by the Nabateans and other peoples millennia ago, can now be extended through use of global positioning and computer optimization among slope, soil type, crop selection, etc. to permit sustainable agriculture in areas of 100 to 200 mm of rain per year.
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+As well, "supplemental irrigation" can increase yields by factors of four, and greatly reduce the risk of crop failure, in years of low rainfall.
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+This approach is an adaptation of rain-fed agriculture that provides relatively small amounts of irrigation at times critical to plant growth.
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+Both water harvesting and supplemental irrigation aim to maximize returns per unit of water instead of per unit of land.
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+A proposed scheme to export water from Turkey to Israel was cancelled as a result of high costs and reduced need as water use grew more slowly than expected.
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+First efforts focussed on huge plastic bags containing 20 thousand cubic metres ("Medusa Bags"), but technical problems arose and plans have now shifted to the use of refitted tankers.
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+Seawater desalination is of course the ultimate, unlimited source of water.
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+All technologies use vast quantities of energy, so current use is mainly restricted to those countries with low-cost oil reserves or heavy oil left after refining.
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+Not surprisingly, about two-thirds of the world's "desal" capacity is located in the Arab region.
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+However, technological development, aided in part by establishment of the Middle East Desalination Research Centre in Muskat, Oman, has been steady, and on-site costs are now below
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+Such costs are only twice what urban consumers already pay in Israel, and below those paid by people who receive drinking water by truck or who have to purchase it by the litre - but very much above what urban consumers are used to paying in most of Arab nations
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1417]
+{org:en}
+many receive water almost free.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200117346:0B.@entry, 600000234:06.@topic)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1418]
+{org:en}
+Israel has completed one new "desal" plant near Ashkelon and has several others under construction.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200065370:21.@entry, 200455750:0D.@complete)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1419]
+{org:en}
+If they are successful, others will follow in MENA nations with enough money to pay capital costs, and in such water-short cities as Gaza and Aqaba where donor agencies may offer financing.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1420]
+{org:en}
+Even with technological advances, seawater desalination is unlikely ever to be cheap enough to play any role in agriculture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(600000157:1P.@entry, 400017639:02)
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+mod(100722061:2Y, 600000052:2U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1421]
+{org:en}
+What might occur is desalination of brackish water (2000 to 5000 ppm), which is found in enormous quantities in aquifers underlying many parts of the region, including the Sinai.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(113462795:0M.@entry, 200723349:0D.@topic.@may.@past)
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+qua(103892891:3V.@pl, 600000028:3Q)
+aoj(301385255:2J, 105108740:2S.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1422]
+{org:en}
+Indirect or Virtual Water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107935504:0M.@entry, :01)
+mod(107935504:0M.@entry, :01)
+or:01(300902157:0E.@entry, 300762355:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1423]
+{org:en}
+Vast quantities of water move internationally in the form of agricultural and industrial products.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200124442:0R.@entry, 107935504:0L.@topic)
+and:01(301188648:28.@entry, 302790222:1R)
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+qua(107935504:0L.@topic, 105108740:07.@pl)
+mod(103748886:2J.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1424]
+{org:en}
+to the extent that these commodities require water for their production, shipment implies indirect or virtual transfer of that water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200929839:2C.@entry, 600000712:02)
+pur(107935504:1B, 100522736:1R)
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+mod(100201671:34, :01)
+obj(202774169:13.@should, 107935504:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1425]
+{org:en}
+Ironically, when citrus fruit from the Middle East is shipped to North America, water is being moved from a water-deficient to a water-surplus area.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200124442:2P.@entry.@progress, 600000033:0E)
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+man(600000033:0E, 400382507:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1426]
+{org:en}
+The reverse occurs when grains are shipped from North America to the Middle East, and in fact this is by far the larger flow.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200723349:0E.@entry, :02:02)
+fmt:01(115668722:1Z.@entry.@def, 115691114:1E)
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+aoj:02(100329227:3E.@entry.@def, 600000022:2O.@topic)
+man:02(201496978:11, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1427]
+{org:en}
+Professor Allan of the University of London has estimated that the indirect flow of water into the Middle East as grain imports is equivalent to the flow of the Nile.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(200672433:1E.@entry.@complete, 300890351:3P)
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+aoj(300890351:3P, 103564667:3E.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1428]
+{org:en}
+Probably as much or more also arrives in the form of primary products, such as steel, which requires 200 to 300 cubic metres of water per tonne.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(400138611:02.@entry, 202005948:13)
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+fmt:02("300":3G.@entry, "200":39)
+obj(202774169:30, 107935504:40)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1429]
+{org:en}
+Whatever the exact quantities, the volume of indirect water that moves in international trade is enormous, and, logically in the case of the Arab region, the net flow is inward.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300951247:4S.@entry, 301385255:2R)
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+mod(104990220:11.@topic.@def, 107935504:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1430]
+{org:en}
+Main Uses of Water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100947128:07.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0F)
+obj(100947128:07.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0F)
+mod(100947128:07.@entry.@pl, 301512527:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1431]
+{org:en}
+Water use can be broadly divided into five categories
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200642098:0R.@entry.@ability, 100947128:08.@topic)
+qua(105838765:19.@pl, "5":14)
+obj(200642098:0R.@entry.@ability, 100947128:08.@topic)
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+gol(200642098:0R.@entry.@ability, 105838765:19.@pl)
+mod(100947128:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1432]
+{org:en}
+household
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115669720:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115669720:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1433]
+{org:en}
+municipal
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+301038580:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+301038580:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1434]
+{org:en}
+industry
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100923444:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100923444:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1435]
+{org:en}
+agriculture
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+108075287:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+108075287:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1436]
+{org:en}
+and ecological.
+{/org}
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+and(302906478:06.@entry, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1437]
+{org:en}
+Municipal use refers both to the water delivered to commercial buildings and hotels for the same purposes as households, and to the larger amounts used for urban gardens, street cleaning, fire fighting etc.
+{/org}
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+[S:1438]
+{org:en}
+Ecological use refers to the amount of water that must be left in place to support fisheries and hydro-power, as well as to protect habitat and promote tourism.
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+
+[S:1439]
+{org:en}
+Proportions of use across the region range as follows
+{/org}
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+[S:1440]
+{org:en}
+Sector of Use Percentage
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+
+[S:1441]
+{org:en}
+Households
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+[S:1442]
+{org:en}
+Municipal
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+[S:1443]
+{org:en}
+Industrial
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+{/unl}
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+[S:1444]
+{org:en}
+Agriculture
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+[W]
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1445]
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+Ecological large but uncertain
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:1446]
+{org:en}
+Apart from the indeterminate amount of water required to maintain ecosystems, agriculture is the big consumer.
+{/org}
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+obj(100033615:0V.@def, 107935504:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1447]
+{org:en}
+No other region of the world is so dependent upon irrigation as is MENA.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:1448]
+{org:en}
+A surprisingly small proportion of water needs to meet drinking water standards.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1449]
+{org:en}
+At 5 to 7 litres per person-day (l/p-d), only about 2 Mcm per year is needed for every one million inhabitants, which is not very much water.
+{/org}
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+[S:1450]
+{org:en}
+Adding enough water for cooking, hygiene and bathing only increases the requirement to 50 l/p-d, or about 20 Mcm per year for a city of one million.
+{/org}
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+[S:1451]
+{org:en}
+Conservation of Water
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+{/unl}
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+[S:1452]
+{org:en}
+Conservation of water, including both increases in efficiency with existing uses and changing use patterns, has always been a major consideration in the water-short Middle East.
+{/org}
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+[S:1453]
+{org:en}
+However, the fact that a region is short of water does not imply either that existing uses are efficiently satisfied or that the pattern of use is appropriate.
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+[S:1454]
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+Many factors, including capital barriers, ill-designed policies, inaccessible technology, lack of information, and habits and traditions intervene.
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+Individuals, private firms and public bodies must begin to look at reductions in the use of water as if it were a source of supply.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1456]
+{org:en}
+In many ways lower demand is better than greater supply because it occurs at the point of use and thus avoids pumping costs.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Without changing use patterns and relying only on off-the-shelf technologies that are cost-effective compared with the costs of new supply, savings typically exceed 25% and in some cases reach 50%.
+{/org}
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+A good example has been set in Singapore, which has reduced system losses to under 7% in comparison with figures from 25 to 50% throughout MENA.
+{/org}
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+Savings of over 30% have been found just for urban uses in California. Reducing demand is also the most effective way to minimize risk and to avoid environmental damage.
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+[S:1460]
+{org:en}
+Although gains are possible in all sectors, the sheer dominance of irrigation in the region requires special attention.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Every country provides water to farmers at moderately to heavily subsidized prices.
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+{org:en}
+Water prices to urban users are generally closer to full cost.
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+[S:1463]
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+Jordanian farmers in the valley get water at 1-2 c/m3, and Egyptian farmers along the Nile don't pay anything.
+{/org}
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+Both must however work within time or volume allocations.
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+Under the influence of higher prices, Israeli scientists developed drip irrigation systems that have raised water-use efficiency to 90% and been largely responsible for a drop of 40% in water use per hectare.
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+Low-cost forms of drip irrigation have been developed, but they still require some initial capital and an assured source of supply.
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+Although much of the water that is lost from apparently inefficient irrigation is actually returned to a watercourse, and thus either becomes available to farmers downstream or serves to recharge aquifers, natural recycling is never complete.
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+In the case of surface flows, a share of the water is lost to evaporation, and in all cases quality tends to decline as sediment and chemical residues are carried in the run-off.
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+Moreover, the extent of such natural recycling varies from one river basin the another, and even from one reach of a river to another.
+{/org}
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+[S:1471]
+{org:en}
+The Nile in Egypt is notable for the large amount of natural recycling.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1472]
+{org:en}
+The greater question about water and agriculture in MENA is not whether water is used efficiently in irrigation but whether irrigation is an efficient use of water -- inter-sectoral rather than intra-sectoral tradeoffs.
+{/org}
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+[S:1473]
+{org:en}
+In most cases analysis shows that national economies would be stronger and the total value of output increased if water were transferred from agriculture to industrial or municipal uses.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:1474]
+{org:en}
+In a few countries, such as Palestine, the opposite is true
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:1475]
+{org:en}
+their economies would be stronger if water could be transferred into agriculture.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1476]
+{org:en}
+Despite the apparent appeal of simply raising prices of irrigation water to reflect marginal costs and forcing farmers to become more efficient or quit farming, such policies have to be considered very carefully.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200691312:5M.@entry.@obligation, 600000083:02)
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+and:02(200747418:30.@entry.@progress, 200158503:17.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1477]
+{org:en}
+Farming is culturally and socially embedded in many parts of MENA, and experience with adjustment programs elsewhere suggests that measurable economic gains in one sector can be offset by (typically unmeasurable) losses elsewhere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(113254805:49.@pl, 104165551:4M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1478]
+{org:en}
+Notably, forcing farm families into overcrowded (and water-short) cities is unlikely to be sound policy.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+scn:01(300709021:1P.@entry, 107935504:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1479]
+{org:en}
+More appropriate will be a slow shift toward more emphasis on rainfed agriculture, with that shift emphasizing what is coming to be called "green water," the water (more accurately, water vapour) contained in soil, as opposed to "blue water," the water in rivers and aquifers.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1480]
+{org:en}
+The certainty that droughts will recur offers another reason to maintain a viable agricultural sector.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(201017643:1U, 104165551:2P.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1481]
+{org:en}
+When supplies are limited, it is farmers who bear the brunt of cutbacks.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1482]
+{org:en}
+No other sector can reduce water use so extensively and so quickly as can agriculture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:1483]
+{org:en}
+Although this situation justifies a somewhat lower price for farmers, the difference has not been rationally evaluated in terms of probabilities and extent of cutback.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+pur(105141683:1H.@indef, 110078806:1R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1484]
+{org:en}
+Water Quality
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104723816:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+mod(104723816:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1485]
+{org:en}
+Ecological Stress
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302906478:02, 107085375:0D.@entry)
+aoj(302906478:02, 107085375:0D.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1486]
+{org:en}
+Water quality, the second component of the regional water crisis is less ancient but equally pressing.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 104723816:08.@topic)
+mod(103081021:0S, 107417644:1O.@def)
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+mod(104723816:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1487]
+{org:en}
+It is just as important to conserve the quality of water as to conserve its quantity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200212049:0T, 104723816:16.@def)
+{/unl}
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+For example, many Mediterranean countries have coastal aquifers that lie 3 to 5 metres above sea level, which creates an outward pressure that blocks the inflow of seawater.
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+Continued heavy pumping can lower the fresh water level so far that sea water from the Mediterranean can now be found one to three kilometres inland.
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+Worse yet, in Jordan and elsewhere, some aquifers have been drained to the extent that it is no longer worth pumping from them at all.
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+Recharging the aquifer can reverse the process, but never completely and always at great expense.
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+{org:en}
+Agricultural Runoff
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+Agricultural runoff is the major non-point source of water pollution in MENA
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+Per hectare use of pesticides and fertilizer in the region rates among the highest in the world, and run-off is correspondingly high.
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+As one result, over the past two decades, nitrate concentrations in the Coastal Aquifer underlying Israel and Gaza (from both fertilizers and re-use of sewage effluent) have doubled.
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+In Syria, Al-Sin Lake, the main coastal source of fresh water, is polluted by runoff.
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+Such problems are anything but inevitable.
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+Practices such as conservation tillage, contour planting, terracing and filter systems, among others, can control soil erosion and reduce phosphorous and nitrogen run-off by up to 60 percent.
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+Urban Wastewater
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+Cities in this region are old, in some cases ancient, and water supply and sewage systems have either begun to deteriorate or cannot handle the growing loads placed on them.
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+{org:en}
+Disruption makes the problem worse.
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+Water losses in Beirut went up from 40% to well over 60% during the 15 years of civil strife.
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+{org:en}
+Generally, however, larger urban areas in the region have adequate water and sanitation.
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+{org:en}
+Smaller cities and rural areas lag far behind.
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+{org:en}
+Habitat Loss
+{/org}
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+mod(100067526:0A.@entry, 108580583:02)
+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+Water quality in the region is being seriously degraded by losses of natural habitat as a result of decisions to drain swamps, canalize rivers or expand urban or agricultural land.
+{/org}
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+[S:1512]
+{org:en}
+Reclamation of land to expand urban space in Bahrain has not only destroyed commercial fishing grounds but also blocked natural drainage of agricultural land and increased the salinity of groundwater.
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+{org:en}
+Water in place, and the habitats for plants and animals that it supports, have value.
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+
+[S:1514]
+{org:en}
+Some of these values, as with fisheries and hydro-power, can be measured in conventional economic terms.
+{/org}
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+[S:1515]
+{org:en}
+Other values are partially calculable, as with recreation or the dilution of wastes.
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+
+[S:1516]
+{org:en}
+The King Talal reservoir is too polluted for recreational use, but, as the only standing body of water in Jordan, this pollution carries an extraordinary opportunity cost.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1517]
+{org:en}
+Finally, HTM1 in situ HTM2 water supports values that are difficult to capture in economic terms, as with regulation of river flows and ecological balance.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1518]
+{org:en}
+Even those costs that can be calculated commonly show that excessive extraction of water, as from the Lower Jordan River, results in net economic losses.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
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+[S:1519]
+{org:en}
+Equity
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+[/W]
+[W]
+113333420:02.@entry
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1520]
+{org:en}
+Political Stress
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301814385:02, 107085375:0C.@entry)
+aoj(301814385:02, 107085375:0C.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Water not oil has historically been at the heart of political conflict for the peoples living in MENA nations.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1522]
+{org:en}
+These conflicts can be viewed from two perspectives
+{/org}
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+src(202130300:0P.@entry.@ability, 104676308:15.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1523]
+{org:en}
+first, the internal agencies that have been developed to manage conflicts between sectors
+{/org}
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+aoj(600000024:24, 100958896:1U.@pl)
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+obj(202436349:1N, 100958896:1U.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1524]
+{org:en}
+second, the international institutions that have been developed to manage conflicts between nations.
+{/org}
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+obj(202436349:1X, 100958896:24.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1525]
+{org:en}
+Internal Agencies
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(108057206:0B.@entry.@pl, 300948670:02)
+mod(108057206:0B.@entry.@pl, 300948670:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1526]
+{org:en}
+The region under study is characterized by some of the largest and most sophisticated water management agencies in the world.
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+Many national water management agencies in MENA (as in most countries of the world) suffer from conflicting objectives.
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+They are supposed to build and maintain infrastructure, and at the same time deliver water at prices that are typically not much above zero.
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+Some countries, such as Jordan, have separate agencies for irrigation water and for drinking water, with no clear guidelines as to how they should collaborate or coordinate their efforts.
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+Better coordination is generally achieved with agencies that focus on a specific region, as with the Jordan River Authority or the Litani River Authority.
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+If parallel with the centralized management of water in MENA are a variety of local management systems.
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+Some stem from traditional clan or family control over a well or spring, and exhibit complex rules for distributing water.
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+Others are more modern and typically involve farmers who have been brought together to manage the local level of irrigation systems.
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+These Water Users Associations generally achieve better water-use efficiency and somewhat greater equity than systems managed by government.
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+However, the gains do not generally represent an absolute saving of water.
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+Rather, they permit "tail-enders" on the irrigation canal to get water regularly where they did not before.
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+{org:en}
+International Institutions
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Some 25 major international rivers occur in MENA.
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+{org:en}
+The Litani in Lebanon is one of the few rivers carrying more than 500 Mcm per year that does not cross an international border.
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+{org:en}
+No comparable tabulation exists for aquifers, but there are many
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:1546]
+{org:en}
+the Disi Aquifer underlies the border of Jordan and Saudi Arabia and the Mountain Aquifer underlies Israel and Palestine.
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+[S:1547]
+{org:en}
+The basic principle for sharing water remains "equitable utilization," a deliberately vague phrase that implies that the ways to share specific bodies of water must be negotiated to fit the physical, economic, social and historical context appropriate to the parties to the dispute.
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+[S:1548]
+{org:en}
+Prior notification of changes, and avoidance of downstream harm are corollary principles.
+{/org}
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+[S:1549]
+{org:en}
+Because of the absence of rules, the rights of parties to specific quantities of water remain a contentious issue.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1550]
+{org:en}
+However, careful distinction between water ownership and water usage permits many forms of compromise over water that prove beneficial to both sides in a water dispute.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:1551]
+{org:en}
+Discussions about international waters, including those in the Middle East, typically conclude with a call for basin-wide or aquifer-wide commissions to manage them as a unit.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1552]
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+Such schemes are visionary, or at best premature.
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+[S:1553]
+{org:en}
+There is simply too little trust among these nations to consider joint management.
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+
+[S:1554]
+{org:en}
+It has taken the United States and Canada many years to establish joint procedures for management of the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River, and almost as long for the Netherlands and Belgium to learn how to manage the aquifer that underlies their border.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+In these circumstances, it might be helpful to shift attention from rights aimed at the supply side to rights to certain levels of demand.
+{/org}
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+[S:1556]
+{org:en}
+Various analysts have suggested figures of 50 to 125 l/p-d of good quality water as a basic entitlement or human right.
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+
+[S:1557]
+{org:en}
+The larger figure allows for home gardens as well as direct use.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+It might also be appropriate to shift attention to from quantity to quality issues.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1559]
+{org:en}
+Competing demands for water rights have something of a win-lose character whereas environmental problems commonly affect all parties so that solutions are win-win.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1560]
+{org:en}
+Militarization of Water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115695657:02.@entry, 107935504:0K)
+mod(115695657:02.@entry, 107935504:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1561]
+{org:en}
+Over the years, many people have argued that the next war in the Middle East will be over water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1562]
+{org:en}
+It is true that, at times, shots have been fired and bombs dropped on water installations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc:01(200057764:1S.@past, 100240938:29.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1563]
+{org:en}
+Israel bombed a partially completed dam on the Yarmouk late in that war
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(200455750:0S.@past, 400007703:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1564]
+{org:en}
+Iraq destroyed much of Kuwait's desalination capacity before retreating near the end of the Gulf War.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1565]
+{org:en}
+However, to go from these examples to a general proposition of water wars ignores the wide range of options to overcome water scarcity, as with drip irrigation or shifts to less water-consuming crops.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1566]
+{org:en}
+Such approaches can relieve the pressure much more cheaply and with much less risk than military conflict.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200064095:0M.@ability.@entry, 100280853:07.@pl)
+aoj(301517081:2I, 100958896:2R)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1567]
+{org:en}
+Problems will more likely emerge as tensions in local areas and as civil disorder within a nation rather than outright warfare.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1568]
+{org:en}
+Even in the Jordan valley, clauses on water in the peace accord between Israel and Palestine, as well as the Peace Treaty between Israel and Jordan, have more to do with the economics of water than with fears of military action.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000024:1X, :01)
+plc(106314144:0W.@pl, 104713332:1Q.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1569]
+{org:en}
+Notably, the 100 Mcm of the water in dispute from the Mountain Aquifer underlying Israel and Palestine can not be worth more than at most
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1570]
+{org:en}
+The HTM1 annual HTM2 cost for loss of water appears to be well under the HTM3 daily HTM4 cost of modern warfare.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1571]
+{org:en}
+Conclusion
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1572]
+{org:en}
+What the Arab world faces is not so much a crisis over water as a chronic problem escalating to serious proportions because older problems are deepening at the same time as newer ones become evident.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(200551210:40.@progress, 400535235:4A)
+rsn(200290302:2B.@progress, 200551210:40.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1573]
+{org:en}
+With few exceptions, the nations in this region have already reached or are fast approaching the limits of their indigenous water supplies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1574]
+{org:en}
+Though some forces, such as more pricing of water, and technological advances, particularly in aquifer use, may mitigate the problem, others such a climate change and higher incomes will exacerbate it.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:1575]
+{org:en}
+Except for those few nations with enough energy to run desalination plants, greater efficiency in water (and wastewater) use or shifts of water from one sector to another are the only big options left.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:1576]
+{org:en}
+The former may be encouraged by existing institutions
+{/org}
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+the latter almost never are.
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+man(202603699:0L.@entry, 400535294:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1578]
+{org:en}
+In order for the peoples of the Arab world to achieve a sustainable pattern for water use, their governments must shift from today's emphasis on technical options to increase supply to socio-economic options to reduce and reallocate demand.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200548913:38.@entry.@obligation, 600000267:02)
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+obj(200153263:4S, 113563522:51)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1579]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106396142:0A.@entry.@pl, 301971237:02)
+mod(106396142:0A.@entry.@pl, 301971237:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1580]
+{org:en}
+Nomenclature
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115669502:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115669502:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1581]
+{org:en}
+Mcm
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106838005:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106838005:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1582]
+{org:en}
+Million cubic metres
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(115690237:0G.@entry.@pl, "1000000":02)
+qua(115690237:0G.@entry.@pl, "1000000":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1583]
+{org:en}
+MENA
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323520:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323520:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1584]
+{org:en}
+Middle East and North Africa
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500005162:0I.@entry, 115668722:02)
+and(500005162:0I.@entry, 115668722:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1585]
+{org:en}
+WANA
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324348:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500324348:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1586]
+{org:en}
+West Asia and North Africa
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500005162:0G.@entry, 500324352:02)
+and(500005162:0G.@entry, 500324352:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1587]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1588]
+{org:en}
+Allan, J. A. (2002).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323339:02.@entry, "2002":0G.@parenthesis)
+tim(500323339:02.@entry, "2002":0G.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1589]
+{org:en}
+Hydro-peace in the Middle East
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(106773976:08.@entry, 115668722:0L.@def)
+plc(106773976:08.@entry, 115668722:0L.@def)
+mod(106773976:08.@entry, 303160971:02)
+mod(106773976:08.@entry, 303160971:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1590]
+{org:en}
+Why no water wars?
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100801125:0F.@entry.@interrogative.@pl, 600001330:06)
+mod(100801125:0F.@entry.@interrogative.@pl, 600001330:06)
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+mod(100801125:0F.@entry.@interrogative.@pl, 107935504:09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1591]
+{org:en}
+A case study of the Jordan River basin
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100646680:04.@entry.@indef, 102801525:0Z.@def)
+obj(100646680:04.@entry.@indef, 102801525:0Z.@def)
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+mod(102801525:0Z.@def, 500323708:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1592]
+{org:en}
+SAIS Review
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100897811:07.@entry, 115395336:02)
+mod(100897811:07.@entry, 115395336:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1593]
+{org:en}
+A presentation of the concept of virtual water by its originator.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000035:2R, 100521562:04.@entry.@indef)
+mod(110383816:1K, 600000016:1G)
+mod(107935504:17, 300902157:0Z)
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+mod(107935504:17, 300902157:0Z)
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+mod(100521562:04.@entry.@indef, 105835747:0O.@def)
+mod(100521562:04.@entry.@indef, 105835747:0O.@def)
+obj(600000035:2R, 110383816:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1594]
+{org:en}
+Amery, H.A., and A.T. Wolf
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323202:0J.@entry, 500323315:02)
+and(500323202:0J.@entry, 500323315:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1595]
+{org:en}
+Water in the Middle East
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(107935504:02.@entry, 115668722:0F.@def)
+plc(107935504:02.@entry, 115668722:0F.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1596]
+{org:en}
+A Geography of Peace
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106122178:04.@entry.@indef, 106773976:0H)
+mod(106122178:04.@entry.@indef, 106773976:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1597]
+{org:en}
+293 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(115669681:06.@entry, "293":02)
+qua(115669681:06.@entry, "293":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1598]
+{org:en}
+Austin, Texas
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500004969:02.@entry, 500004965:0A)
+plc(500004969:02.@entry, 500004965:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1599]
+{org:en}
+University of Texas Press.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104511002:02.@entry, 100627013:0M)
+mod(104511002:02.@entry, 100627013:0M)
+mod(100627013:0M, 500004965:0G)
+mod(100627013:0M, 500004965:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1600]
+{org:en}
+A review that covers some of the less well-known areas of conflict in the region.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200048633:0G, 100897811:04.@entry.@indef)
+man(301376705:14, 400099868:0Z)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1601]
+{org:en}
+Beaumont, P. (2002).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323426:02.@entry, "2002":0G.@parenthesis)
+tim(500323426:02.@entry, "2002":0G.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1602]
+{org:en}
+Water policies for the Middle East in the HTM1 century
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(105901508:08.@entry.@pl, 115668722:0P.@def)
+mod(115205532:1D.@def, HTM1:18)
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+tim(115668722:0P.@def, 115205532:1D.@def)
+mod(105901508:08.@entry.@pl, 107935504:02)
+mod(105901508:08.@entry.@pl, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1603]
+{org:en}
+The new economic realities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300024996:06, 104762355:0J.@entry.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300024996:06, 104762355:0J.@entry.@def.@pl)
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+mod(104762355:0J.@entry.@def.@pl, 300840212:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1604]
+{org:en}
+International Journal of Water Resources Development
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103602465:0G.@entry, 100250259:17)
+mod(105154676:0X.@pl, 107935504:0R)
+mod(103602465:0G.@entry, 100250259:17)
+mod(105154676:0X.@pl, 107935504:0R)
+mod(100250259:17, 105154676:0X.@pl)
+aoj(301568375:02, 103602465:0G.@entry)
+aoj(301568375:02, 103602465:0G.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1605]
+{org:en}
+An excellent short review of fresh water opportunities and limitations in MENA.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100897811:0L.@entry.@indef, :01)
+mod:01(115669527:17.@pl, 115009326:0V)
+plc(:01, 500323520:24)
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+and:01(100808182:1P.@pl.@entry, 115669527:17.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1606]
+{org:en}
+Biswas, A. K. HTM1 et al.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323034:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323034:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+600001335:0L.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1607]
+{org:en}
+Core and Periphery
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(113903576:0B.@entry, 103107716:02)
+and(113903576:0B.@entry, 103107716:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1608]
+{org:en}
+A Comprehensive Approach to Middle Eastern Water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+to(100280853:0I.@entry.@indef, 107935504:19)
+to(100280853:0I.@entry.@indef, 107935504:19)
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+aoj(300525453:04, 100280853:0I.@entry.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1609]
+{org:en}
+160 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(115669681:06.@entry, "160":02)
+qua(115669681:06.@entry, "160":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1610]
+{org:en}
+Delhi, India
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500003824:02.@entry, 500003815:09)
+plc(500003824:02.@entry, 500003815:09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1611]
+{org:en}
+Oxford University Press
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323589:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323589:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1612]
+{org:en}
+This book suggests how a Middle East Water Commission would work to resolve regional problems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1613]
+{org:en}
+Brooks, D.B., L. Thompson and L. El Fattal
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323370:0W.@entry, 500323121:0G)
+and(500323370:0W.@entry, 500323121:0G)
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+and(500323121:0G, 500323088:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1614]
+{org:en}
+Water demand management in the Middle East and North Africa
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+Oweis. T., D. Prinz and A. Hachum
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+Well-written introduction to the pros and cons of ways to resolve the major disputes over water in the region.
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+The heart of international water conflict.
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+Natural Resources Forum
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+Some of the material presented in this article originally appeared in
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+David B. Brooks
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+[S:1699]
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+International Journal of Water Resources Development
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+Biographical Sketch
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+Dr. David B. Brooks HTM1 is a natural resource economist whose main interests lie in the linkages between environmental protection, on the one hand, and the use of minerals, energy and water, on the other, as well as with options for moving toward sustainable development.
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+IDRC is a Canadian crown corporation that supports research on international development proposed and carried out by people in developing countries.
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+Dr. Brooks was educated in geology at MIT (SB 1955) and Cal Tech (MS 1956), and in economics at the University of Colorado (PhD 1963).
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+He has worked in the United States and several developing countries as well as in Canada.
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+Much of his research has focussed on "soft" alternatives for conventional energy and water policies.
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+More recently, he has focussed his research on problems in the Middle East, and particularly in Israel and Palestine.
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+Dr. Brooks is author of HTM1 Zero Energy Growth for Canada
+{/org}
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+McClelland and Stewart 1981
+{/org}
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+he is co-author of HTM1 Life After Oil
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+{org:en}
+Renewable Energy Policies for Canada
+{/org}
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+Hurtig 1983
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+Water
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+[/W]
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+[/S]
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+[S:1718]
+{org:en}
+The Potential for Demand Management in Canada
+{/org}
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+Science Council of Canada 1988
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1720]
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+and HTM1 Watershed
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+[S:1721]
+{org:en}
+The Role of Fresh Water in the Israeli- Palestinian Conflict
+{/org}
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+IDRC Books 1994
+{/org}
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+He has also edited several books on resource issues and on water demand management including HTM1 Water Balances in the Eastern Mediterranean
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+IDRC Books 2000
+{/org}
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+His latest book is HTM1 Water: Local-Level Management
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+IDRC 2002
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+Dr. Brooks has been elected to The International Water Academy, based in Oslo, Norway.
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+Dr. Brooks lives in Ottawa, Canada, and is married with two grown children.
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+
+[S:1729]
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+His favourite non-professional activities involve canoeing in the summer, trail skiing in the winter, and Jewish religious studies when the weather does not encourage outdoor activities.
+{/org}
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+obj:01(200401538:18.@progress, 115669401:1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1730]
+{org:en}
+BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT WATER RESOURCES PERSONALITIES
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105154676:0V.@pl, 107935504:0P)
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+[S:1731]
+{org:en}
+BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT WATER RESOURCES PERSONALITIES
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106515827:02.@entry.@pl, 104617562:15.@pl)
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+aoj(301205473:0H, 104617562:15.@pl)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:1732]
+{org:en}
+Robert Sellin
+{/org}
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+[W]
+500323153:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323153:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1733]
+{org:en}
+University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
+{/org}
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+plc(104511002:02.@entry, 500003703:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1734]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
+{/org}
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+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
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+[W]
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1735]
+{org:en}
+biographies, water resources, hydrologists, hydraulic engineers, history
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+[S:1736]
+{org:en}
+Contents
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+[/W]
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1737]
+{org:en}
+Sextus Julius Frontinus
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+[W]
+500323060:02.@entry
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1738]
+{org:en}
+40 - 103 A. D.
+{/org}
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+mod(600000316:0B.@entry, "40 - 103":02)
+mod(600000316:0B.@entry, "40 - 103":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1739]
+{org:en}
+Roman administrator and water commissioner
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302921325:02, 109943811:0W.@entry)
+aoj(302921325:02, 109943811:0W.@entry)
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+
+[S:1740]
+{org:en}
+Leonardo da Vinci
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+[W]
+500008219:02.@entry
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1741]
+{org:en}
+Italian philosopher, painter and inventor
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+{unl}
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+and:01(110214637:0Z.@entry, 103876352:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1742]
+{org:en}
+Daniel Bernoulli
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+500006729:02.@entry
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+[W]
+500006729:02.@entry
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+
+[S:1743]
+{org:en}
+Swiss mathematician and educator
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1744]
+{org:en}
+Antoine Chezy
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+500323036:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323036:02.@entry
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1745]
+{org:en}
+French Civil Engineer and water expert
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1746]
+{org:en}
+De Witt Clinton
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+[W]
+500323041:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323041:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1747]
+{org:en}
+American statesman and entrepreneur
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+{unl}
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+and:01(110060352:0P.@entry, 110650162:0B)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:1748]
+{org:en}
+Edwin Chadwick
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+[W]
+500323094:02.@entry
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1749]
+{org:en}
+English social reformer
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+{unl}
+aoj(303003344:02, 104070003:0H.@entry)
+aoj(303003344:02, 104070003:0H.@entry)
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+mod(104070003:0H.@entry, 301076634:0A)
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+[S:1750]
+{org:en}
+James Leslie
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+500323045:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323045:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1751]
+{org:en}
+Scots Water Engineer
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(303024647:02, 110057714:0E.@entry)
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+mod(110057714:0E.@entry, 107935504:08)
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+
+[S:1752]
+{org:en}
+Robert Manning
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+[W]
+500323027:02.@entry
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+[S:1753]
+{org:en}
+Irish hydraulic engineer
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+[S:1754]
+{org:en}
+William Unwin
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+[S:1755]
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+[S:1756]
+{org:en}
+Osborne Reynolds
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+[W]
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+[S:1757]
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+English hydraulic engineer and educator
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+[S:1758]
+{org:en}
+Robert Koch
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+[W]
+500008112:02.@entry
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+
+[S:1759]
+{org:en}
+German bacteriologist, water filtration innovator and educator
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+[S:1760]
+{org:en}
+Hubert Engels
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+[S:1761]
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+German professor of engineering, researcher and educator in hydraulics
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+[S:1762]
+{org:en}
+Sir Alexander Houston
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+mod(600000950:02.@entry, 500323075:06)
+{/unl}
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+[S:1763]
+{org:en}
+English physician and bacteriologist, pioneer of the chlorination of water supplies
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+{org:en}
+Robert E. Horton
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+American engineer and hydrologist
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+{org:en}
+Jean Aubert
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+[W]
+500323115:02.@entry
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1767]
+{org:en}
+French Civil Engineer and inland navigation expert
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+
+[S:1768]
+{org:en}
+L
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+500323124:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323124:02.@entry
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+{/unl}
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+[S:1769]
+{org:en}
+Belgian hydrologist and Secretary-General of IAHS
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+[S:1770]
+{org:en}
+Thomas Blench
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+[W]
+500323062:02.@entry
+[/W]
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+[S:1771]
+{org:en}
+Canadian Civil Engineer and river expert
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+mod(109617867:13.@entry, 109411430:0X)
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+
+[S:1772]
+{org:en}
+Hunter Rouse
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+500323596:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323596:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1773]
+{org:en}
+American researcher and educator in hydraulic engineering
+{/org}
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+scn(:01.@entry, 106125041:1C)
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+scn(:01.@entry, 106125041:1C)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1774]
+{org:en}
+Howard Penman
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+500323043:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323043:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1775]
+{org:en}
+English soil physicist and research hydrologist
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+and(115689616:1A.@entry, 110428004:0F)
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+
+[S:1776]
+{org:en}
+James Dooge
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+[S:1777]
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+Irish hydrologist, educator and politician
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+J. Eamonn Nash
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+Irish hydrologist and educator
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+
+[S:1780]
+{org:en}
+Philip Monro
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+[S:1781]
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+English biologist, inventor of water purification process by osmosis
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+
+[S:1782]
+{org:en}
+Acknowledgements
+{/org}
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+[W]
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+[/W]
+[W]
+115693260:02.@entry.@pl
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1783]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
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+[S:1784]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
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+
+[S:1785]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
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+[W]
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+[S:1786]
+{org:en}
+Summary
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+History, to paraphrase Leibniz, is a useful thing, for its study not only gives to men of the past their just due but also provides men of the present with a guide for the orientation of their own endeavours.
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+Thus begins Hunter Rouse's classic work on the History of Hydraulics.
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+Today we take a broader view of the subject including hydrology, water resources management and water quality in the greater subject area.
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+Here, in addition, the coverage has been brought up to date.
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+This raises a difficult problem as it involves the work of those still living.
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+Such biographies have purposefully been kept few in number.
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+There is no attempt to make this "water biography " comprehensive
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+to do so would be to embark on an endless task.
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+Instead the selection has been made in an attempt to cover all the more important areas by recent biographies, and to select generally recognized outstanding personalities from the more distant periods.
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+[S:1796]
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+It is impossible to do justice to the work of the ancients in this field since the names of the great innovators are not recorded and written records are few and far between.
+{/org}
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+However it must be recorded here that the world owes a great debt to ancient civilizations and their success in controlling the use of water.
+{/org}
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+One thinks especially of the Tigris and Euphrates basin, China and Egypt.
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+
+[S:1799]
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+After the Greeks came the Roman Empire, and here we have the first opportunity to study an important individual, Sextus Julius Frontinus, who was appointed water commissioner for the city of Rome in the year 97 of the Christian era.
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+He wrote a detailed account of his work, which has come down to us intact.
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+Sextus Julius Frontinus
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+40 - 103 A. D.
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+Roman administrator and water commissioner
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+Frontinus began his career as a Roman military engineer and took part in many military campaigns.
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+However, he is known to posterity for his work on the water supply of the imperial city of Rome.
+{/org}
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+[S:1806]
+{org:en}
+He was essentially a very successful administrator and this became apparent when in 97 AD he was appointed to the post of water commissioner for the city, the office whose management gives him probably his best title to eminence, and during the tenure of this he wrote his best known book HTM1 De Aquis Urbis Romae HTM2 (Concerning the water of the city of Rome).
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+It is presumed that he held the office of water commissioner until his death in 103 AD.
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+The HTM1 De Aquis HTM2 is primarily a valuable repository of information concerning the aqueducts of Rome.
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+[S:1809]
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+But it is much more than that.
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+
+[S:1810]
+{org:en}
+It gives us a detailed picture of the faithful public servant, charged with immense responsibility, called suddenly to an office which had long been a sinecure and wretchedly mismanaged, confronted with abuses and corruption of long standing, and yet administering his charge with an eye only to the public service and an economical use of the public funds.
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+{org:en}
+The administration of which Frontinus was a part was essentially one of municipal reform.
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+[S:1812]
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+The Emperors Nerva and Trajan both aimed to correct the abuses and favoritism of the preceding regime.
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+They not only chose able and devoted assistants in their new policy, they themselves set good examples in this respect.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+In Frontinus they found a loyal and zealous champion of their reforms.
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+Realizing the importance of his office, he proceeded to the study of its details with the spirit of the true investigator, displaying at all times a scrupulous honesty and fidelity.
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+
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+{org:en}
+He is an outstanding example, in the history of Rome, of civic virtue and the conscientious performance of unwavering duty.
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+He gives us the names of the aqueducts existing in his day, when and by whom each was constructed, at what points each had its source, how far they were carried underground and how far on arches, the height and size of each, the number of taps and the distributions made from them, the amount of water supplied to public reservoirs, public amusements, State purposes and private persons, and finally what laws regulated the construction and maintenance of aqueducts, and what penalties enforced these laws, whether established by resolution of the Senate or by edicts of the Emperors.
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+The HTM1 De Aquis HTM2 will always remain a monument to the exceptional contribution that the early Romans made to the organization of water resources on a grand scale, and to its equally exceptional author.
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+Leonardo da Vinci
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+Italian philosopher, painter and inventor
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+Leonardo was a product of the Italian renaissance.
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+The natural son of a Florentine lawyer, he not only left his mark on Italian drawing, painting and sculpture but showed equal genius in music, natural philosophy, anatomy botany, geology, mechanics, engineering and architecture.
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+No man has ever shown such a thirst for knowledge and such a gift for assimilating it and applying it in so many fields.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1829]
+{org:en}
+On moving to Venice in 1500 he took on the planning and supervision of canal and harbor works over a large part of central Italy.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1830]
+{org:en}
+Towards the end of his life he moved to Amboise in France
+{/org}
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+there he designed a castle and a canal connecting the rivers Loire and Saone.
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+Of interest to the history of water science are his collected writings HTM1 Del moto e misura dell'acqua HTM2 a nine part treatise covering the following subjects
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+[S:1833]
+{org:en}
+the water surface
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+mod(104362025:0C.@entry.@def, 107935504:06)
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+[S:1834]
+{org:en}
+the movement of water
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+obj(100279835:06.@entry.@def, 107935504:0I)
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+
+[S:1835]
+{org:en}
+water waves
+{/org}
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+mod(100346095:08.@entry.@pl, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:1836]
+{org:en}
+eddies
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+[/W]
+[W]
+107432973:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
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+[S:1837]
+{org:en}
+falling water
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+mod(107935504:0A.@entry, 302487244:02)
+{/unl}
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+[S:1838]
+{org:en}
+the destructive force of water
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+
+[S:1839]
+{org:en}
+floating bodies
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+mod(102861886:0B.@entry.@pl, 300077196:02)
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+
+[S:1840]
+{org:en}
+efflux and flow in pipes
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+
+[S:1841]
+{org:en}
+and mills and other hydraulic machinery.
+{/org}
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+and:01(103701640:0W.@entry, 103765561:06.@pl)
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+
+[S:1842]
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+These overflowed with novel observations - often misinterpreted, to be sure, but far surpassing anything to be found in previous literature and much that was still to come.
+{/org}
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+[S:1843]
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+Typical of phenomena which he was the first to sketch or describe are
+{/org}
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+[S:1844]
+{org:en}
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+mod(101083077:0F.@entry.@def, 115689301:06)
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+[S:1845]
+{org:en}
+the profiles of free jets
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+mod(106516404:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 103595860:0N.@pl)
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+aoj(300916199:0I, 103595860:0N.@pl)
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+[S:1846]
+{org:en}
+the formation of eddies at abrupt expansions and in wakes
+{/org}
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+plc(107432973:0J.@pl, :01:01)
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+[S:1847]
+{org:en}
+the propagation, reflection and interference of waves
+{/org}
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+aoj(303073751:0A, 100119568:0K.@entry.@def)
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+[S:1849]
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+Leonardo must also be credited with the correct formulation of at least one new principle of hydraulics.
+{/org}
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+This was in the area of hydrostatics and embodied not only the principle of continuity but also the principle of force involved in the hydraulic press.
+{/org}
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+
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+However, it has to be said that he did not deal so successfully with the problem of flow through a notch or over a weir.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1853]
+{org:en}
+All this, it must be remembered, took place before the year 1520.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1854]
+{org:en}
+Daniel Bernoulli
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+[W]
+500006729:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1855]
+{org:en}
+Swiss mathematician and educator
+{/org}
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+and:01(110045713:0Q.@entry, 110301261:08)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1856]
+{org:en}
+Daniel Bernoulli was born at Groningen, the son of a mathematics professor who spent much of his life at Basel in Switzerland.
+{/org}
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+In his early career Daniel spent seven or eight years as professor of mathematics at St Petersburg.
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+In the course of his life Daniel won or shared ten prizes awarded by the Paris Acad
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+In each of these he displayed considerable mathematical ability, to be sure, but above all a keen physical perception combined with the ingenuity to produce a solution regardless of the method used.
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+Many of Bernoulli's writings dealt with fluid statics and dynamics, but it was his HTM1 Hydrodynamica HTM2 written at St Petersburg in the early thirties and published at Strasburg in 1738, which brought him his greatest repute.
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+It is interesting to note that Daniel Bernoulli knew of the works of Isaac Newton and held him in the highest regard.
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+According to d'Alembert, in his Encyclop
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+Of primary interest, of course, is the background of what is now called the Bernoulli theorem.
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+In effect he solved the differential equation now carrying his name.
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+He proceeded from the energy principles of Huygens and Leibnitz, assuming the fluid to consist of elements across the flow section.
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+This report is lost but the files of the Ponts et Chauss
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+It is true that in a later memorandum he reduced the left side of his first equation to a numerical factor for purposes of simplifying computations, but he in no sense assumed - as it is sometimes claimed - that it was a constant for all streams
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+indeed he himself found it to change from one stream to another.
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+In conclusion it should be mentioned that Chezy's work had to wait a long time before it saw the light of day
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+it was in fact published by Clemens Herschel in America at the end of the nineteenth century.
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+De Witt Clinton, 1769-1828, American statesman and entrepreneur
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+After gaining his degree at Columbia College Clinton studied law and then entered politics.
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+After a defeat in 1795 he studied natural science, until in 1798 he was elected to the State Senate.
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+he occupied this post, apart from two short breaks, until 1815, when he was removed from office.
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+From 1815 Clinton devoted himself to what was to become the Erie Canal.
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+He had already become one of the canal commissioners in 1810 and had himself surveyed a possible route to Lake Erie that would be a safer passage from New York to the great Lakes in the event of war with Great Britain.
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+
+[S:1905]
+{org:en}
+The war of 1812, in fact, interfered with the project, but in 1816 Clinton realized that the time was propitious.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1906]
+{org:en}
+He arranged meetings, and on the HTM1 April 1816 the legislature adopted his idea and a new survey for a link between the Hudson and Lake Erie was undertaken.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1907]
+{org:en}
+In March 1817 he became Governor of New York State and vigorously pursued the canal scheme both in writing and by personal supervision of the works.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1908]
+{org:en}
+Party politics removed him from his post as Canal Commissioner on 12 April 1824, but in November he was re-elected as Governor.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1909]
+{org:en}
+He held this position when the Erie Canal (583 km long) and the Champlain canal (114 km) were opened in 1825.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1910]
+{org:en}
+In his character he was overbearing, but he was administratively competent.
+{/org}
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+aoj(303162291:0Q.@past, 600000021:0J.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1911]
+{org:en}
+Edwin Chadwick
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323094:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323094:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1912]
+{org:en}
+English social reformer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(104070003:0H.@entry, 301076634:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1913]
+{org:en}
+Originally a lawyer, he became a friend and disciple of Jeremy Bentham. He worked for the Poor Law Commission and played an important part in the drafting of the Factory Act (1833) and the Poor Law Amendment Act (1834).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1914]
+{org:en}
+He was the leading public-health reformer of the nineteenth century.
+{/org}
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+mod(113923779:0S, 300493297:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1915]
+{org:en}
+He wrote HTM1 The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population HTM2 (1842) and advocated the introduction of comprehensive drainage and sewerage systems in English cities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1916]
+{org:en}
+This and other reports led to important reforms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(600000031:0B.@entry, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1917]
+{org:en}
+The conditions that the 1842 report revealed were horrifying.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(303162600:1G.@past, 106681551:0V.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1918]
+{org:en}
+Typical was the evidence of a young doctor, Robert Baker, on conditions in parts of Leeds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(103892891:2C.@pl, 500003705:2L)
+aoj(301643480:0Z, 100432356:15.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1919]
+{org:en}
+Of the 586 streets in Leeds, 86 only are paved by the town, i.e. by the local authority
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201267098:17.@entry, :01.@topic)
+pof(:01.@topic, 104334599:0D.@def.@pl)
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+mod(105176607:28.@def, 301106405:22)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1920]
+{org:en}
+the remainder are either paved by owners, or are partly paved, or are totally unpaved, with the surface broken in every direction and ashes and filth of every description accumulated upon many of them.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:04(:03.@entry, 104362025:2Y.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1921]
+{org:en}
+In the manufacturing towns of England, most of which have enlarged with great rapidity, the additions have been made without regard to either the personal comfort of the inhabitants or of the necessities which congregation requires.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1922]
+{org:en}
+To build the largest number of cottages on the smallest allowable space seems to have been the original view of the speculators, and having the houses up and tenanted the HTM1 ne plus ultra HTM2 of their desires.
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+
+[S:1923]
+{org:en}
+Thus neighbourhoods have arisen in which there is neither water nor out-offices, nor any conveniences for the absolute domestic wants of the occupiers.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1924]
+{org:en}
+The courts and cul-de-sac exist everywhere.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1925]
+{org:en}
+The building of houses back-to-back occasions this in a great measure.
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+
+[S:1926]
+{org:en}
+It is in fact part of the economy of buildings that are to pay a good percentage.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1927]
+{org:en}
+In one cul-de-sac in the town of Leeds, there are 34 houses, and in ordinary times there dwell in these houses 340 persons, or ten to every house - but as these houses are many of them receiving houses for itinerant labourers, during the periods of hay-time and harvest and the fairs at least twice that number are then here congregated.
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+[S:1928]
+{org:en}
+Chadwick, in his summary to the report, demonstrated the correlation between unsanitary conditions, defective drainage and overcrowded housing on the one hand, and disease and low expectation of life on the other hand.
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+
+[S:1929]
+{org:en}
+In Manchester, for example, the life-expectancy of the laboring population was only 17 years, whereas in Rutland, a rural area, it was 34 years.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1930]
+{org:en}
+He was well connected, numbering many reformers and political economists among his friends.
+{/org}
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+[S:1931]
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+He was also a man of great ability, with the clarity of mind to deal with a great mass of evidence and with an immense capacity for work.
+{/org}
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+[S:1932]
+{org:en}
+He was thus well placed to focus the public mind and will on these pressing questions of public health.
+{/org}
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+[S:1933]
+{org:en}
+James Leslie
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1934]
+{org:en}
+Scots Water Engineer
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1935]
+{org:en}
+James Leslie was a Scotsman, the son of an architect and the nephew of Sir John Leslie, Professor of Natural Philosophy at Edinburgh University.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1936]
+{org:en}
+He started his engineering career with the Rennies and the earlier part of it was spent mainly on harbor works.
+{/org}
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+[S:1939]
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+His first major job was to complete the design and construction of a dam at Threipmuir, to provide a new reservoir for the supply of the rapidly growing city.
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+Shortly before the completion of this reservoir, the inside slope of the earth embankment dam showed signs of slipping in consequence of its having been put together too hurriedly, without sufficient attention to the fact of its being composed entirely of hard boulder clay, which is difficult to consolidate without excessive wetting.
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+[S:1941]
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+This had the effect of slightly displacing the masonry of the water draw-off tower erected at the top of the upstream embankment slope.
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+In 1883 the tower had stood for 35 years without any further signs of movement and it is still standing today.
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+The works authorized by the 1843 Act were completed by Leslie in 1848.
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+Already by then there were signs that the supply was again inadequate for the needs of the city and a further Act of 1847 authorized the construction of further reservoirs in the Pentland hills.
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+[S:1946]
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+Leslie's methods of construction of impounding earth embankments were admired by his contemporaries, and in the discussion in 1859 on Matthew Jackson's paper on the Yan Tean scheme Henry Conybeare, the engineer for the Bombay Waterworks, is reported to have said that
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+[S:1947]
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+He had heard it often remarked by Engineers of waterworks, that the railways had introduced a loose way of making embankments which were thrown up with great rapidity but without sufficient attention being paid to the consolidation throughout.
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+Robert Manning
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+Irish hydraulic engineer
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+Robert Manning, an Irish Civil Engineer, became chief engineer of the Office of Public Works in Dublin.
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+[S:1960]
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1961]
+{org:en}
+However, for a number of reasons, Manning now discarded this formula, associated today with his name, in favour of a more complicated but dimensionally homogeneous one.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1962]
+{org:en}
+This relationship, which Manning preferred, received little further attention and, by a series of accidents, his original formula came into general use, with HTM1 replaced by the factor ( HTM2 ).
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1963]
+{org:en}
+William Unwin
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+[W]
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+
+[S:1964]
+{org:en}
+English engineer and educator
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+[S:1965]
+{org:en}
+William Unwin made an important contribution to the establishment of engineering at the University of London.
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+[S:1966]
+{org:en}
+His family was of Huguenot stock, and his father was a Congregational minister.
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+[S:1967]
+{org:en}
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+
+[S:1968]
+{org:en}
+At a time when the older universities were still effectively closed to Dissenters, he matriculated with honors in Chemistry in the London University Matriculation Examination in 1858, and he subsequently graduated BSc from London in 1861.
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+
+[S:1969]
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+He served as scientific assistant to William Fairbairn in Manchester from 1856 to 1862, going on to manage engineering works of various sorts.
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+
+[S:1970]
+{org:en}
+He was appointed instructor at the Royal School of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering (1869-1872), and then became Professor of Hydraulics and Mechanical Engineering at the Royal Indian Engineering College (1872-1874).
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+
+[S:1971]
+{org:en}
+From 1884 to 1904 he was Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the Central Institution of the City and Guilds of London, which was incorporated into the University of London in 1900.
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+
+[S:1972]
+{org:en}
+Unwin's research interests included
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1973]
+{org:en}
+hydraulics and water power, which led to him taking a leading part in the Niagara Falls hydroelectric scheme
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1974]
+{org:en}
+the strength of materials, involving the stability of masonry dams
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:1975]
+{org:en}
+and the development of the internal combustion engine.
+{/org}
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+[S:1976]
+{org:en}
+He was made Fellow of the Royal Society in 1886.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1977]
+{org:en}
+Osborne Reynolds
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:1978]
+{org:en}
+English hydraulic engineer and educator
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:1979]
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+Osborne Reynolds was born into a clerical family in Belfast and, after workshop experience, studied mathematics at Cambridge where he graduated with honors.
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+In 1868 he was appointed to the new chair of engineering (only the second of its kind in England) at Owens College, which later became Victoria University in Manchester.
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+[S:1981]
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+[S:1982]
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+[S:1983]
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+[S:1984]
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+[S:1985]
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+[S:1986]
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+He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1877, and he remained active in Manchester until his retirement because of failing health in 1905.
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+[S:1987]
+{org:en}
+As far as hydraulics is concerned, Reynolds was the first to demonstrate the phenomenon of cavitation and attribute the accompanying noise to the collapse of the vapor bubbles, just as in a kettle beginning to boil
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+[S:1988]
+{org:en}
+the first to correlate the length and time scales in the study of distorted models
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+[S:1989]
+{org:en}
+and the first to introduce the viscosity into a parameter marking the limit between laminar and turbulent flow.
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+[S:1990]
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+Although Hagen had long preceded Reynolds in demonstrating the existence of both types of flow, and Helmholz (if not Stokes as well) had expressed the condition for viscous-inertia similarity, it was Reynolds' 1883 paper, "An experimental investigation of the circumstances which determine whether the motion of water shall be direct or sinuous, and of the law of resistance in parallel channels," which contained the specific formulation of the parameter now bearing his name
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+[S:1991]
+{org:en}
+Reynolds number
+{/org}
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+
+[S:1992]
+{org:en}
+in which HTM1 is the fluid density
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+[S:2002]
+{org:en}
+Robert Koch
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+[S:2003]
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+German bacteriologist, water filtration innovator and educator
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+He served in the war of 1870, and in 1872 was appointed Medical Officer at Wollstein.
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+Appointed in 1880 to the Imperial Health Office in Berlin, he perfected his methods and was appointed Professor of Hygiene in the University of Berlin in 1885.
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+American engineer and hydrologist
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+Throughout his career, Horton was also concerned with maximum runoff and flood generation.
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+Indeed, he is best known to meteorologists as an early advocate of a "maximum possible rainfall," or limiting storm specific to each region.
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+This results in a maximum flood, as best expressed in his own words
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+He went on to show that storms approaching this envelope had already been experienced.
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+Horton's studies of infiltration and overland sheet flow provided a basis for analysing soil erosion and for devising strategies for soil conservation.
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+This work led in turn to a long series of investigations concerned with the process of drainage basin development.
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+He had realised very early in his work that physical characteristics were important for determining runoff.
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+He had listed those factors important to runoff and flood discharge, including drainage density, channel slope, overland flow length, and other factors.
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+However, he now proposed the converse idea of "hydrophysical " geomorphologic-erosional processes responsible for these same observed stream patterns and drainage properties.
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+After two decades of refinement, this masterful idea appeared in final form in a 95-page landmark paper just 1 month before his death on April 22, 1945.
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+Horton summarised his results in four laws
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+the law of stream numbers, the law of stream lengths, limiting infiltration capacity, and the runoff-detention-storage relation.
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+Upon reviewing Horton's accomplishments, one is struck by the gradual evolution of his ideas.
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+Because Horton was very active in several professional societies, many of his important contributions were made in just this way.
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+Furthermore, the ultimate emergence of his seminal ideas was the result of two innate abilities
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+his continual thinking across disciplinary lines and his continual interplay between engineering practice and scientific curiosity.
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+In recognition of his outstanding effectiveness as an engineer and scientist and to serve as an inspiration to workers in the field, the American Geophysical Union continues to honour Horton through its Robert E. Horton Medal, which recognises outstanding contributions to the geophysical aspects of hydrology.
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+The first recipient was Walter Langbein in 1976.
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+The Hydrology Section of AGU has attached Horton's name to its service award and to a generous research grant program for Ph.D. candidates in hydrology or water resources.
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+The American Meteorological Society also honours him by its Horton Lectureship, first given by Luna Leopold in 1974.
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+[S:2069]
+{org:en}
+Jean Aubert
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+{org:en}
+French Civil Engineer and inland navigation expert
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+Aubert was educated at the Lyce
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+His studies were interrupted by the First World War, but he returned to the Ecole Polytechnique in 1919.
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+During his career he wrote numerous articles and papers on technical and economic subjects, his last, entitled " HTM1 Philosophie de la pente d'eau HTM2 ", appeared in the journal HTM3 Traveaux HTM4 in 1984 when he was ninety years old.
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+the design and construction of the G
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+and the conception and design of the Denouval dam on the Seine near Andresy, completed in 1980.
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+He was awarded the Cam
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+Overseas governments and the United Nations consulted him on river navigation inter alia in Brazil, on the Mahanadi river in India
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+on the Konkome river in Guinea, on the Vistula river in Poland, on the Paraguay river in South America and others.
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+In 1961 he published his revolutionary ideas on the HTM1 pente d'eau HTM2 or "water slope", which was designed to eliminate delay and loss of water in transferring barges from one level to another, without the use of locks.
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+This design consisted essentially of a sloping flume or channel through which a wedge of water, in which the barge was floating, was pushed by a powered unit.
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+A prototype at Montech on the Canal Lat
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+For it was only around 1960 that various bodies within the United Nations came to realise that hydrology formed a basic discipline within hydraulic engineering.
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+However in 1961 the International Hydrological Decade was proposed and finally launched.
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+Later its work was continued in the International Hydrological Programme.
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+Although many other hydrologists of that period were influential in setting this up, it is clear that the broad vision and influence of Tison was central to the project.
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+During the sixties a year did not pass without at least two scientific meetings taking place, under the aegis and organised by the IAHS.
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+Although it was not apparent at the time, it is now clear that all the preparatory work was due to the voluntary efforts of one or two people.
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+Professor Tyson did all this work, sometimes assisted by his wife, his son Gerard and his daughter in law.
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+This work was undertaken in a spirit that is all too rarely found in international organisations.
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+It is surprising that, among all this work for the IAHS, Tison still found time to produce some tens of high quality scientific publications on hydrological topics.
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+In addition he also produced numerous papers on the erosion and transport of solid material by rivers, a topic which falls more within the province of hydraulics.
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+As Tison himself said the disciplines of hydrology and hydraulics have, of necessity in a small country, frequently to be pursued by the same individuals.
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+Leon Tison was a most likeable man, always ready to help others and never put off by difficulties when the interests of the IAHS were at stake.
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+At meetings and more especially at dinners he always had a suitable anecdote or story to tell of which several have become famous in these circles.
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+In recognition of his services to the Association he was awarded their gold medal in 1981, the very first time this award was made.
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+Thomas Blench
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+Canadian Civil Engineer and river expert
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+Thomas Blench was educated in Scotland, graduating from the University of Glasgow in 1927.
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+He went immediately to India where he joined that skilled band of hydraulic engineers serving the irrigation and public works agencies in the Punjab whose many works are still operating to good effect.
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+It could be said of Tom Blench that he was a pragmatist, always prepared to abandon conventional theory if it conflicted with observed behavior.
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+Hunter Rouse
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+American researcher and educator in hydraulic engineering
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+At CALTEC he worked on the distribution of suspended sediment in water.
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+In 1939 Rouse moved to Iowa University, being appointed Director of the Iowa Institute of Hydraulics Research in 1943 to succeed E W Lane.
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+The IIHR started a series of triennial Hydraulics Conferences in 1939, the last one being held in 1958.
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+The proceedings of the HTM1 Conference (1948) were edited by Rouse in book form under the title HTM2 Engineering Hydraulics HTM3 which proved to be an excellent book incorporating the principles of Fluid Mechanics in Hydraulic Engineering.
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+At Iowa, under the direction of Rouse, ground-breaking research into, among other topics, flow in open channels, turbulent diffusion, sediment transport and boundary layers was carried out.
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+Howard Penman
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+English soil physicist and research hydrologist
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+He graduated with First Class Honours in Physics in 1930 and began his career as a secondary school teacher but soon moved back to Armstrong College as a graduate demonstrator enrolled for a higher degree.
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+his measurements begun in 1944 formed the basis for a classic paper and for the famous formula which bears his name.
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+estimating the amount of irrigation needed by crops, both in Britain and in drier climates
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+determining seasonal water balances for individual catchments and for the whole of the British Isles.
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+Some years later Penman captured the ethos of his department perfectly in a review of "50 years of physics at Rothamsted"
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+Although we are well outside the mainstream of physics, and a Reynolds number-incarnate Kelvin would catch up with us in half an hour, our backwater is very pleasant and is far from being stagnant.
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+Our immediate objective is to produce material that can find an honourable place in the journal of a leaned society
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+the ultimate objective is that this material, either in our hands or in those of someone else, will lead to more efficient food production.
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+Corresponding field measurements were carried out throughout the year which showed that in the summer the soil was warmed above the ambient air temperature, while during the winter months there was little difference between the two.
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+Little by little, as the available instrumentation improved, he was able to do this.
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+This later became the Institute of Hydrology (recently renamed the centre for Ecology and Hydrology).
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+Philip Monro
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+English biologist, inventor of water purification process by osmosis
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+Monro's whole family background is engineering, an interest he did not share.
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+Instead, he preferred biology, an enthusiasm aroused by reading the celebrated HTM1 Science of Life HTM2 by H G and G P Wells and Julian Huxley.
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+Educated at a London secondary modern school Munro found it necessary to attend evening classes while at school to take his advanced level science examinations.
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+Lacking parental support he could not pursue a degree course until he was 21 years old, so gained valuable experience as a research technician.
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+In 1989 he relinquished this post to devote himself full time to developing his inventions as Managing Director of Hampshire Advisory and Technical Services Ltd (HATS).
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+Also in 1988 he obtained his PhD from Southampton University in the field of embryology.
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+His most important invention, however, is of a water purification system.
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+The idea for it came from Michael Wilson of the Institute of Dental Surgery in London, who developed a technique for the osmotic production of sterile oral rehydration solutions, of particular use in treating infants suffering from diarrhea in third-world countries.
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+With the help of a Research Fellowship granted for humanitarian reasons at King Alfred College, Winchester, the invention was developed to functional prototype stage in 1993,with world-wide patent protection.
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+Commercial production followed and is now handled by HATS (Hampshire Advisory and Technical Services Ltd.)
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+
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+The process has revolutionized the small-scale production of sterile water in scattered third world communities and in disaster areas where normal services have been interrupted.
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+Applications include the safe preparation of food, drinks and drugs in areas where sterile water is not otherwise available.
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+HATS was awarded First Prize in the small business category and was overall prize winner in the Toshiba Year of Invention, receiving a NatWest/BP award for technology and a Prince of Wales Award for Innovation.
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+
+[S:2240]
+{org:en}
+Acknowledgements
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115693260:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+115693260:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
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+
+[S:2241]
+{org:en}
+Many individuals gave help and advice in the selection of the biographies included here.
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+{org:en}
+This help is gratefully acknowledged.
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+
+[S:2243]
+{org:en}
+Material comes from many sources including Who's Who, obituaries, dictionaries of scientists and engineers and numerous textbooks and journals.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2244]
+{org:en}
+All these sources are gratefully acknowledged.
+{/org}
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+man(200592883:0Z.@entry, 400535496:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2245]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2246]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2247]
+{org:en}
+Abbott D., ed.
+{/org}
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+agt(115669788:0D.@entry, 500323245:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2248]
+{org:en}
+The Biographical Dictionary of Scientists - Engineers and Inventors.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:2249]
+{org:en}
+London
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+[W]
+500008271:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2250]
+{org:en}
+Blond Educational.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324004:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500324004:02.@entry
+[/W]
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+Robert Sellin HTM1 is Emeritus Professor of Civil Engineering, having taught and carried on research in hydraulics and water resources management at the University of Bristol from 1970 until his retirement in 1997.
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+CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL AND GROUND WATERS
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+G. V. Motuzova
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+D. V. Grichuk
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+Soil solutions, subsurface waters, pore waters, chemical composition, free ions, true solution, associates, geographical zonality of soil solutions, vertical zonality of ground waters, water reserve depletion, contamination of soil and ground waters.
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+and(100190783:2G, 109315159:25.@pl)
+and(115689567:3I, 107284848:2Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2298]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2299]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2300]
+{org:en}
+Approaches to the study of chemical properties of soil and ground waters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100280853:02.@entry.@pl, 104345028:0K.@def)
+aoj(302692624:0T, 104012260:12.@pl)
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+and:01(114847503:1P.@entry.@pl, 109335240:1G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2301]
+{org:en}
+Origin and occurrence of soil and ground waters
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(:01.@entry, :02:02)
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+and:01(113959069:0D.@entry, 104923743:02)
+and:01(113959069:0D.@entry, 104923743:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2302]
+{org:en}
+General characterization of the chemical properties of soil and ground waters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(107201562:0A.@entry, 104012260:17.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:0Y, 104012260:17.@def.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2303]
+{org:en}
+Geographical zonality of chemical properties of soil solutions and ground waters
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(100190783:1J.@pl, 109335240:1E)
+aoj(302692624:0R, 104012260:10.@pl)
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+aoj(302692624:0R, 104012260:10.@pl)
+mod(104012260:10.@pl, :01)
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+aoj(303161278:02, 115689567:0F.@entry)
+and:01(114847503:1X.@entry.@pl, 100190783:1J.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2304]
+{org:en}
+Ecological value of soil solutions and ground water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104979425:0D.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(100190783:0R.@pl, 109335240:0M)
+mod(104979425:0D.@entry, :01)
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+aoj(302906478:02, 104979425:0D.@entry)
+aoj(302906478:02, 104979425:0D.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2305]
+{org:en}
+Conclusion
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2306]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2307]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2308]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2309]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketches
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2310]
+{org:en}
+Summary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2311]
+{org:en}
+Subsurface (soil and ground) waters are formed from atmospheric precipitation, seawater, and evaporite brines.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2312]
+{org:en}
+Their chemical composition depends on the combined effect of several factors, of which the water source, the composition of enclosing rocks, climate, and biotic processes are the most important.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0T.@entry, 103081660:0H.@topic)
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+and:01(100029677:4Q.@entry.@pl.@topic, 114519366:46.@topic.@pl)
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+mod:01(103081660:36.@def.@topic.@pl, 100348008:3V.@pl)
+obj(202663848:0T.@entry, 104809642:1H.@def)
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+aoj(302692624:08, 103081660:0H.@topic)
+mod(:01, 105858317:1Z.@pl)
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+and:01(114519366:46.@topic.@pl, 103081660:36.@def.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2313]
+{org:en}
+The content of salt in subsurface waters varies between n?10 mg/l (ultrafresh waters) to n?100 g/l (concentrated brines)
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+cnt:03(115690441:2Q.@entry, :02.@parenthesis)
+aoj:01(300205295:23, 115689188:28.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2314]
+{org:en}
+The typical salt content of brackish water is 2,000 to 10,000 mg/L and for seawater over 35,000 mg/L.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+pur(:2T.@topic, 115008847:25)
+aoj(301595440:06, 105809192:0J.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2315]
+{org:en}
+WHO guidelines recommend no more than 500 mg/L for drinking water, i.e. there must be a reduction in salt content of between 75 % and 99 %, depending on the raw water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(202603699:2D.@obligation, 100192300:2I.@indef)
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+man(202603699:2D.@obligation, 600000010:3B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2316]
+{org:en}
+Two types of zonality are observed in the distribution of subsurface waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200732552:0S.@entry, 104504486:06.@topic.@pl)
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+mod(104504486:06.@topic.@pl, 115689567:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2317]
+{org:en}
+Climatic zonality is typical for soil waters and waters of the upper water-bearing horizon.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(107935504:14.@pl, 109335240:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2318]
+{org:en}
+Partial decomposition of organic remains and removal of a major part of pedogenesis products from the soil profile are inherent to the natural zones with low mean annual temperatures, relatively high accumulation of biomass, and a percolative regime.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2319]
+{org:en}
+This results in the formation of soil solutions with low salt content and predominance of metabolites of living organisms (carbonic and organic acids) in their composition.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(105809192:1S, 105717342:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2320]
+{org:en}
+The content of organic acids in the soil waters of the arid zone is negligibly small because of the high degree of decomposition of organic remains.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2321]
+{org:en}
+The mineralization of soil solutions depends on their bonding to ground waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(202663848:13.@entry, 100148653:1K)
+obj(115689274:06.@topic.@def, 100190783:0T.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2322]
+{org:en}
+Deeply occurring ground waters hardly affect the composition of soil solutions.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2323]
+{org:en}
+When the ground water table is shallow, the composition of the soil solution depends on capillary rise of water and transpiration of plants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300691696:0X, 104379243:0O.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2324]
+{org:en}
+The relatively high salt content is explained by the fact that the products of weathering, pedogenesis, and eolian transfer are not removed from the soil profile by scanty atmospheric precipitation, but they move within the profile and form various salt deposits.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:02(200144850:6P.@entry, 100372448:77.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2325]
+{org:en}
+The distribution of salts in the soil profile depends on their solubility and direction of water flows
+{/org}
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+and:01(106197215:28.@entry, 105210221:1T)
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+[S:2326]
+{org:en}
+more soluble salts are moved further than less soluble salts.
+{/org}
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+[S:2327]
+{org:en}
+The water composition in the upper water-bearing horizon largely depends on soil waters and is affected by the dissolution and hydrolysis of rocks in the water-bearing horizons by atmospheric precipitation with the participation of biota.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000035:BC, 105061149:5E)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:2328]
+{org:en}
+The mean salt content varies from 0.25 g/l in humid conditions to 1.36 g/l in arid conditions
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:2329]
+{org:en}
+the reaction is near neutral.
+{/org}
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+man(300359160:0N.@entry, 600000350:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+A clear vertical hydrogeochemical zonality is manifested in the waters of deep water-bearing horizons.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:2331]
+{org:en}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:2332]
+{org:en}
+Waters of marine origin are predominant among deep-seated waters.
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+[S:2333]
+{org:en}
+Their salt content averages 30-35 g/kg
+{/org}
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+[S:2334]
+{org:en}
+sodium and calcium chlorides are the predominant salts.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Bound forms of chemical elements predominate in soil and ground waters.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2336]
+{org:en}
+In solutions of the upper soil horizons in the humid zone, most metals form complexes with organic acids, predominantly of a humic nature.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:2337]
+{org:en}
+In soil solutions of the arid zone, metals are capable of forming ionic pairs with mineral acid anions, the proportion increasing with the salt concentration.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2338]
+{org:en}
+The increase in salt content of subsurface waters is determined by the increase in the content of readily soluble salts.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2339]
+{org:en}
+The formation of various associates in subsurface waters favors increase in salt content in the soil solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(107935504:1G.@pl, 302471782:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2340]
+{org:en}
+The ecological significance of subsurface waters is determined by their impact on plants and ground waters, including potable water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2341]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2342]
+{org:en}
+Water occurs in the Earth's crust in chemically and physically bound forms and as free moisture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2343]
+{org:en}
+The total mass of water in the Earth's crust is estimated at HTM1 g.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua(101042242:0C.@topic.@def, 303160907:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2344]
+{org:en}
+The estimated mass of chemically bound water is HTM1 g
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(106831819:1J.@entry, 101042242:0G.@topic.@def)
+man(303161169:0Z, 400129089:0O)
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+qua(106831819:1J.@entry, HTM1:1E)
+aoj(303161169:0Z, 107935504:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2345]
+{org:en}
+that of physically bound water is HTM1 g, and the mass of free water is about HTM2 g.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(303161169:0L, 107935504:0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2346]
+{org:en}
+Almost all sedimentary and crystalline rocks of the Earth's crust below the ground water table are saturated with water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300393508:2R.@entry, 100348008:15.@topic.@pl)
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+mod(109260218:1O.@def, 108562067:1I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2347]
+{org:en}
+Fracture water has been found in crystalline rocks even at a depth of 10 km.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200715239:0Q.@entry.@complete, 107935504:0B.@topic)
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+plc(200715239:0Q.@entry.@complete, 105094725:1R.@indef)
+qua(115669024:23, "10":20)
+man(105094725:1R.@indef, 400017639:1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2348]
+{org:en}
+Subsurface (soil and ground) waters play a vital role in the biological and geological cycles of chemical substances on Earth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200013328:12.@entry, 115689188:0V.@topic)
+mod(115689188:0V.@topic, :01.@parenthesis)
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+mod(100722061:1F.@indef, 300095094:19)
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+mod(107341038:2H.@def.@pl, 100019613:30.@pl)
+mod(115689188:0V.@topic, 302471782:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2349]
+{org:en}
+The transformation of minerals from mountain rocks and organic remains mainly proceeds through the liquid phase, as well as the formation of secondary mineral, organic, and organo-mineral products and the material composition of sedimentary rocks and soils.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200341560:28.@entry, 100398704:06.@topic.@def)
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+mod:01(100348008:1B.@pl, 109359803:12)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2350]
+{org:en}
+Water migration is the main mechanism of matter transfer in the Earth's crust.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100098385:0U.@entry, 101123095:08.@topic)
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+mod(100201671:1E, 100020827:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2351]
+{org:en}
+In the early twentieth century, V.I. Vernadsky called soil water the substrate of life.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200107231:1D.@entry.@past, 500323009:0Y.@topic)
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+mod(106903699:1Z.@def, 100006269:2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2352]
+{org:en}
+Soil water forms, along with living organisms, the mobile compounds of chemical elements in the surface layers of the Earth's crust.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2353]
+{org:en}
+These substances ensure the unique ecological functions of soils, the most important of which is fertility.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100019613:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2354]
+{org:en}
+Estimation of the state and stability of the biosphere, as well as prediction of environmental implications of human activity, is impossible without analysis of the chemical status of soil and ground waters and regularities of their formation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:2355]
+{org:en}
+The study of soil and ground waters began almost 200 years ago.
+{/org}
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+bas(400073033:18, "200":1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2356]
+{org:en}
+Current investigations cover the following areas
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200048633:0P.@entry, 102735688:19.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
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+A list of methods widely used in study of soil and ground waters is given below.
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+Dialysis, filtration, ultrafiltration, and centrifugation are used to separate suspensions and colloids from the truly soluble fraction.
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+The analysis of solid residue and the measurement of solution electro-conductivity are used for the determination of total salts in waters.
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+[S:2386]
+{org:en}
+Ion exchange and electrodialysis are used to determine the sign of charge of the element-containing particles.
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+[S:2387]
+{org:en}
+Theoretical (calculation) methods of date acquisition on the chemical composition of soil and ground waters are based on the concepts of equilibria in a heterogeneous system described by the equations of the mass action law and material balance, and thermodynamic constants or free formation energies of chemical compounds present in solutions.
+{/org}
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+[S:2388]
+{org:en}
+Origin and occurrence of soil and ground waters
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Subsurface waters vary according to their location in the Earth's crust, the depth and conditions of occurrence, and their chemical composition.
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+{org:en}
+They impregnate the soil, fill the pores of loose sedimentary rocks, and fractures in the upper crystalline basement.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Subsurface waters are conventionally classified into soil and ground waters.
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+{org:en}
+Soil water is the part of subsurface water that impregnates the topmost Earth's crust.
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+{org:en}
+It is separated into a separate group because of the effect of living matter, which forms the soil (a peculiar bio-abiotic formation), in this part of the Earth's crust.
+{/org}
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+Subsurface (soil and ground) waters are formed from atmospheric precipitation, seawater, evaporite brines, and deep-seated (endogenic and regenerated) waters.
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+
+[S:2395]
+{org:en}
+Atmospheric precipitation (rains and ice water) is the main source of soil waters and ground waters in the upper water-bearing horizons.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(:03, 105127782:3S.@pl)
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+cnt(105061149:0E.@topic, :02.@parenthesis)
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+
+[S:2396]
+{org:en}
+The ratio between free and bound waters varies across a wide range.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000024:0C, 107935504:0Z.@pl)
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+{/unl}
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+[S:2397]
+{org:en}
+Chemically bound water enters the structure of minerals and the solid phase of soils and sediments.
+{/org}
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+agt(201082606:0P.@entry, 107935504:0J.@topic)
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+aoj:02(300291181:1U, 104676540:20.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2398]
+{org:en}
+Physically bound water includes adsorbed, film, and capillary water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0P.@entry, 107935504:0J.@topic)
+aoj(303161169:0D, 107935504:0J.@topic)
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+aoj(200183879:0P.@entry, 107935504:0J.@topic)
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+man(303161169:0D, 400115254:02)
+aoj:01(302412880:1I, 107935504:1S.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2399]
+{org:en}
+The surface of soil and sediment particles retain adsorbed and film moisture is by the forces of molecular attraction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200610010:19.@entry, 104362025:06.@topic.@def)
+and:01(109428967:0Q.@entry, 109335240:0H)
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+obj(201540232:1G.@past, 114535431:1Y)
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+obj(600000065:4C, 105035353:2H.@def.@pl)
+obj(201540232:1G.@past, 114535431:1Y)
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+mod(104688246:31, 301542252:2R)
+man(200610010:19.@entry, 600000065:4C)
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+mod(114535431:1Y, 103338648:1T)
+mod(106326406:0Z.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2400]
+{org:en}
+this water is not subjected to the action of gravity and acts as a buffer, protecting the solid phase from external impacts.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:01.@entry, 201128193:25.@progress)
+aoj(300948103:31, 107338552:3A.@pl)
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+man(:01.@entry, 201128193:25.@progress)
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+obj(201128193:25.@progress, 104676540:2Q.@def)
+obj:01(202671613:1N.@entry, 102911158:1X.@indef)
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+gol:01(201118292:0K.@not, 100037396:11.@def)
+aoj(300291181:2K, 104676540:2Q.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2401]
+{org:en}
+These waters are low in dissolved substances as compared to free water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(301206474:0J.@entry, 200652900:1E.@past)
+obj(200652900:1E.@past, 107935504:1U)
+obj(200338559:0Q.@past, 100019613:10.@pl)
+man(301206474:0J.@entry, 200652900:1E.@past)
+obj(200652900:1E.@past, 107935504:1U)
+obj(200338559:0Q.@past, 100019613:10.@pl)
+plc(301206474:0J.@entry, 100019613:10.@pl)
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+aoj(301206474:0J.@entry, 107935504:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300916199:1P, 107935504:1U)
+mod(107935504:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2402]
+{org:en}
+Capillary moisture constitutes the major part of the soil solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202620587:0L.@entry, 114535431:0C.@topic)
+aoj(302412880:02, 114535431:0C.@topic)
+mod(103892891:17.@def, 301471002:11)
+aoj(202620587:0L.@entry, 114535431:0C.@topic)
+aoj(302412880:02, 114535431:0C.@topic)
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+mod(103892891:17.@def, 100190783:1O.@def)
+obj(202620587:0L.@entry, 103892891:17.@def)
+obj(202620587:0L.@entry, 103892891:17.@def)
+mod(100190783:1O.@def, 109335240:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2403]
+{org:en}
+Water in capillaries of different diameters varies in chemical composition.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200436879:1A.@entry, 107935504:02.@topic)
+aoj(300490413:0Q, 105101815:10.@pl)
+plc(107935504:02.@topic, 102956069:0B.@pl)
+obj(200436879:1A.@entry, 107935504:02.@topic)
+aoj(300490413:0Q, 105101815:10.@pl)
+plc(107935504:02.@topic, 102956069:0B.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:1K, 103081660:1T)
+plc(200436879:1A.@entry, 103081660:1T)
+plc(200436879:1A.@entry, 103081660:1T)
+mod(102956069:0B.@pl, 105101815:10.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2404]
+{org:en}
+Soil capillary moisture is bound to ground waters and forms the capillary fringe over their level.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200144850:1K.@entry, 202710673:0T)
+mod(105093890:2M, 600000020:2G.@pl)
+aoj(302412880:1U, 103397762:24.@def)
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+mod(114535431:0H.@topic, 109335240:02)
+aoj(600000049:2B, 103397762:24.@def)
+gol(202710673:0T, 114847503:12.@pl)
+obj(200144850:1K.@entry, 103397762:24.@def)
+obj(200144850:1K.@entry, 103397762:24.@def)
+obj(202710673:0T, 114535431:0H.@topic)
+obj(600000049:2B, 105093890:2M)
+aoj(302412880:07, 114535431:0H.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2405]
+{org:en}
+During the evaporation of capillary water, it is regenerated due to the rise of ground water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(200097621:1F.@entry, 113572436:0D.@def)
+obj(113572436:0D.@def, 107935504:12)
+obj(600000001:1R, 100324384:22.@def)
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+obj(200097621:1F.@entry, 600000016:19.@topic)
+aoj(302412880:0S, 107935504:12)
+obj(100324384:22.@def, 114847503:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2406]
+{org:en}
+Soil water also includes the gravitation moisture of the pore space (known as lysimetric water).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0I.@entry, 107935504:07.@topic)
+mod(107935504:07.@topic, 109335240:02)
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+mod(114535431:17.@def, 106389553:1S.@def)
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+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 106389553:1S.@def)
+mod(114535431:17.@def, 106389553:1S.@def)
+obj:01(600000061:25, 107935504:2J)
+man(200183879:0I.@entry, 400047534:0D)
+man:01(301375174:1Z.@entry, 600000061:25)
+obj(200183879:0I.@entry, 114535431:17.@def)
+obj(200183879:0I.@entry, 114535431:17.@def)
+mod(106389553:1S.@def, 105245906:1N)
+mod(114535431:17.@def, 106198313:0V)
+aoj:01(303163457:28, 107935504:2J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2407]
+{org:en}
+This remains in the soil after rains, snow melt, or irrigation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202637592:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
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+or:01(100695448:1I.@entry, 115394368:19)
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+scn(202637592:07.@entry, :01:01)
+obj:01(600000112:0R, 115695942:0X)
+mod:01(115394368:19, 111508382:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2408]
+{org:en}
+Capillary moisture can move down the soil profile under the action of gravity to replenish ground water reserves.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200124442:0P.@entry.@ability, 114535431:0C.@topic)
+aoj(302412880:02, 114535431:0C.@topic)
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+aoj(302412880:02, 114535431:0C.@topic)
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+obj(200453803:2B, 104652438:2Y.@pl)
+obj(600000192:0U, 106516404:18.@def)
+pur(107512147:20, 200453803:2B)
+man(200124442:0P.@entry.@ability, 600000192:0U)
+man(200124442:0P.@entry.@ability, 600000192:0U)
+obj(100037396:1Q.@def, 107512147:20)
+mod(106516404:18.@def, 109335240:13)
+mod(104652438:2Y.@pl, 114847503:2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2409]
+{org:en}
+The amount of water in soils varies significantly, the mean value being 15 to 25% of the soil mass.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200436879:0V.@entry, 100033615:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(104979425:1Q.@entry.@def, 301113807:1L)
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+qua("%":2A, :01:01)
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+mod(101042242:2O.@state.@def, 109335240:2J)
+man(200436879:0V.@entry, 400006259:12)
+man(200436879:0V.@entry, 400006259:12)
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+fmt:01("25":28.@entry, "15":22)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2410]
+{org:en}
+Soil water composition is affected by the type of water source, the depth of ground waters, lithology (mineralogical composition of enclosing rocks), relief (confinement of soils to automorphic or hydromorphic landscape elements), climate (evaporation-to-precipitation ratio), water regime (permeable and impermeable), air regime (intake of gases from the atmosphere, absorption of gases from soil air by the liquid soil phase and their emission, and condensation of water vapor), vegetation (consumption of water and nutrients and transpiration), consumption of substances from the soil solution, and their release by other living organisms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:06(101253060:DU.@entry, 104676540:DE.@def)
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+and:06(101253060:DU.@entry, 104676540:DE.@def)
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+mod:01(103081660:3V.@entry, 100348008:4K.@pl)
+obj:07(103576617:AO, 114481080:AY.@pl)
+and:09(113569774:HA.@entry, :08.@entry)
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+obj:07(600000035:M3, :06.@entry)
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+or:02(303161725:6A.@entry, 303162142:5V)
+src:07(103576617:AO, 108499057:BD.@def)
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+gol:04(113572436:7O.@entry, 113819207:8H)
+mod:07(104727214:CO, 109335240:CJ)
+mod(103081660:0D.@topic, 107935504:07)
+[W]
+
+[/W]
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+mod(103081660:0D.@topic, 107935504:07)
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+mod:06(109335240:D9, 107119643:D2)
+and:07(106246700:EJ.@entry, 113423922:BW)
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+mod:06(101253060:DU.@entry, 600000020:DO.@pl)
+obj:07(113423922:BW, 114481080:CA)
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+and:0B(115669360:AD, )
+and:0B(105094725:2B.@def, )
+and:0B(115669550:36, )
+and:0B(100354884:4Z, )
+and:0B(114519366:7F, )
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2411]
+{org:en}
+Physical and chemical properties of soils affect the dissolution of minerals
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200019448:18.@entry, 104012260:0O.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(302692624:0F.@entry, 300627004:02)
+mod(104012260:0O.@topic.@pl, 109335240:12.@pl)
+agt(200019448:18.@entry, 104012260:0O.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(302692624:0F.@entry, 300627004:02)
+mod(104012260:0O.@topic.@pl, 109335240:12.@pl)
+obj(100215314:1J.@def, 114662574:1Y.@pl)
+obj(200019448:18.@entry, 100215314:1J.@def)
+obj(200019448:18.@entry, 100215314:1J.@def)
+aoj(:01, 104012260:0O.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2412]
+{org:en}
+the decomposition of organic remains
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(106013471:06.@entry.@def, 109407346:0V)
+obj(106013471:06.@entry.@def, 109407346:0V)
+aoj(301093142:0N, 109407346:0V)
+aoj(301093142:0N, 109407346:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2413]
+{org:en}
+and the formation of new mineral, organic, and organo-mineral substances in solid, liquid, and gaseous phases, as well as the biological activity of soils.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100925207:0A.@entry.@def, 100019613:1S.@pl)
+aoj(301405904:3K, 100407535:3V.@def)
+aoj(:02, 104676540:2X.@pl)
+mod(100019613:1S.@pl, 114662574:1K)
+aoj:01(300024996:0N, 114662574:0R)
+obj(100925207:0A.@entry.@def, 100019613:1S.@pl)
+aoj(301405904:3K, 100407535:3V.@def)
+aoj(:02, 104676540:2X.@pl)
+mod(100019613:1S.@pl, 114662574:1K)
+aoj:01(300024996:0N, 114662574:0R)
+obj(600000015:35, 100407535:3V.@def)
+plc(100019613:1S.@pl, 104676540:2X.@pl)
+and:01(301093142:10, 114662574:0R)
+and:02(300432453:2D, 300291181:26)
+mod(100019613:1S.@pl, :01)
+and:01(303162286:1D.@entry, 301093142:10)
+mod(100019613:1S.@pl, :01)
+and:01(303162286:1D.@entry, 301093142:10)
+and:02(302262542:2P.@entry, 300432453:2D)
+aoj(600000015:35, 104676540:2X.@pl)
+obj(100407535:3V.@def, 109335240:47.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2414]
+{org:en}
+The forming conditions and ch'mical composition of soil waters in the humid and arid zones differ significantly, as do soil solutions in automorphic and hydromorphic landscapes within the same zone.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202666239:2L.@entry, :3A)
+obj:02(200144850:06.@progress.@def, 105798863:0E.@pl)
+aoj:02(302692624:0T, 103081660:12.@entry)
+aoj(:03, 103640011:4O.@pl)
+and:02(103081660:12.@entry.@topic, 105798863:0E.@pl.@topic)
+mod(100190783:3I.@pl, 109335240:3D)
+man(202666239:2L.@entry, :3A)
+obj:02(200144850:06.@progress.@def, 105798863:0E.@pl)
+aoj:02(302692624:0T, 103081660:12.@entry)
+aoj(:03, 103640011:4O.@pl)
+and:02(103081660:12.@entry.@topic, 105798863:0E.@pl.@topic)
+mod(100190783:3I.@pl, 109335240:3D)
+aoj:02(:01, 105611062:2F.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300355611:5A, 105611062:5F)
+man(202666239:2L.@entry, 400006259:2S)
+plc(100190783:3I.@pl, 103640011:4O.@pl)
+mod:02(107935504:1M.@pl, 109335240:1H)
+obj(600000006:4Z, 105611062:5F)
+aoj(202666239:2L.@entry, :02)
+aoj(:3A, 100190783:3I.@pl)
+aoj(202666239:2L.@entry, :02)
+aoj(:3A, 100190783:3I.@pl)
+plc:02(107935504:1M.@pl, 105611062:2F.@def.@pl)
+and:03(303161725:4B.@entry, 303162142:3V)
+mod:02(103081660:12.@entry.@topic, 107935504:1M.@pl)
+aoj(600000006:4Z, 103640011:4O.@pl)
+and:01(300806991:2A.@entry, 302549393:20)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2415]
+{org:en}
+The leading factor affecting the composition of the soil solution is the predominant percolative water regime in the humid zone, and the exudative (or periodically exudative) water regime in the arid zone.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115669360:2X.@entry.@def, 105858317:0E.@topic.@def)
+man:01(303162204:4M.@entry, 400535395:49)
+and:03(115669360:53.@entry.@def, 105611062:3H.@def)
+obj(200019448:0L.@progress, 103081660:0Z.@def)
+aoj(303162053:2F, 115669360:2X.@entry.@def)
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+aoj(115669360:2X.@entry.@def, 105858317:0E.@topic.@def)
+man:01(303162204:4M.@entry, 400535395:49)
+and:03(115669360:53.@entry.@def, 105611062:3H.@def)
+obj(200019448:0L.@progress, 103081660:0Z.@def)
+aoj(303162053:2F, 115669360:2X.@entry.@def)
+agt(200019448:0L.@progress, 105858317:0E.@topic.@def)
+mod:03(115669360:53.@entry.@def, 107935504:4X)
+aoj(303161183:23, 115669360:2X.@entry.@def)
+aoj:03(302549393:3B, 105611062:3H.@def)
+mod:03(115669360:53.@entry.@def, :02.@parenthesis)
+mod(100190783:1N.@def, 109335240:1I)
+plc(115669360:2X.@entry.@def, :03:03)
+aoj:03(300806991:5H, 105611062:5M.@def)
+plc(115669360:2X.@entry.@def, :03:03)
+aoj:03(300806991:5H, 105611062:5M.@def)
+plc:03(115669360:53.@entry.@def, 105611062:5M.@def)
+mod(103081660:0Z.@def, 100190783:1N.@def)
+mod(115669360:2X.@entry.@def, 107935504:2R)
+mod(105858317:0E.@topic.@def, 300198904:06)
+or:02(:01.@entry.@parenthesis, 303162204:3V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2416]
+{org:en}
+The specific character of subsurface waters in hydromorphic landscapes is determined by the interaction of soil and ground waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:24.@entry, 104616916:0F.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301099951:06, 104616916:0F.@topic.@def)
+and:01(115691087:3A.@entry, 109335240:31)
+obj(200699815:24.@entry, 104616916:0F.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301099951:06, 104616916:0F.@topic.@def)
+and:01(115691087:3A.@entry, 109335240:31)
+aoj(303161725:1D, 103640011:1Q.@pl)
+mod(100039021:2M.@def, :01)
+mod(115689188:13, 302471782:0S)
+agt(200699815:24.@entry, 100039021:2M.@def)
+agt(200699815:24.@entry, 100039021:2M.@def)
+plc(115689188:13, 103640011:1Q.@pl)
+mod(104616916:0F.@topic.@def, 115689188:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2417]
+{org:en}
+Atmospheric precipitation is a source of water in water-bearing subsoil horizons, where it penetrates from the soil.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104263614:0X.@entry.@indef, 105061149:0E.@topic)
+mod(105127782:22.@pl, 114695838:1U)
+gol(200728954:2L, 105127782:22.@pl)
+aoj(104263614:0X.@entry.@indef, 105061149:0E.@topic)
+mod(105127782:22.@pl, 114695838:1U)
+gol(200728954:2L, 105127782:22.@pl)
+src(200728954:2L, 109335240:35.@def)
+plc(107935504:17, 105127782:22.@pl)
+obj(200728954:2L, 600000016:2I)
+mod(104263614:0X.@entry.@indef, 107935504:17)
+mod(104263614:0X.@entry.@indef, 107935504:17)
+obj(300217297:1M, 107935504:1G)
+mod(105127782:22.@pl, 300217297:1M)
+mod(105061149:0E.@topic, 302831736:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2418]
+{org:en}
+The profile of sedimentary rocks includes water-bearing horizons, which are readily penetrable for water, and waterproof layers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0Z.@entry, 106516404:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(302952109:0H, 100348008:0T.@pl)
+pur(301771462:2E, :01:01)
+mod(105127782:1M.@pl, 102817031:1E)
+aoj(200183879:0Z.@entry, 106516404:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(302952109:0H, 100348008:0T.@pl)
+pur(301771462:2E, :01:01)
+mod(105127782:1M.@pl, 102817031:1E)
+aoj:01(303162118:34, 101463259:3F.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301771462:2E, 105127782:1M.@pl)
+and:01(101463259:3F.@entry.@pl, 107935504:2T.@pl)
+obj(200183879:0Z.@entry, 105127782:1M.@pl)
+obj(200183879:0Z.@entry, 105127782:1M.@pl)
+man(301771462:2E, 400161193:26)
+mod(102817031:1E, 107935504:18)
+mod(106516404:06.@topic.@def, 100348008:0T.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2419]
+{org:en}
+Within the water-bearing horizons, subsurface waters are hydraulically bound, and their movement is ordered.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(301667519:31.@entry, 300252954:28)
+man(300252954:28, 400360218:1U)
+man(300252954:28, 600000042:05)
+and(301667519:31.@entry, 300252954:28)
+man(300252954:28, 400360218:1U)
+man(300252954:28, 600000042:05)
+mod(105127782:0U.@def.@pl, 300217297:0M)
+mod(100279835:2P.@topic, 600000020:2J.@pl)
+obj(600000042:05, 105127782:0U.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301667519:31.@entry, 100279835:2P.@topic)
+aoj(301667519:31.@entry, 100279835:2P.@topic)
+mod(115689188:1J.@topic, 302471782:18)
+aoj(300252954:28, 115689188:1J.@topic)
+obj(300217297:0M, 107935504:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2420]
+{org:en}
+The movement of subsurface waters is due to (a) the force of gravity along the slope of water-bearing horizons (non-artesian ground water), (b) hydraulic pressure head from the areas of supply to the discharge areas (artesian water), and (c) rock compaction under the load of overlying strata (elision water).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300137725:13.@entry, 100279835:06.@topic.@def)
+mod:04(102735688:69.@def.@pl, 100123234:5Z)
+mod:03(107935504:90.@entry, 113473536:8S)
+aoj:01(300098933:3G.@not, 114847503:3P.@entry)
+shd:04(107419233:7H.@entry, 106831391:79.@parenthesis)
+obj:04(600000135:25, 109437454:2F.@def)
+mod:04(101318381:4Y, 100113113:4P)
+mod:04(107419233:7H.@entry, 600000009:7S)
+shd:04(105035353:1O.@def, "a":1H.@parenthesis)
+frm:04(101318381:4Y, 102735688:5C.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300137725:13.@entry, 100279835:06.@topic.@def)
+mod:04(102735688:69.@def.@pl, 100123234:5Z)
+mod:03(107935504:90.@entry, 113473536:8S)
+aoj:01(300098933:3G.@not, 114847503:3P.@entry)
+shd:04(107419233:7H.@entry, 106831391:79.@parenthesis)
+obj:04(600000135:25, 109437454:2F.@def)
+mod:04(101318381:4Y, 100113113:4P)
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+shd:04(105035353:1O.@def, "a":1H.@parenthesis)
+frm:04(101318381:4Y, 102735688:5C.@def.@pl)
+qua:04(108657249:8K.@pl, 103679986:82.@def)
+mod:04(105127782:32.@pl, 300217297:2U)
+cnt:04(102735688:69.@def.@pl, :02.@parenthesis)
+and:04(107419233:7H.@entry, 101318381:4Y)
+mod:04(105035353:1O.@def, 107512147:1X)
+shd:04(101318381:4Y, 105400978:4C.@parenthesis)
+mod(115689188:0T, 302471782:0I)
+cnt:04(108657249:8K.@pl, :03.@parenthesis)
+cnt:04(105127782:32.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+to:04(113563522:5L, 102735688:69.@def.@pl)
+obj(300137725:13.@entry, :04:04.@entry)
+aoj:02(300098933:6G, 107935504:6P.@entry)
+and:04(101318381:4Y, 105035353:1O.@def)
+obj(100279835:06.@topic.@def, 115689188:0T)
+obj(300137725:13.@entry, :04:04.@entry)
+aoj:02(300098933:6G, 107935504:6P.@entry)
+and:04(101318381:4Y, 105035353:1O.@def)
+obj(100279835:06.@topic.@def, 115689188:0T)
+obj:04(600000009:7S, 108657249:8K.@pl)
+mod:04(109437454:2F.@def, 105127782:32.@pl)
+mod:04(102735688:5C.@def.@pl, 113563522:5L)
+mod:04(107419233:7H.@entry, 100348008:7C)
+aoj:04(600000135:25, 107512147:1X)
+mod:04(101318381:4Y, 303073751:4F)
+obj:04(201326890:8A.@progress, 108657249:8K.@pl)
+obj:04(300217297:2U, 107935504:2O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2421]
+{org:en}
+The displacement rate of subsurface waters in the Earth's crust decreases with depth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200151689:1U.@entry, 113325010:0J.@topic.@def)
+plc(115689188:12, 109260218:1O.@def)
+mod(113325010:0J.@topic.@def, 115689188:12)
+obj(200151689:1U.@entry, 113325010:0J.@topic.@def)
+plc(115689188:12, 109260218:1O.@def)
+mod(113325010:0J.@topic.@def, 115689188:12)
+obj(600000018:24, 105094725:29)
+mod(109260218:1O.@def, 108562067:1G)
+man(200151689:1U.@entry, 600000018:24)
+man(200151689:1U.@entry, 600000018:24)
+mod(115689188:12, 302471782:0R)
+mod(113325010:0J.@topic.@def, 100209446:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2422]
+{org:en}
+In deep water-bearing horizons, waters can occurs without displacement over hundreds of millions of years.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(303160996:1G.@entry.@ability, 105127782:0R.@pl)
+obj(300217297:0J, 107935504:0D)
+qua(100209446:1U, 600000082:27)
+obj(600000043:1M, 100209446:1U)
+plc(303160996:1G.@entry.@ability, 105127782:0R.@pl)
+obj(300217297:0J, 107935504:0D)
+qua(100209446:1U, 600000082:27)
+obj(600000043:1M, 100209446:1U)
+aoj(300149120:08, 105127782:0R.@pl)
+man(303160996:1G.@entry.@ability, 600000043:1M)
+qua(115690392:2O, 115690923:2C)
+aoj(303160996:1G.@entry.@ability, 115689188:15.@topic)
+aoj(303160996:1G.@entry.@ability, 115689188:15.@topic)
+bas(600000082:27, 115690392:2O)
+tim(100209446:1U, 115201505:30.@pl)
+mod(105127782:0R.@pl, 300217297:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2423]
+{org:en}
+In sloped beds or fractures of crystalline rocks, these waters can move to significant depths.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201178220:03.@past, :01:01.@entry)
+gol(200124442:1V.@entry.@ability, 105094725:2F.@pl)
+aoj(300268869:0V, 100348008:17.@pl)
+obj(201178220:03.@past, :01:01.@entry)
+gol(200124442:1V.@entry.@ability, 105094725:2F.@pl)
+aoj(300268869:0V, 100348008:17.@pl)
+or:01(100376994:0I.@entry.@pl, 102818832:0A.@pl)
+mod(115689188:1K.@topic, 600000017:1E)
+obj(:01.@entry, 100348008:17.@pl)
+obj(:01.@entry, 100348008:17.@pl)
+aoj(300625055:23, 105094725:2F.@pl)
+obj(200124442:1V.@entry.@ability, 115689188:1K.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2424]
+{org:en}
+The zone with subsurface waters of predominant atmospheric supply is usually several hundreds meters (or, rarely, a few kilometers) thick in flat landscapes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300015480:3Q.@entry, 105611062:06.@def)
+aoj(600000019:0B, 105611062:06.@def)
+man:01(600000101:38, 400035385:30)
+mod(113563522:1P, 302831736:1D)
+or(:01.@parenthesis, 103753077:2O.@pl)
+mod(115689188:0R, 302471782:0G)
+aoj(300015480:3Q.@entry, 105611062:06.@def)
+aoj(600000019:0B, 105611062:06.@def)
+man:01(600000101:38, 400035385:30)
+mod(113563522:1P, 302831736:1D)
+or(:01.@parenthesis, 103753077:2O.@pl)
+mod(115689188:0R, 302471782:0G)
+qua(115690923:2F, 600000059:27)
+man(300015480:3Q.@entry, 103753077:2O.@pl)
+mod(115689188:0R, 113563522:1P)
+aoj(300038119:3Z, 103640011:44.@pl)
+man(300015480:3Q.@entry, 400535718:1Z)
+obj(600000019:0B, 115689188:0R)
+man(300015480:3Q.@entry, 400535718:1Z)
+obj(600000019:0B, 115689188:0R)
+plc(300015480:3Q, 103640011:44.@pl)
+qua:01(113659760:3E.@entry.@pl, 600000101:38)
+aoj(303161183:11, 113563522:1P)
+qua(103753077:2O.@pl, 115690923:2F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2425]
+{org:en}
+In highlands, it frequently cover the whole scrutable depth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200048633:0U.@entry, 109302616:05.@pl)
+aoj(303163705:1A, 105094725:1K.@def)
+man(200048633:0U.@entry, 400035058:0J)
+plc(200048633:0U.@entry, 109302616:05.@pl)
+aoj(303163705:1A, 105094725:1K.@def)
+man(200048633:0U.@entry, 400035058:0J)
+obj(200048633:0U.@entry, 105094725:1K.@def)
+agt(200048633:0U.@entry, 600000016:0G.@topic)
+agt(200048633:0U.@entry, 600000016:0G.@topic)
+mod(105094725:1K.@def, 300514884:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2426]
+{org:en}
+Meteogenic (caused by atmospheric precipitation) subsurface waters are almost always fresh, but their salt content can increase in the presence of readily soluble minerals in the rocks of water-bearing horizons.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200153263:3D.@entry.@ability, 300205295:2F)
+mod:01(105061149:10, 302831736:0O)
+mod(105809192:31, 600000020:2Q.@pl)
+plc(114662574:4L.@pl, 100348008:51.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303163481:02, 107935504:1Q.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000361:3M, 114662574:4L.@pl)
+man(300205295:2F, 400019339:28)
+and(200153263:3D.@entry.@ability, 300205295:2F)
+mod:01(105061149:10, 302831736:0O)
+mod(105809192:31, 600000020:2Q.@pl)
+plc(114662574:4L.@pl, 100348008:51.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303163481:02, 107935504:1Q.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000361:3M, 114662574:4L.@pl)
+man(300205295:2F, 400019339:28)
+mod(105127782:5O.@pl, 102817031:5G)
+met:01(201645601:0E.@entry.@past, 105061149:10)
+man(200153263:3D.@entry.@ability, 600000361:3M)
+aoj(300205295:2F, 107935504:1Q.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100348008:51.@def.@pl, 105127782:5O.@pl)
+mod(107935504:1Q.@topic.@pl, 302471782:1F)
+obj(200153263:3D.@entry.@ability, 105809192:31)
+mod(105809192:31, 105717342:2W)
+obj(200153263:3D.@entry.@ability, 105809192:31)
+mod(105809192:31, 105717342:2W)
+aoj(302265015:4D, 114662574:4L.@pl)
+obj(:01.@parenthesis, 107935504:1Q.@topic.@pl)
+man(600000361:3M, 115691570:45)
+man(400019339:28, 400073033:21)
+mod(102817031:5G, 107935504:5A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2427]
+{org:en}
+Seawater entered the pores of sedimentary rocks during their formation on the bottom of a Jurassic basin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201082606:0B.@entry.@past, 115008847:02.@topic)
+plc(100925207:1R, 102878222:28.@def)
+dur(100348008:18.@pl, 100925207:1R)
+obj(201082606:0B.@entry.@past, 115008847:02.@topic)
+plc(100925207:1R, 102878222:28.@def)
+dur(100348008:18.@pl, 100925207:1R)
+aoj(302753478:2K, 102801525:2T.@indef)
+mod(105245906:0N.@def.@pl, 100348008:18.@pl)
+mod(102878222:28.@def, 102801525:2T.@indef)
+gol(201082606:0B.@entry.@past, 105245906:0N.@def.@pl)
+gol(201082606:0B.@entry.@past, 105245906:0N.@def.@pl)
+mod(100925207:1R, 600000020:1L.@pl)
+aoj(302952109:0W, 100348008:18.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2428]
+{org:en}
+Taking into account that the major portion of sedimentary rocks in the Earth's crust is of marine genesis, this source is essential for subsurface waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300900616:3G.@entry, 202774261:09.@progress)
+plc(100348008:1O.@pl, 109260218:29.@def)
+obj(202774261:09.@progress, 107324380:2S.@should)
+mod(107935504:45.@pl, 302471782:3U)
+man(300900616:3G.@entry, 202774261:09.@progress)
+plc(100348008:1O.@pl, 109260218:29.@def)
+obj(202774261:09.@progress, 107324380:2S.@should)
+mod(107935504:45.@pl, 302471782:3U)
+mod(115699459:11.@topic.@def, 100348008:1O.@pl)
+pur(300900616:3G.@entry, 107935504:45.@pl)
+mod(109260218:29.@def, 108562067:21)
+mod(107324380:2S.@should, 300124353:2L)
+aoj(300900616:3G.@entry, 104263614:36.@topic)
+aoj(302952109:1C, 100348008:1O.@pl)
+aoj(300900616:3G.@entry, 104263614:36.@topic)
+aoj(302952109:1C, 100348008:1O.@pl)
+aoj(107324380:2S.@should, 115699459:11.@topic.@def)
+mod(104263614:36.@topic, 600000017:31)
+mod(115699459:11.@topic.@def, 301471002:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2429]
+{org:en}
+However, sedimentation waters buried in the pores do not always remain there indefinitely.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202637592:1U.@entry.@emphasis, 600000070:02)
+obj(201234625:0W.@past, 107935504:0P.@topic.@pl)
+man(202637592:1U.@entry.@emphasis, 400019339:1N.@not)
+man(202637592:1U.@entry.@emphasis, 600000070:02)
+obj(201234625:0W.@past, 107935504:0P.@topic.@pl)
+man(202637592:1U.@entry.@emphasis, 400019339:1N.@not)
+man(202637592:1U.@entry.@emphasis, 400203783:27)
+plc(201234625:0W.@past, 105245906:1A.@def.@pl)
+obj(202637592:1U.@entry.@emphasis, 107935504:0P.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202637592:1U.@entry.@emphasis, 107935504:0P.@topic.@pl)
+mod(107935504:0P.@topic.@pl, 111445395:0B)
+man(400203783:27, 400109151:21)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2430]
+{org:en}
+During mountain formation, water-bearing horizons in uplifted areas are usually subjected to leaching by waters of atmospheric supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(201118292:2H.@entry.@past, 100925207:0L)
+aoj(300705776:1Q, 102735688:1Z.@pl)
+mod(115689188:36, 113563522:3S)
+man(201118292:2H.@entry.@past, 400535718:29)
+dur(201118292:2H.@entry.@past, 100925207:0L)
+aoj(300705776:1Q, 102735688:1Z.@pl)
+mod(115689188:36, 113563522:3S)
+man(201118292:2H.@entry.@past, 400535718:29)
+mod(105127782:1E.@topic.@pl, 300217297:16)
+gol(201118292:2H.@entry.@past, 200488617:2U.@progress)
+plc(105127782:1E.@topic.@pl, 102735688:1Z.@pl)
+obj(201118292:2H.@entry.@past, 105127782:1E.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100925207:0L, 109359803:0C)
+obj(201118292:2H.@entry.@past, 105127782:1E.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100925207:0L, 109359803:0C)
+mod(113563522:3S, 302831736:3G)
+ins(200488617:2U.@progress, 115689188:36)
+obj(300217297:16, 107935504:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2431]
+{org:en}
+Thus, sedimentation waters can be displaced and/or mixed with atmospheric waters'
+{/org}
+{unl}
+a/o(200184117:1H.@entry.@past, 202013571:10.@ability)
+obj(202013571:10.@ability, 107935504:0M.@topic.@pl)
+mod(115689188:24, 302831736:1S)
+a/o(200184117:1H.@entry.@past, 202013571:10.@ability)
+obj(202013571:10.@ability, 107935504:0M.@topic.@pl)
+mod(115689188:24, 302831736:1S)
+gol(200184117:1H.@entry.@past, 115689188:24)
+agt(200184117:1H.@entry.@past, 107935504:0M.@topic.@pl)
+agt(200184117:1H.@entry.@past, 107935504:0M.@topic.@pl)
+mod(107935504:0M.@topic.@pl, 111445395:08)
+man(202013571:10.@ability, 400121135:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2432]
+{org:en}
+Nonetheless, the lower sedimentary cover on platforms is generally filled with saline subsurface waters of marine origin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200261533:1X.@entry, 400535900:02)
+aoj(302952109:0P, 100988893:11.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301074458:29, 107935504:2R.@pl)
+man(200261533:1X.@entry, 400041954:1N)
+man(200261533:1X.@entry, 400535900:02)
+aoj(302952109:0P, 100988893:11.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301074458:29, 107935504:2R.@pl)
+man(200261533:1X.@entry, 400041954:1N)
+plc(100988893:11.@topic.@def, 103961939:1A.@pl)
+gol(200261533:1X.@entry, 107935504:2R.@pl)
+mod(104923743:38, 300124353:31)
+obj(200261533:1X.@entry, 100988893:11.@topic.@def)
+man(301206474:0J, 400099341:3D)
+obj(200261533:1X.@entry, 100988893:11.@topic.@def)
+man(301206474:0J, 400099341:3D)
+mod(107935504:2R.@pl, 302471782:2G)
+mod(107935504:2R.@pl, 104923743:38)
+aoj(301206474:0J, 100988893:11.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2433]
+{org:en}
+Concentrated brines are frequently observed in deep water-bearing horizons.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200732552:11.@entry, 115689653:0F.@topic)
+obj(300217297:1O, 107935504:1I)
+aoj(300149120:1D, 105127782:1W.@pl)
+obj(200732552:11.@entry, 115689653:0F.@topic)
+obj(300217297:1O, 107935504:1I)
+aoj(300149120:1D, 105127782:1W.@pl)
+man(200732552:11.@entry, 400035058:0Q)
+plc(200732552:11.@entry, 105127782:1W.@pl)
+plc(200732552:11.@entry, 105127782:1W.@pl)
+aoj(300538565:02, 115689653:0F.@topic)
+mod(105127782:1W.@pl, 300217297:1O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2434]
+{org:en}
+These brines were formed during halogenesis HTM1 the formation of natural salts.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200144850:0K.@entry, 115689653:08.@topic)
+obj(100925207:1J.@entry.@def, 105717342:24.@pl)
+obj(200144850:0K.@entry, 115689653:08.@topic)
+obj(100925207:1J.@entry.@def, 105717342:24.@pl)
+mod(115689653:08.@topic, 600000017:02)
+dur(200144850:0K.@entry, 115695338:0Y)
+dur(200144850:0K.@entry, 115695338:0Y)
+mod(105717342:24.@pl, 301335708:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2435]
+{org:en}
+Natural salts can be formed in semi-isolated lagoons, sabkhas, and lakes during the intensive evaporation of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200144850:0N.@entry.@ability, 105717342:0A.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:01(300594267:12, 109328746:1B.@pl)
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+obj(200144850:0N.@entry.@ability, 105717342:0A.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:01(300594267:12, 109328746:1B.@pl)
+and:01(109328904:1X.@entry.@pl, 115694359:1K.@pl)
+aoj(301512275:2E, 113572436:2O.@def)
+dur(:01, 113572436:2O.@def)
+obj(113572436:2O.@def, 107935504:33)
+plc(200144850:0N.@entry.@ability, :01:01)
+plc(200144850:0N.@entry.@ability, :01:01)
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+and:01(115694359:1K.@pl, 109328746:1B.@pl)
+mod(105717342:0A.@topic.@pl, 301335708:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2436]
+{org:en}
+Evaporite lagoons periodically appearing on vast areas were an essential part of the Earth's history.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103892891:23.@entry.@past.@indef, 109328746:0C.@topic.@pl)
+mod(109328746:0C.@topic.@pl, 115009192:02)
+mod(106155567:2N.@def, 108562067:2F)
+aoj(103892891:23.@entry.@past.@indef, 109328746:0C.@topic.@pl)
+mod(109328746:0C.@topic.@pl, 115009192:02)
+mod(106155567:2N.@def, 108562067:2F)
+aoj(303161287:1A, 102735688:1F.@pl)
+aoj(300900616:1T, 103892891:23.@entry.@past.@indef)
+man(200422090:0X.@progress, 400535395:0K)
+mod(103892891:23.@entry.@past.@indef, 106155567:2N.@def)
+mod(103892891:23.@entry.@past.@indef, 106155567:2N.@def)
+plc(200422090:0X.@progress, 102735688:1F.@pl)
+obj(200422090:0X.@progress, 109328746:0C.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2437]
+{org:en}
+During the Miocene (25 to 6 millions years ago), a vast evaporite basin almost completely occupied the Mediterranean region.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(202648639:2K.@entry.@past, 500009883:0D.@def)
+qua:02(115201505:13.@pl, :01:01)
+mod(105221895:3B.@def, 303085213:2X)
+man(202648639:2K.@entry.@past, 400157624:29)
+dur(202648639:2K.@entry.@past, 500009883:0D.@def)
+qua:02(115201505:13.@pl, :01:01)
+mod(105221895:3B.@def, 303085213:2X)
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+aoj(:02.@parenthesis, 500009883:0D.@def)
+obj(202648639:2K.@entry.@past, 105221895:3B.@def)
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+mod(102801525:1W.@topic.@indef, 115009192:1M)
+aoj(202648639:2K.@entry.@past, 102801525:1W.@topic.@indef)
+mod:02(115201505:13.@pl, 115690392:0U)
+aoj(202648639:2K.@entry.@past, 102801525:1W.@topic.@indef)
+mod:02(115201505:13.@pl, 115690392:0U)
+aoj(303161287:1H, 102801525:1W.@topic.@indef)
+man(400157624:29, 400073033:22)
+man:02(301728476:19.@entry, 115201505:13.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2438]
+{org:en}
+Immense volumes of concentrated brines were simultaneously accumulated in evaporite basins.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200158804:1P.@entry.@past, 104990220:0A.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301387319:02, 104990220:0A.@topic.@pl)
+mod(102801525:2E.@pl, 115009192:24)
+obj(200158804:1P.@entry.@past, 104990220:0A.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301387319:02, 104990220:0A.@topic.@pl)
+mod(102801525:2E.@pl, 115009192:24)
+man(200158804:1P.@entry.@past, 400120095:1A)
+plc(200158804:1P.@entry.@past, 102801525:2E.@pl)
+plc(200158804:1P.@entry.@past, 102801525:2E.@pl)
+aoj(300538565:0L, 115689653:0Y)
+mod(104990220:0A.@topic.@pl, 115689653:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2439]
+{org:en}
+These brines saturated all sediments, both formed in the basin and occurring under the basin bottom.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200456357:0F.@entry.@past, 115689653:08)
+plc(200144850:1C, 102801525:1Q.@def)
+man(303160996:24.@progress, 600000003:2E)
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+plc(200144850:1C, 102801525:1Q.@def)
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+qua(109428967:0T.@pl, 600000011:0P)
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+mod(115689653:08, 600000017:02)
+obj(200456357:0F.@entry.@past, 109428967:0T.@pl)
+mod(115689653:08, 600000017:02)
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+aoj(303160996:24.@progress, 109428967:0T.@pl)
+man(200144850:1C, 600000074:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2440]
+{org:en}
+The latter phenomenon was favored by the fact that brines are denser than less saline waters and can displace them from water-bearing horizons because of gravity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200692143:0S.@entry.@past, 100034213:0D.@topic.@def)
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+aoj:01(301074458:29, 115689188:2G)
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+mod(100034213:0D.@topic.@def, 301047561:06)
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+agt(200692143:0S.@entry.@past, 105817396:17.@def)
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+and:01(202013571:2V.@entry.@ability, 300440579:1S)
+man:01(300440579:1S, 400099341:5I)
+mod:01(105127782:3S.@pl, 300217297:3K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2441]
+{org:en}
+As a result, all subsalt water-bearing horizons are filled with brines in the regions where salts are present in the Earth's crust profile.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200261533:1I.@entry, 600000159:02)
+mod(105127782:15.@topic.@pl, 300217297:0X)
+aoj(301731351:2W, 105717342:2M.@topic.@pl)
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+aoj(301731351:2W, 105717342:2M.@topic.@pl)
+plc(115689653:1U, 105221895:28.@def.@pl)
+mod(105717342:0M, 303161200:0J)
+mod(106516404:3P.@def, 109260218:3J)
+agt(200261533:1I.@entry, 115689653:1U)
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+obj(200261533:1I.@entry, 105127782:15.@topic.@pl)
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+plc(301731351:2W, 105221895:28.@def.@pl)
+qua(105127782:15.@topic.@pl, 600000011:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2442]
+{org:en}
+Deep-seated sources of subsurface waters are significantly more problematic.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303162062:1U.@entry, 104263614:0E.@topic.@pl)
+mod(107935504:10.@pl, 302471782:0P)
+mod(104263614:0E.@topic.@pl, 107935504:10.@pl)
+aoj(303162062:1U.@entry, 104263614:0E.@topic.@pl)
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+mod(104263614:0E.@topic.@pl, 107935504:10.@pl)
+man(400099341:1P, 400006259:1B)
+man(303162062:1U.@entry, 400099341:1P)
+man(303162062:1U.@entry, 400099341:1P)
+mod(104263614:0E.@topic.@pl, 303161703:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2443]
+{org:en}
+Waters of endogenic ("juvenile") origin are probably formed due to the condensation of gases evolved from magmatic melts.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200144850:1T.@entry, 115689188:02.@topic)
+cnt(301331675:0C, 302892980:0T.@parenthesis.@single_quote)
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+obj(600000001:20, 106246700:2B.@def)
+obj(200144850:1T.@entry, 115689188:02.@topic)
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+obj(600000001:20, 106246700:2B.@def)
+mod(115689188:02.@topic, 104923743:19)
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+mod(115394368:3J.@pl, 303158840:3A)
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+rsn(200144850:1T.@entry, 600000001:20)
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+obj(106246700:2B.@def, 114481080:2R.@pl)
+aoj(301331675:0C, 104923743:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2444]
+{org:en}
+Volcanic eruptions are always accompanied by significant gas releases, and the appearance of endogenic subsurface waters could be expected in modern volcanism areas.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200059376:3O.@entry.@ability, 202025550:0W)
+man(202025550:0W, 400019339:0P)
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+mod(115689188:38, 302471782:2X)
+obj(200059376:3O.@entry.@ability, 100050195:29.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300625055:1B, 100210940:1R.@pl)
+obj(200059376:3O.@entry.@ability, 100050195:29.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300625055:1B, 100210940:1R.@pl)
+aoj(301331675:2N, 115689188:38)
+mod(102735688:4H.@pl, 111524110:47)
+agt(202025550:0W, 100210940:1R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
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+Human economic activity changes the reserves of subsurface waters (water withdrawal), moisture regime (irrigation), and chemical composition (application of chemicals and contamination of soils and sediments from various sources).
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+General characterization of chemical properties of soil and ground waters HTM1
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+The colloidal and suspended fractions are of minor importance for ground waters.
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+Along with the total content and above-mentioned parameters, the chemical composition of subsurface waters is also characterized by pH and redox potential.
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+Suspensions in soil and ground waters include finely dispersed particles of primary and secondary minerals, the composition of which is determined by the local lithology.
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+The colloidal fraction is composed of polymerized macromolecules of mineral hydroxy acids (such as meta- and orthosilicic acids), hydrolysis products of metal (aluminum and iron) ions, and associates of organic acids and organo??
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+cnt:04(:03, "1-10 g/l":5M.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2458]
+{org:en}
+The dissolved substances are classified into macroelements, the portion of which generally exceeds 1% of total dissolved substances, and microelements.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200654625:0V.@entry, 100019613:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(301506258:38, 100019613:3I.@pl)
+obj:01(202669081:2O, :6G)
+mod:01(115691517:1E.@pl, 115699459:1X.@def)
+obj(200654625:0V.@entry, 100019613:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(301506258:38, 100019613:3I.@pl)
+obj:01(202669081:2O, :6G)
+mod:01(115691517:1E.@pl, 115699459:1X.@def)
+qua:01(:6G, "1%":2W)
+and:01(115690208:42.@entry.@pl, 115691517:1E.@pl)
+pof:01(:6G, 100019613:3I.@pl)
+gol(200654625:0V.@entry, :01)
+aoj(301506258:06, 100019613:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+gol(200654625:0V.@entry, :01)
+aoj(301506258:06, 100019613:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+man:01(202669081:2O, 400041954:2E)
+aoj:01(202669081:2O, 115699459:1X.@def)
+qua:01(100019613:3I.@pl, 303160907:32)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2459]
+{org:en}
+Macroelements include Na, Mg, K, Ca, Cl, S, and C.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0G.@entry, 115691517:02.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(500323524:0Z, 106832248:0W)
+and:01(106833112:17, 500323568:13)
+aoj(200183879:0G.@entry, 115691517:02.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(500323524:0Z, 106832248:0W)
+and:01(106833112:17, 500323568:13)
+and:01(106831391:1E.@entry, 106833112:17)
+and:01(115669302:0S, 115669300:0O)
+obj(200183879:0G.@entry, :01:01)
+obj(200183879:0G.@entry, :01:01)
+and:01(106832248:0W, 115669302:0S)
+and:01(500323568:13, 500323524:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2460]
+{org:en}
+The two latter elements exist in HTM1 water as oxy anions HTM2 , HTM3 and HTM4.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:0Q.@entry, 105868954:0H.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(HTM4:27.@entry, HTM3:1Y)
+obj(600000023:1A, 115669485:1H.@pl)
+aoj(202603699:0Q.@entry, 105868954:0H.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(HTM4:27.@entry, HTM3:1Y)
+obj(600000023:1A, 115669485:1H.@pl)
+mod(105868954:0H.@topic.@def.@pl, 301047561:0A)
+plc(202603699:0Q.@entry, 107935504:14)
+mod(105868954:0H.@topic.@def.@pl, 600000577:06)
+man(202603699:0Q.@entry, 600000023:1A)
+man(202603699:0Q.@entry, 600000023:1A)
+and:01(HTM3:1Y, HTM2:1R)
+cnt(115669485:1H.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2461]
+{org:en}
+Carbon is present in various organic substances and dissolved HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301731351:0C.@entry, 102961851:02.@topic)
+aoj:01(301093142:0V, 100019613:13.@pl)
+aoj:01(301506258:1I, HTM1:1S.@entry)
+aoj(301731351:0C.@entry, 102961851:02.@topic)
+aoj:01(301093142:0V, 100019613:13.@pl)
+aoj:01(301506258:1I, HTM1:1S.@entry)
+and:01(HTM1:1S.@entry, 100019613:13.@pl)
+plc(301731351:0C.@entry, :01:01)
+plc(301731351:0C.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj:01(303160904:0N, 100019613:13.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2462]
+{org:en}
+Microelements include Si, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Pb, As, Se, Sr, F, Br, Li, B, P (as phosphate ion and organic compounds), and N (as HTM1 , HTM2 and organic compounds).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0G.@entry, 115690208:02.@topic.@pl)
+and:03(500323540:13, 500323552:0Z)
+and:03(105400978:22, 113654674:1Y)
+aoj:03(:02.@parenthesis, 106832788:25)
+aoj:04(301093142:43, 103081859:4B.@entry.@pl)
+and:03(500323652:1J, 500323539:1F)
+and:03(106832572:3H.@entry, 106832788:25)
+obj:05(600000032:3K.@entry, :04:04)
+and:03(106831712:1R, 500323657:1N)
+aoj(200183879:0G.@entry, 115690208:02.@topic.@pl)
+and:03(500323540:13, 500323552:0Z)
+and:03(105400978:22, 113654674:1Y)
+aoj:03(:02.@parenthesis, 106832788:25)
+aoj:04(301093142:43, 103081859:4B.@entry.@pl)
+and:03(500323652:1J, 500323539:1F)
+and:03(106832572:3H.@entry, 106832788:25)
+obj:05(600000032:3K.@entry, :04:04)
+and:03(106831712:1R, 500323657:1N)
+aoj:01(301093142:2T, 103081859:31.@entry.@pl)
+and:03(500323565:17, 500323540:13)
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+and:03(500323522:0V, 115669237:0R)
+and:03(500323566:1U, 106831712:1R)
+and:01(103081859:31.@entry.@pl, 109315159:2L.@pl)
+and:03(500323562:1B, 500323565:17)
+obj(200183879:0G.@entry, :06:06)
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+obj(200183879:0G.@entry, :06:06)
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+and:03(113654674:1Y, 500323566:1U)
+obj:02(600000023:28.@entry, :01:01)
+and:04(HTM2:3U.@pl, HTM1:3N.@pl)
+and:03(500323539:1F, 500323562:1B)
+and:03(106832788:25, 105400978:22)
+and:04(103081859:4B.@entry.@pl, HTM2:3U.@pl)
+and:03(500323657:1N, 500323652:1J)
+mod:01(109315159:2L.@pl, 107928578:2B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2463]
+{org:en}
+Macroelements of subsurface waters belong to the elements that are most abundant in the Earth's crust (from 2.7% for Ca to 0.02% for Cl).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115691517:02.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0U.@pl)
+pur:01("2.7%":32.@entry, 500323524:3B)
+man(300013887:22, :01.@parenthesis)
+gol(202719930:11.@entry, 105868954:1F.@def.@pl)
+mod(115689188:0U, 302471782:0J)
+mod(115691517:02.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0U.@pl)
+pur:01("2.7%":32.@entry, 500323524:3B)
+man(300013887:22, :01.@parenthesis)
+gol(202719930:11.@entry, 105868954:1F.@def.@pl)
+mod(115689188:0U, 302471782:0J)
+mod(109260218:2Q.@def, 108562067:2I)
+aoj(202719930:11.@entry, 115691517:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(115691517:02.@topic.@pl, 115689188:0U)
+man(300013887:22, 400536271:1X)
+mod(107935504:0U.@pl, 302471782:0J)
+pur:01("0.02%":3H, 500323568:3R)
+mod(107935504:0U.@pl, 302471782:0J)
+pur:01("0.02%":3H, 500323568:3R)
+plc(300013887:22, 109260218:2Q.@def)
+aoj(300013887:22, 105868954:1F.@def.@pl)
+fmt:01("2.7%":32.@entry, "0.02%":3H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2464]
+{org:en}
+At the same time, such important elements as Al, Fe, and Ti are present in waters in very low concentrations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(301731351:1U.@entry, 400535235:02)
+and:01(106869129:1N.@entry, 500323522:1F)
+man(301206474:2K, 400031899:2F)
+plc(107935504:25.@pl, 100375071:2O.@pl)
+man(301731351:1U.@entry, 400535235:02)
+and:01(106869129:1N.@entry, 500323522:1F)
+man(301206474:2K, 400031899:2F)
+plc(107935504:25.@pl, 100375071:2O.@pl)
+aoj(301275562:0P, 105868954:0Z.@topic.@pl)
+plc(301731351:1U.@entry, 107935504:25.@pl)
+mod(105868954:0Z.@topic.@pl, 600001411:0K)
+aoj(301731351:1U.@entry, 105868954:0Z.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(500323522:1F, 115669269:1B)
+aoj(301731351:1U.@entry, 105868954:0Z.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(500323522:1F, 115669269:1B)
+man(105868954:0Z.@topic.@pl, 600000008:18)
+aoj(301206474:2K, 100375071:2O.@pl)
+obj(600000008:18, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2465]
+{org:en}
+This incomplete correspondence between the elemental compositions of rocks and waters is explained on the basis of the principle advanced by M.G. Valyashko
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200939277:2J.@entry, 106623614:0I.@topic)
+mod(103081660:1J.@def.@pl, 302719395:19)
+aoj(600000024:0X, 106623614:0I.@topic)
+obj(200158222:3N, 105872477:3D.@def)
+obj(200939277:2J.@entry, 106623614:0I.@topic)
+mod(103081660:1J.@def.@pl, 302719395:19)
+aoj(600000024:0X, 106623614:0I.@topic)
+obj(200158222:3N, 105872477:3D.@def)
+obj(600000024:0X, 103081660:1J.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000085:2T, 105872477:3D.@def)
+aoj(300523978:07, 106623614:0I.@topic)
+man(200939277:2J.@entry, 600000085:2T)
+and:01(107935504:29.@entry.@pl, 100348008:1Z.@pl)
+man(200939277:2J.@entry, 600000085:2T)
+and:01(107935504:29.@entry.@pl, 100348008:1Z.@pl)
+mod(106623614:0I.@topic, 600000017:02)
+agt(200158222:3N, 500323394:3Z)
+mod(103081660:1J.@def.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2466]
+{org:en}
+The accumulation of components in natural waters is limited by the solubility of their compounds with other major components of natural waters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200235368:1I.@entry, 100372013:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100372013:06.@topic.@def, 103081021:0M.@pl)
+obj(600000019:2R, 103081021:38.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:2R, 103081859:2H.@pl)
+obj(200235368:1I.@entry, 100372013:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100372013:06.@topic.@def, 103081021:0M.@pl)
+obj(600000019:2R, 103081021:38.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:2R, 103081859:2H.@pl)
+mod(103081021:38.@pl, 301471002:32)
+mod(105210221:1X.@def, 103081859:2H.@pl)
+mod(107935504:18.@pl, 301335708:10)
+mod(103081021:38.@pl, 600000031:2W)
+agt(200235368:1I.@entry, 105210221:1X.@def)
+plc(103081021:0M.@pl, 107935504:18.@pl)
+agt(200235368:1I.@entry, 105210221:1X.@def)
+plc(103081021:0M.@pl, 107935504:18.@pl)
+mod(103081021:38.@pl, 107935504:3U.@pl)
+mod(103081859:2H.@pl, 600000020:2B.@pl)
+mod(107935504:3U.@pl, 301335708:3M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2467]
+{org:en}
+The limiting factor for the above elements is the low solubility of their oxides and hydroxides, the low solubility of barium sulfate for Ba, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105210221:1K.@entry.@def, 105858317:0F.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(114971519:24.@pl, 600000020:1Y.@pl)
+mod:02(105210221:2Z.@def, 115063493:3K)
+and:02(115689145:40.@entry, 105210221:2Z.@def)
+mod(105868954:10.@def.@pl, 300125993:0U)
+aoj(105210221:1K.@entry.@def, 105858317:0F.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(114971519:24.@pl, 600000020:1Y.@pl)
+mod:02(105210221:2Z.@def, 115063493:3K)
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+mod:02(115063493:3K, 114629998:3D)
+aoj(301206474:1G, 105210221:1K.@entry.@def)
+aoj(302004385:06, 105858317:0F.@topic.@def)
+pur:02(115063493:3K, 115669220:3W)
+mod(105210221:1K.@entry.@def, :02)
+pur(105858317:0F.@topic.@def, 105868954:10.@def.@pl)
+mod(105210221:1K.@entry.@def, :02)
+pur(105858317:0F.@topic.@def, 105868954:10.@def.@pl)
+aoj:02(301206474:2V, 105210221:2Z.@def)
+and:02(105210221:2Z.@def, :01)
+and:01(114914670:2F.@entry.@pl, 114971519:24.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2468]
+{org:en}
+Although the content of fluorine in the Earth's crust is 2.5 times higher than that of chlorine, its concentration in natural waters is lower because of the formation of the hardly soluble minerals, fluorite and fluor-apatite.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(301206474:3S.@entry, 600000038:02)
+qua(100028270:1P.@pl, "2.5":1L)
+man:01(302265015:51, 400003093:4U)
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+aoj(300705498:1V, 105809192:0F.@topic.@def)
+man(301206474:3S.@entry, 400099341:7Q)
+plc(114637507:0Q, 109260218:1C.@def)
+mod(107935504:3I.@pl, 301335708:3A)
+con(301206474:3S.@entry, 600000038:02)
+qua(100028270:1P.@pl, "2.5":1L)
+man:01(302265015:51, 400003093:4U)
+obj(100925207:4D.@def, 114666510:62)
+aoj(300705498:1V, 105809192:0F.@topic.@def)
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+plc(114637507:0Q, 109260218:1C.@def)
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+man(300705498:1V, 400099341:6T)
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+mod(100375071:2T.@topic, 600000016:2P)
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+man(300705498:1V, 100028270:1P.@pl)
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+aoj(301206474:3S.@entry, 100375071:2T.@topic)
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+mod(114666510:62, :01)
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+mod(109260218:1C.@def, 108562067:16)
+obj(600000038:02, 300705498:1V)
+aoj:01(302265015:51, 114662574:59.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2469]
+{org:en}
+The subdivision of subsurface waters into hydrochemical types is based on the predominance of certain ions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302351064:1V.@entry, 100398427:06.@topic.@def)
+gol(100398427:06.@topic.@def, 104504486:1M.@pl)
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+aoj(302351064:1V.@entry, 100398427:06.@topic.@def)
+gol(100398427:06.@topic.@def, 104504486:1M.@pl)
+obj(114442749:2F.@def, 109315159:33.@pl)
+mod(104504486:1M.@pl, 303161723:18)
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+mod(107935504:0W.@pl, 302471782:0L)
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+obj(302351064:1V.@entry, 202756196:23.@past)
+obj(100398427:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0W.@pl)
+aoj(300309740:2V, 109315159:33.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2470]
+{org:en}
+The total salt content in water correlates with the total of the composing elements.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200713996:0Y.@entry, 105809192:0H.@topic.@def)
+plc(105809192:0H.@topic.@def, 107935504:0S)
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+obj(201626138:1V.@progress, 105868954:25.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2471]
+{org:en}
+The sodium-calcium sulfate-hydrocarbonate composition is typical for fresh waters of soils and upper water-bearing horizons, chloride or hydrocarbonate-chloride for saline waters, and sodium or calcium-sodium chloride for brines.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103081660:18.@entry.@def, 115690319:0T)
+mod(103081660:1M.@topic, 115690319:13)
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+or:02(115690319:4S.@entry, 115016852:4G)
+mod:04(114655371:6Z, :03)
+mod:01(105127782:3W.@entry.@pl, 301206318:35)
+pur:04(115016852:7A.@entry, 115689653:7N)
+aoj:04(300205295:2G, 115689188:2L)
+pur:04(115016852:57, 115689188:5V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2472]
+{org:en}
+Only a few elements exist in natural waters as simple free ions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202603699:0M.@entry, 400535197:02)
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+aoj(202603699:0M.@entry, 105868954:0D.@topic.@pl)
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+mod(115689188:13, 301335708:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2473]
+{org:en}
+These are elements with small ionic radii and low positive charges (such as Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs) and elements with relatively large ionic radii and low negative charges (F, Cl, and Br).
+{/org}
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+aoj:03(301391351:0Q, 105102101:12.@pl)
+and:01(500323593:2P.@entry, 500323590:2H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2474]
+{org:en}
+Transitional elements occupying the place from Sc to Zn in the periodic table predominantly occur as complexes with organic and mineral ligands.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+agt(202648639:0R.@progress, 105868954:0I.@pl)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:2475]
+{org:en}
+Such elements as S, P, As, and Mo exist in waters as oxy anions resulting from the dissociation of the corresponding acids.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200340704:1U.@progress, 109197815:1N.@pl)
+and:01(106832788:0M, 106833112:0J)
+aoj(600000117:0G, 105868954:07.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2476]
+{org:en}
+Carbon occupies a special place
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202648639:09.@entry, 102961851:02.@topic)
+aoj(202648639:09.@entry, 102961851:02.@topic)
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+obj(202648639:09.@entry, 100721431:0S.@indef)
+obj(202648639:09.@entry, 100721431:0S.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2477]
+{org:en}
+it enters into the composition of carbonic acid and various organic acids.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202775657:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj:01(301093142:1Q, 114607521:1Y.@entry.@pl)
+and:01(114607521:1Y.@entry.@pl, 114607521:19.@pl)
+agt(202775657:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj:01(301093142:1Q, 114607521:1Y.@entry.@pl)
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+obj(202775657:05.@entry, 103081660:0L.@def)
+obj(202775657:05.@entry, 103081660:0L.@def)
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+aoj:01(303160904:1I, 114607521:1Y.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2478]
+{org:en}
+The dissociation products of these acids exist in waters in both free and bound states.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:17.@entry, 103748886:0J.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+aoj(:01, 100024720:2A.@pl)
+aoj(202603699:17.@entry, 103748886:0J.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(300916199:1V, 600000323:1Q)
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+mod(103748886:0J.@topic.@def.@pl, 100384802:06)
+plc(202603699:17.@entry, 107935504:1G.@pl)
+plc(202603699:17.@entry, 107935504:1G.@pl)
+mod(103748886:0J.@topic.@def.@pl, 114607521:11.@pl)
+and:01(303161169:24.@entry, 300916199:1V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2479]
+{org:en}
+The concentration and composition of soil and ground waters are controlled by a dynamic equilibrium in the water/solid precipitation-cxchange complex-gas phase-living substance system.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200663160:1U.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(100167063:3R.@def, 107935504:31)
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+aoj(302176178:40, 104377057:4Z)
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+mod(100167063:3R.@def, 105061149:3D)
+agt(200663160:1U.@entry, 105659365:2I.@indef)
+mod(100167063:3R.@def, 105061149:3D)
+mod(104377057:4Z, 300005839:4I)
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+mod(104377057:4Z, 100167063:3R.@def)
+mod(:01, :02)
+mod(104676540:4C, 114481080:48)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2480]
+{org:en}
+The processes of ion exchange to a greater extent affect the composition of slightly saline soil waters in the humid zone.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200019448:1G.@entry, 100029677:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+aoj(301278818:11, 105123416:19.@indef)
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+aoj(301074458:2F, 107935504:2R.@pl)
+to(100167063:0N, 105123416:19.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2481]
+{org:en}
+The composition of highly saline soil waters of the arid zone and deep-seated subsurface waters is largely formed by dissolution/precipitation of salts.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200144850:31.@entry, 103081660:06.@topic.@def)
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+man(301074458:0S, 400089267:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2482]
+{org:en}
+Calculation methods for the determination of the total concentration of different chemical elements in waters are based on suppositions about the local chemical equilibrium in the system, connecting substances in the solution and substances on the surface of different solid phases.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(100019613:5K.@pl, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2483]
+{org:en}
+The last can be presented by soil absorbing complex or mineral salts of soils and sediments.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200772967:0I.@entry.@ability, 101264667:06.@topic.@def)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2484]
+{org:en}
+The calcium carbonate system, which includes the solid-phase HTM1 , HTM2 ions of the exchange complex in solid soil phases, gas-phase HTM3 , HTM4 and products of its ionization, and solution HTM5 , is of environmental importance.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:03(105870365:31.@def, 100167063:2S)
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+mod:02(:01.@entry, 113502909:5F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2485]
+{org:en}
+The interference of all components is complicated by the impact of living substance.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200400883:14.@entry, 100562643:06.@topic.@def)
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+mod(100019613:2A, 300005839:23)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2486]
+{org:en}
+In most cases, the calcium carbonate system determines the acid-base conditions of the soil solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:2487]
+{org:en}
+Acid-base and redox conditions affect the course of all reactions in soil solutions.
+{/org}
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+qua(100202816:1T.@pl, 600000011:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2488]
+{org:en}
+The formation of these conditions is largely related to the activity of living organisms, the water/air regime, and the gas-phase composition.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2489]
+{org:en}
+Some gases arrive enter the soil air and soil solution from the atmosphere ( HTM1 and HTM2 )
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202005948:0D.@entry, 114481080:07.@pl)
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+mod(100190783:1C.@def, :01)
+qua(114481080:07.@pl, 600000034:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2490]
+{org:en}
+other gases result from the chemical decomposition of mineral compounds ( HTM1 and HTM2 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301680559:1K, 103081859:1S.@pl)
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+src(200340704:0E.@entry, 106013471:13.@def)
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+cnt(103081859:1S.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2491]
+{org:en}
+Living soil organisms consume oxygen for respiration and release carbon dioxide, which forms carbonic acid when dissolved in water.
+{/org}
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+pur(114648100:0W, 100830811:17)
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+mod(114836127:22, 102961851:1V)
+agt(200600903:0O, 100004475:0E.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2492]
+{org:en}
+In addition, carbon dioxide is formed during the complete decomposition of organic remains by soil microorganisms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200144850:0X.@entry, 400535244:02)
+aoj(600000035:4V, 109407346:2D)
+obj(106013471:1O.@def, 109407346:2D)
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+aoj(600000035:4V, 109407346:2D)
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+obj(600000035:4V, 101326291:2T.@pl)
+obj(200144850:0X.@entry, 114836127:0M.@topic)
+obj(200144850:0X.@entry, 114836127:0M.@topic)
+aoj(301093142:25, 109407346:2D)
+aoj(300520214:1F, 106013471:1O.@def)
+mod(114836127:0M.@topic, 102961851:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2493]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 , HTM2 , HTM3 , HTM4 , HTM5 , and various organic acids are also microbial metabolites.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115110796:2A.@entry.@pl, :01)
+aoj:01(301093142:1D, 114607521:1L.@entry.@pl.@topic)
+and:01(114607521:1L.@entry.@pl.@topic, HTM5:0U.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(115110796:2A.@entry.@pl, :01)
+aoj:01(301093142:1D, 114607521:1L.@entry.@pl.@topic)
+and:01(114607521:1L.@entry.@pl.@topic, HTM5:0U.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(HTM3:0G.@topic.@pl, HTM2:09.@topic.@pl)
+man(303014485:20, 400047534:1V)
+and:01(HTM4:0N.@topic.@pl, HTM3:0G.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303014485:20, 115110796:2A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(303014485:20, 115110796:2A.@entry.@pl)
+and:01(HTM5:0U.@topic.@pl, HTM4:0N.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:01(303160904:15, 114607521:1L.@entry.@pl)
+and:01(HTM2:09.@topic.@pl, HTM1:02.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2494]
+{org:en}
+The reaction of soil waters is usually within a pH range of 3 to 8.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000006:15.@entry, 100202816:06.@topic.@def)
+fmt:01("8":1V.@entry, "3":1Q)
+mod(104053218:1H.@indef, :01)
+aoj(600000006:15.@entry, 100202816:06.@topic.@def)
+fmt:01("8":1V.@entry, "3":1Q)
+mod(104053218:1H.@indef, :01)
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+man(600000006:15.@entry, 400535718:0X)
+obj(100202816:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0N.@pl)
+mod(104053218:1H.@indef, 105039106:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2495]
+{org:en}
+The acidity of soil waters is mainly due to HTM1 ions released during the ionization of carbonic and organic acids, as well as of boric, silicic, and hydrosulphuric acids, the role of which varies depending on the origin of the water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(201757994:1K, 109315159:1F.@pl)
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+aoj(300137725:13.@entry, 105039526:06.@topic.@def)
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+obj(201757994:1K, 109315159:1F.@pl)
+aoj:02(301093142:2V, 114607521:36.@pl)
+man:02(200436879:5J, 202663848:5Q.@progress)
+and:01(303161903:3Y, 303050870:3R)
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+aoj:02(303158326:2I, 114607521:36.@pl)
+obj:02(200436879:5J, 100722061:55.@entry.@def)
+and:01(303163337:4B.@entry, 303161903:3Y)
+man(300137725:13.@entry, 400535216:0W)
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+mod:02(113502909:24.@def, 114607521:36.@pl)
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+mod(115689188:0M, 109335240:0H)
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+aoj:02(:01, 114607521:4Q.@pl)
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+aoj:02(600000015:3D, 114607521:36.@pl)
+obj:02(202663848:5Q.@progress, 104923743:67.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2496]
+{org:en}
+As a result of partial dissociation, these acids are capable of forming acid-base buffer systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300308015:1J.@entry, 600000056:02)
+mod(104377057:2J.@pl, 102911158:2C)
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+obj(200144850:1U.@progress, 104377057:2J.@pl)
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+aoj(300308015:1J.@entry, 114607521:19.@topic.@pl)
+mod(114607521:19.@topic.@pl, 600000017:13)
+aoj(303161792:22, 104377057:2J.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2497]
+{org:en}
+This permits partial neutralization of acid fallouts, which arrive to the soil with technogenic discharge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200802318:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(114858950:1A.@pl, 114607521:15)
+aoj(300524693:0F, 100233386:0N)
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+obj(200802318:07.@entry, 100233386:0N)
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+obj(202005948:1Q, 114858950:1A.@pl)
+aoj(303162860:2E, 100123234:2Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2498]
+{org:en}
+The dissolution of carbonates contributes even more to the capacity of soil waters for resisting acidification, as well as the uptake of HTM1 ions by solid soil phases via adsorption and ion exchange.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(109315159:42.@pl, HTM1:3X)
+obj(201115916:2G.@progress, 113426238:2Q)
+mod(100167063:5J, :01)
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+obj(100215314:06.@topic.@def, 114798450:0L.@pl)
+obj(113571580:3N.@def, 109315159:42.@pl)
+gol(202308741:0W.@entry, 100720951:1O.@def)
+obj(100215314:06.@topic.@def, 114798450:0L.@pl)
+obj(113571580:3N.@def, 109315159:42.@pl)
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+obj(600000035:7P, 104676540:4L.@pl)
+obj(600000015:35, 113571580:3N.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2499]
+{org:en}
+The reactions of sorption/desorption, ion exchange, and precipitation/dissolution ensure the capacity of resisting to concentration changes of various chemical elements in soil waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202774184:2B.@entry, 100202816:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(100202816:06.@topic.@def, :01:01)
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+aoj(600000025:1Y, :01)
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+mod:01(100167063:17, 109315159:13)
+mod(107935504:4Y.@pl, 109335240:4T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2500]
+{org:en}
+They are responsible for the buffer capacity of soil solutions with respect to contaminants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300324878:0B.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+mod(100190783:1J.@pl, 109335240:1E)
+mod(100720951:12.@def, 102911158:0V)
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+obj(100720951:12.@def, 100190783:1J.@pl)
+obj(300324878:0B.@entry, 100720951:12.@def)
+obj(300324878:0B.@entry, 100720951:12.@def)
+obj(600000127:1T, 114821984:29.@pl)
+aoj(600000127:1T, 100190783:1J.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2501]
+{org:en}
+The reaction of subsurface waters is usually near neutral (pH between 6 and 8.5).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300359160:1G.@entry, 100202816:06.@topic.@def)
+obj:02(600000024:1S, :01)
+obj(100202816:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0T.@pl)
+aoj(300359160:1G.@entry, 100202816:06.@topic.@def)
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+obj(100202816:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0T.@pl)
+man(600000350:1B, 400535718:13)
+man(300359160:1G.@entry, 600000350:1B)
+man(300359160:1G.@entry, 600000350:1B)
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+mod(107935504:0T.@pl, 302471782:0I)
+[W]
+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2502]
+{org:en}
+Anomalously acid waters are found in specific situations of modern volcanism
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200715239:0U.@entry, 107935504:0J.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300025470:0E, 107935504:0J.@topic.@pl)
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+aoj(301099951:13, 113925752:1C.@pl)
+obj(113925752:1C.@pl, 111524110:1X)
+scn(200715239:0U.@entry, 113925752:1C.@pl)
+scn(200715239:0U.@entry, 113925752:1C.@pl)
+man(300025470:0E, 400271152:02)
+aoj(300414354:1Q, 111524110:1X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2503]
+{org:en}
+in fumarole condensates and crater lakes (to pH 0) and in the oxidation zones of sulfide deposits (pH < 2).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(:3P.@entry, :02:02)
+mod:01(115008765:0H.@pl, 115668970:08)
+[W]
+"2":37.@parenthesis
+[/W]
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+plc(:3P.@entry, :02:02)
+mod:01(115008765:0H.@pl, 115668970:08)
+[W]
+"2":37.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+mod:02(105611062:2G.@entry.@def.@pl, 113530408:26)
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+cnt:02(100372448:2X.@pl, 115695832)
+mod:01(109328904:17.@entry.@pl, 109259219:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2504]
+{org:en}
+The most alkaline waters are found in alkaline rocks (to pH 12.5).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(200715239:0V.@entry, 115695839:1N.@parenthesis)
+aoj(300025728:0B, 107935504:0K.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2505]
+{org:en}
+The redox potential of soil and ground waters varies between +700 and -200 mV.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303160998:1C.@entry, 114482620:0C.@topic.@def)
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+mod(114482620:0C.@topic.@def, 115669022:06)
+and:02("-200":20.@entry, "+700":1R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2506]
+{org:en}
+The redox potential of waters depends on a number of potential-determining systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0W.@entry, 114482620:0C.@topic.@def)
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+mod(104377057:25.@pl, 600000054:17)
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+obj(200699815:1T.@progress, 104377057:25.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2507]
+{org:en}
+Electron transitions in the systems composed of elements with different degrees of oxidation proceed successively in accordance with the content of each component in the conjugated redox pairs of different chemical elements and their capacity for oxidizing or reducing.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(106401328:0B.@topic.@pl, 109271904:02)
+man(200341560:2N.@entry, 600000133:38)
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+aoj:02(300490413:5I, 105868954:61.@pl)
+mod(107958407:59.@def.@pl, 115669022:53)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2508]
+{org:en}
+In the presence of sufficient amounts of iron and manganese oxides, these can operate as potential-d'termining systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200341285:28.@entry.@ability, 600000361:02)
+aoj(302335828:0L, 100033615:0W.@pl)
+obj(200699815:2T.@progress, 104377057:35.@pl)
+obj(600000008:2G, 104377057:35.@pl)
+man(200341285:28.@entry.@ability, 600000361:02)
+aoj(302335828:0L, 100033615:0W.@pl)
+obj(200699815:2T.@progress, 104377057:35.@pl)
+obj(600000008:2G, 104377057:35.@pl)
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+qua(114971519:1Q.@pl, 100033615:0W.@pl)
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+obj(200341285:28.@entry.@ability, 600000022:1Y.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000361:02, 114971519:1Q.@pl)
+mod(104377057:35.@pl, 300044353:2J)
+and:01(114644654:1G.@entry, 103584829:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2509]
+{org:en}
+At the low content of other oxidized compounds, except sulfates, the redox potential can be determined by the sulfate-to-sulfite ratio.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200699815:2T.@entry.@past.@ability, 105809192:0D.@def)
+aoj(400535891:1H, 103081859:16.@pl)
+mod(114482620:2C.@topic.@def, 115669022:26)
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+plc(200699815:2T.@entry.@past.@ability, 105809192:0D.@def)
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+mod(114482620:2C.@topic.@def, 115669022:26)
+to(115063493:3B.@def, 113819207:3U)
+mod(103081859:16.@pl, 600000031:0O)
+agt(200699815:2T.@entry.@past.@ability, 115063493:3B.@def)
+aoj(301206474:09, 105809192:0D.@def)
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+obj(400535891:1H, 115063493:1O.@pl)
+obj(200699815:2T.@entry.@past.@ability, 114482620:2C.@topic.@def)
+obj(400535891:1H, 115063493:1O.@pl)
+mod(105809192:0D.@def, 103081859:16.@pl)
+mod(113819207:3U, 115669590:3M)
+obj(200238867:0U.@past, 103081859:16.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2510]
+{org:en}
+As HTM1 ions are removed, HTM2 , HTM3 , and even HTM4 can appear in waters (the redox potential of these waters is lower than 200 mV and can be in the range between -100 and -400 mV).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200422090:1V.@entry.@ability, 600000039:05)
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+and:01(HTM4:1M.@entry.@topic, HTM3:16.@topic)
+and:02(115669522:5B.@entry, "-100":4X)
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+plc:03(202268246:46.@entry.@ability, 104053218:4G.@def)
+and:01(HTM3:16.@topic, HTM2:0Z.@topic)
+aoj:03(301206474:3G, 114482620:2N.@topic.@def)
+and:01(HTM4:1M.@entry.@topic, HTM3:16.@topic)
+and:02(115669522:5B.@entry, "-100":4X)
+mod(109315159:0D.@pl, HTM1:08)
+qua:03(115669522:3V, "200":3R)
+plc(200422090:1V.@entry.@ability, 115689188:25)
+mod:03(115689188:36, 600000017:30)
+obj:03(600000024:4M, :02.@entry)
+obj(200173338:0M, 109315159:0D.@pl)
+man:03(301206474:3G, 400099341:63)
+obj(200422090:1V.@entry.@ability, :01:01)
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+aoj:03(600000024:4M, 104053218:4G.@def)
+obj(200422090:1V.@entry.@ability, :01:01)
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+aoj:03(600000024:4M, 104053218:4G.@def)
+obj(600000039:05, 200173338:0M)
+bas:03(301206474:3G, 115669522:3V)
+mod:01(HTM4:1M.@entry.@topic, 300891170:1H)
+qua:02(115669522:5B.@entry, "-400":56)
+aoj:03(202268246:46.@entry.@ability, 114482620:2N.@topic.@def)
+[W]
+:03.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2511]
+{org:en}
+All these reactions proceed with the active participation of microorganisms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200341560:0M.@entry, 100202816:0C.@topic.@pl)
+qua(100202816:0C.@topic.@pl, 600000011:02)
+obj(113924659:1A.@def, 101326291:1R.@pl)
+obj(200341560:0M.@entry, 100202816:0C.@topic.@pl)
+qua(100202816:0C.@topic.@pl, 600000011:02)
+obj(113924659:1A.@def, 101326291:1R.@pl)
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+man(200341560:0M.@entry, 600000018:0U)
+mod(100202816:0C.@topic.@pl, 600000017:06)
+aoj(300031974:13, 113924659:1A.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2512]
+{org:en}
+The redox potential of waters affects the ratio between elements with different degrees of oxidation and the solubility of their compounds
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200019448:0W.@entry, 114482620:0C.@topic.@def)
+aoj:01(300490413:20, 105094565:2A.@pl)
+obj(600000019:1V, :01)
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+mod:01(105094565:2A.@pl.@def, 113530408:2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2513]
+{org:en}
+e.g. the oxidized forms of Fe and Mn are less soluble and the oxidized forms of Hg, Cr, Se, Te, V, As, and Mo are more soluble than their reduced forms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:02(115669386:2H, 500323570:2D)
+and:02(500323873:34.@entry, 500323539:2W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2514]
+{org:en}
+The redox potential of subsurface (soil and upper water-bearing horizon) waters in the zone of sustainable development of oxidation processes, which is depleted in organic matter, usually exceeds +200 mV and attains 450 mV on average.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202774976:67.@entry, 202669081:5O)
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+mod(114482620:0I.@topic.@def, 115689188:29)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2515]
+{org:en}
+It predominantly depends on the amount of free oxygen, which is released during photosynthesis and is dissolved in water at 1 to 15 mg/l, and is available to participate in oxidation reactions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300183053:4A.@entry, 202663848:0J)
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+qua:02(115690126:3T, :01:01)
+obj(:02, 114648100:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2516]
+{org:en}
+Reducing conditions are generally created in deep water-bearing horizons.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201640207:10.@entry, 200045817:02.@topic.@progress)
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+mod(105127782:1U.@pl, 102817031:1M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2517]
+{org:en}
+The reducing environment is mainly determined by the oxidation and decomposition of organic matter.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(106013471:1X.@entry.@def, 113530408:1J.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2518]
+{org:en}
+The problem of the potential-determining pair for the reducing conditions in subsurface waters is far from being definitively solved.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(200634906:3K.@entry.@past.@progress, 400535557:37)
+plc(105798863:1T.@pl, 107935504:2I.@pl)
+man(200634906:3K.@entry.@past.@progress, 115691764:2S)
+man(200634906:3K.@entry.@past.@progress, 115691764:2S)
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+pur(107958407:17.@def, 105798863:1T.@pl)
+mod(107935504:2I.@pl, 302471782:27)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2519]
+{org:en}
+It has been shown that this is the HTM1 pair in some cases.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200923307:0E.@entry.@complete, 107958407:16.@topic.@def)
+mod(107958407:16.@topic.@def, HTM1:11)
+obj(200923307:0E.@entry.@complete, 107958407:16.@topic.@def)
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+aoj(107958407:16.@topic.@def, 600000022:0P.@topic)
+aoj(107958407:16.@topic.@def, 600000022:0P.@topic)
+qua(102974697:1J.@pl, 600000034:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2520]
+{org:en}
+Geographical zonality of chemical properties of soil solutions and ground waters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689567:0F.@entry, 104012260:10.@pl)
+mod:01(100190783:1J.@pl, 109335240:1E)
+aoj(302692624:0R, 104012260:10.@pl)
+mod(115689567:0F.@entry, 104012260:10.@pl)
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+aoj(302692624:0R, 104012260:10.@pl)
+mod(104012260:10.@pl, :01)
+aoj(303161278:02, 115689567:0F.@entry)
+aoj(303161278:02, 115689567:0F.@entry)
+and:01(114847503:1X.@entry.@pl, 100190783:1J.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2521]
+{org:en}
+Soil solutions in the humid zone
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(100190783:07.@entry.@pl, 105611062:0U.@def)
+plc(100190783:07.@entry.@pl, 105611062:0U.@def)
+aoj(302549393:0O, 105611062:0U.@def)
+mod(100190783:07.@entry.@pl, 109335240:02)
+mod(100190783:07.@entry.@pl, 109335240:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2522]
+{org:en}
+The composition of soil waters follows a clear geographic regularity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200150776:0X.@entry, 103081660:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(107935504:0Q.@pl, 109335240:0L)
+aoj(301470496:1D, 104767347:1O.@indef)
+agt(200150776:0X.@entry, 103081660:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(107935504:0Q.@pl, 109335240:0L)
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+aoj(300428404:17, 104767347:1O.@indef)
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+obj(200150776:0X.@entry, 104767347:1O.@indef)
+mod(103081660:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2523]
+{org:en}
+The percolative regime of zonal soils in the humid zone (podzolic soils, burozems, krasnozems, and zheltozems) and leaching of salts resulting from the decomposition of primary minerals and creates soil waters of low salinity (salt content rarely exceeds 0.2 g/l) with an acid reaction and a high portion of living organism metabolites.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(115689188:5P, 109335240:5K)
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+aoj(302549393:1B, 105611062:1H.@def)
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+cnt(115668809:66, :02.@parenthesis)
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+plc(109335240:0Y.@pl, 105611062:1H.@def)
+cnt(115668809:66, :02.@parenthesis)
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+and:01(115693402:23.@pl, 109335240:1W.@pl)
+mod:02(105809192:6L.@topic, 105717342:6G)
+man(201640207:5C.@entry, 600000018:7L)
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+aoj(301206474:5Z, 115668809:66)
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+qua:02(115690441:7C, "0.2":78)
+obj(201640207:5C.@entry, 115689188:5P)
+mod(115669360:0I.@entry.@def, 109335240:0Y.@pl)
+mod(115689188:5P, 115668809:66)
+obj(200488617:39.@entry.@progress, 105717342:3L.@pl)
+mod:03(115699459:8I.@entry.@indef, 115110796:99.@pl)
+mod(115669360:0I.@entry.@def, 109335240:0Y.@pl)
+mod(115689188:5P, 115668809:66)
+obj(200488617:39.@entry.@progress, 105717342:3L.@pl)
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+aoj:01(303163598:1N, 109335240:1W.@pl)
+obj(600000018:7L, :03)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2524]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 and HTM2 are predominant cations
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(109238294:0W.@entry.@pl, :01)
+aoj(109238294:0W.@entry.@pl, :01)
+and:01(HTM2:0B.@entry.@topic, HTM1:02.@topic)
+aoj(303161183:0K, 109238294:0W.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(303161183:0K, 109238294:0W.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2525]
+{org:en}
+their arrival to the solution is mainly due to their release from the decomposition products of organic remains and to the ion exchange between soil solution and soil adsorbing complex.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300137725:16.@entry, 100048225:08.@topic)
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+obj:01(201540232:50.@progress, 105870365:5A.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2526]
+{org:en}
+The content of these elements depends on the quantity and quality of clay minerals and humus in the soil adsorbing complex and on the composition of plant remains and their degree of decomposition in the upper soil horizons.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0W.@entry, 105809192:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(105868954:0N.@pl, 600000017:0H)
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+mod:03(105094565:4V.@entry, 600000020:4P.@pl)
+mod:02(114662574:24.@pl, 114813182:1Z)
+and:03(105094565:4V.@entry, 103081660:3S.@def)
+plc:04(:02, 105870365:39)
+aoj(202663848:0W.@entry, 105809192:06.@topic.@def)
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+mod:02(114662574:24.@pl, 114813182:1Z)
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+mod(105809192:06.@topic.@def, 105868954:0N.@pl)
+and:04(:03.@entry, :01)
+and:01(104723816:1O.@entry.@def, 105108740:1B.@def)
+mod:03(105127782:61.@def.@pl, 301206318:5Q)
+obj:04(201540232:2Z.@progress, 105870365:39)
+obj(202663848:0W.@entry, :04:04)
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+obj(202663848:0W.@entry, :04:04)
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+mod:04(105870365:39, 109335240:2U.@def)
+mod:03(105094565:4V.@entry, 106013471:55)
+and:02(114908822:2H.@entry, 114662574:24.@pl)
+mod:03(103081660:3S.@def, 109407346:4D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2527]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 and organic acid anions are the predominant anionic components.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103081021:1U.@entry.@def.@pl, :01.@entry)
+mod:01(109197815:0R.@entry.@pl.@topic, 114607521:0M)
+and:01(109197815:0R.@entry.@pl.@topic, HTM1:05.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(103081021:1U.@entry.@def.@pl, :01.@entry)
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+aoj(303161183:1A, 103081021:1U.@entry.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303161183:1A, 103081021:1U.@entry.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(301093142:0E, 109197815:0R.@entry.@pl.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2528]
+{org:en}
+The predominance of HTM1 ions is due to the biological activity of soils.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300137725:0Z.@entry, 114442749:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(109315159:0R.@pl, HTM1:0M)
+aoj(301405904:1A, 100407535:1L.@def)
+aoj(300137725:0Z.@entry, 114442749:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(109315159:0R.@pl, HTM1:0M)
+aoj(301405904:1A, 100407535:1L.@def)
+obj(100407535:1L.@def, 109335240:1X.@pl)
+obj(300137725:0Z.@entry, 100407535:1L.@def)
+obj(300137725:0Z.@entry, 100407535:1L.@def)
+obj(114442749:06.@topic.@def, 109315159:0R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2529]
+{org:en}
+The respiration of living organisms and the complete decomposition of organic remains by microorganisms produce carbon dioxide, HTM1 , the dissolution of which in the soil solution results in the formation of carbonic acid HTM2 and its dissociation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:02(100384802:70.@entry, 600000016:6W)
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+and:02(100384802:70.@entry, 100925207:5S.@def)
+and:01(106013471:1M.@entry.@def, 100004475:0V.@pl.@def)
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+obj(100830811:09.@topic.@def, :01:01)
+obj:02(100925207:5S.@def, HTM2:6J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2530]
+{org:en}
+The amount of HTM1 in soil air (1-3%) exceeds its content in the atmosphere by two orders of magnitude and more.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(600000035:4B, 108499057:1V.@def)
+obj(100033615:06.@topic.@def, HTM1:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2531]
+{org:en}
+The appearance of organic acids in soil waters (the total carbon content attains 200-300 mg/l) is due to the metabolism of living organisms and the formation of new humus substances.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(114607521:0S.@pl, 115689188:16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2532]
+{org:en}
+Organic matter in soil solution includes all classes of organic substances.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0Y.@entry, 100020827:0A.@topic)
+aoj(301093142:1R, 100019613:1Z.@pl)
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+mod(100884466:1G.@pl, 100884466:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2533]
+{org:en}
+Fatty acids, naphthenic acids, and amino acids are found, as well as sugars, alcohols, amines, carbonyl compounds, and esters
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2534]
+{org:en}
+their content is measured in tenths, hundredths, and thousandths of a milligram per liter.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200647094:0J.@entry, 105809192:08.@topic)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2535]
+{org:en}
+The content of humus acids, which result from biochemical and physicochemical transformations of organic remains, is higher by orders of magnitude (50 to 90% of the total amount of dissolved organic substances).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(300705498:3B, :03.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2536]
+{org:en}
+Their molecular masses vary from 300 to 60 000 Da
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200436879:0P.@entry, 101042242:0I.@topic.@pl)
+mod(101042242:0I.@topic.@pl, 301542252:08)
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+gol(200436879:0P.@entry, 500323794:1D)
+mod(101042242:0I.@topic.@pl, 600000020:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2537]
+{org:en}
+they exhibit acidic properties and capacity for complexing.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(100720951:11.@entry, 104012260:0M.@pl)
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+obj(202631856:07.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj:01(300025238:0F, 104012260:0M.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2538]
+{org:en}
+The capacity of water-soluble humus acids for complexation is determined by their structure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:1S.@entry, 100720951:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(302265015:0O, 114607521:12.@pl)
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+mod(114607521:12.@pl, 114908822:0W)
+pur(114607521:12.@pl, 115691414:1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2539]
+{org:en}
+Along with aromatic fragments, they contain various functional groups such as -COOH, -OH, HTM1 , and HTM2 , which are capable of forming coordination bonds with different chemical elements, predominantly with metals.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202701210:12.@entry, 600000115:02)
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+obj:01(600000029:20, 114739360:28)
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+mod(113417410:48.@pl, 100807273:3V)
+aoj:01(301090308:1I, 100031264:1T.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2540]
+{org:en}
+The stability of the resulting complexes is determined by their degree of dissociation and depends on the properties of metal ions and organic ligands.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202663848:2L.@entry, 200699815:1A)
+mod(105094565:1U, 600000020:1O.@pl)
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+mod(104012260:30.@def.@pl, :01)
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+mod(105094565:1U, 100384802:24)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2541]
+{org:en}
+The complexes of HTM1 , HTM2 , HTM3 , HTM4 , and HTM5 ions with humus acids have stability constants (K) about HTM6
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:26.@entry, 105870365:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+mod(105858936:2L.@pl, 104778401:2B)
+mod(114607521:20.@pl, 114908822:1U)
+and:01(HTM5:1F.@entry, HTM4:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2542]
+{org:en}
+the stability constants of HTM1 and HTM2 complexes are between HTM3 and HTM4.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000024:1J.@entry, 105858936:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+obj(600000024:1J.@entry, :02:02)
+and:01(HTM2:10.@entry, HTM1:0R)
+mod(105858936:0G.@topic.@def.@pl, 104778401:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2543]
+{org:en}
+Along with humate or fulvate complexes, metals can form composite complexes like hydroxofulvate (see Table 1).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200144850:1H.@entry.@ability, 600000115:02)
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+aoj(200144850:1H.@entry.@ability, 114625458:16.@topic.@pl)
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+[W]
+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2544]
+{org:en}
+In the solutions of humus-enriched soil horizons in the humid zone, 70 to 99% of total Fe, Cu, Ni, and Zn occur in the form of different organo??
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(200723349:2Y.@entry, 600000075:34)
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+and:02(500323522:2F.@topic, 105127782:14.@pl.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2545]
+{org:en}
+They most frequently carry a negative charge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200235110:0N.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+man(400035058:0C, 400536271:07)
+agt(200235110:0N.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+man(400035058:0C, 400536271:07)
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+obj(200235110:0N.@entry, 100974762:14.@indef)
+aoj(300075515:0V, 100974762:14.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2546]
+{org:en}
+Table 1
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "1":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "1":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2547]
+{org:en}
+Calculated content of Fe (III) forms, % of the total Fe (III), in water solutions with a ionic strength I = 0.01 and different contents of fulvic acid (FA).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2548]
+{org:en}
+Complexation of metals with organic acids extends the range of metal mobility in the landscape, because it hinders the hydrolysis of free metal ions and the precipitation of their hydroxides.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301093142:0U, 114607521:12.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2549]
+{org:en}
+For example, the formation of organo-mineral complexes with HTM1 ions retains them even in a neutral solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000094:02.@entry, 200610010:20)
+mod(109315159:1V.@pl, HTM1:1Q)
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+agt(200610010:20, 100925207:0J.@topic.@def)
+obj(100925207:0J.@topic.@def, 105870365:1B.@pl)
+man(100190783:2V.@indef, 400017639:2D)
+obj(600000019:1L, 109315159:1V.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2550]
+{org:en}
+Complexation decelerates the oxidation of metals with variable valence, and this also increases their stability in solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200153263:2G.@entry, 200438495:0F)
+obj(600000018:1F, 105034473:1T)
+mod(104778401:2W, 600000020:2Q.@pl)
+man(200153263:2G.@entry, 400047534:2B)
+and(200153263:2G.@entry, 200438495:0F)
+obj(600000018:1F, 105034473:1T)
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+man(200153263:2G.@entry, 400047534:2B)
+obj(200438495:0F, 113530408:0V.@def)
+obj(200153263:2G.@entry, 104778401:2W)
+man(200438495:0F, 600000018:1F)
+agt(200153263:2G.@entry, 600000022:26.@topic)
+aoj(301028796:1K, 105034473:1T)
+agt(200153263:2G.@entry, 600000022:26.@topic)
+aoj(301028796:1K, 105034473:1T)
+agt(200438495:0F, 115691414:02.@topic)
+plc(104778401:2W, 100190783:39)
+obj(113530408:0V.@def, 114625458:18.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2551]
+{org:en}
+Complexation increases the solubility of chemical compounds and, hence, the salt content in waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200153263:0F.@entry, 115691414:02.@topic)
+mod:01(105809192:2B.@entry.@def, 105717342:26)
+plc:01(105809192:2B.@entry.@def, 107935504:2M.@pl)
+agt(200153263:0F.@entry, 115691414:02.@topic)
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+plc:01(105809192:2B.@entry.@def, 107935504:2M.@pl)
+and:01(105809192:2B.@entry.@def, 105210221:0T.@def)
+aoj:01(302692624:17, 103081859:1G.@pl)
+obj(200153263:0F.@entry, :01:01)
+obj(200153263:0F.@entry, :01:01)
+mod:01(105210221:0T.@def, 103081859:1G.@pl)
+man:01(105809192:2B.@entry.@def, 600000173:1V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2552]
+{org:en}
+Complexation affects the adsorption of metals by solid soil phases.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200019448:0F.@entry, 115691414:02.@topic)
+mod(104676540:1Q.@pl, 109335240:1L)
+mod(113427789:0R.@def, 114625458:15.@pl)
+agt(200019448:0F.@entry, 115691414:02.@topic)
+mod(104676540:1Q.@pl, 109335240:1L)
+mod(113427789:0R.@def, 114625458:15.@pl)
+obj(200019448:0F.@entry, 113427789:0R.@def)
+ins(200019448:0F.@entry, 104676540:1Q.@pl)
+ins(200019448:0F.@entry, 104676540:1Q.@pl)
+aoj(300291181:1F, 104676540:1Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2553]
+{org:en}
+In hydromorphic (bog and peatland) soils of the humid zone, soil and ground waters approach one another.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200990392:2D.@entry, 600000463:2M)
+and:01(115691542:0R.@entry, 109225943:0J)
+aoj(303161725:05, 109335240:11.@pl)
+obj(200990392:2D.@entry, 600000463:2M)
+and:01(115691542:0R.@entry, 109225943:0J)
+aoj(303161725:05, 109335240:11.@pl)
+aoj:02(302549393:1E, 105611062:1K.@def)
+mod(109335240:11.@pl, :02)
+and:02(109335240:1Q.@pl, 105611062:1K.@def.@pl)
+plc(200990392:2D.@entry, 109335240:11.@pl)
+plc(200990392:2D.@entry, 109335240:11.@pl)
+and:02(114847503:1Z.@entry.@pl, 109335240:1Q.@pl)
+mod(109335240:11.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2554]
+{org:en}
+Under these conditions, their properties depend on weathering and pedogenesis processes in the whole catchment area rather than on the transformation of organic remains in a specific soil.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202663848:17.@entry, 600000003:02)
+mod(100398704:3U.@def, 109407346:4K)
+and:01(115669161:1W.@entry.@pl, 115669040:1H.@pl)
+obj(600000003:02, 105798863:0E.@pl)
+plc(100029677:29.@pl, 115689952:2W.@def)
+aoj(301099951:4W, 109335240:55)
+man(202663848:17.@entry, 600000003:02)
+mod(100398704:3U.@def, 109407346:4K)
+and:01(115669161:1W.@entry.@pl, 115669040:1H.@pl)
+obj(600000003:02, 105798863:0E.@pl)
+plc(100029677:29.@pl, 115689952:2W.@def)
+aoj(301099951:4W, 109335240:55)
+obj(600000236:3B, :8B)
+obj(202663848:17.@entry, 100029677:29.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:4C, 109407346:4K)
+mod(115689952:2W.@def, 300514884:2Q)
+aoj(202663848:17.@entry, 104012260:0W.@topic.@pl)
+obj(109407346:4K, 109335240:55)
+aoj(202663848:17.@entry, 104012260:0W.@topic.@pl)
+obj(109407346:4K, 109335240:55)
+aoj(600000236:3B, 115689952:2W.@def)
+mod(105798863:0E.@pl, 600000017:08)
+mod(100029677:29.@pl, :01)
+mod(104012260:0W.@topic.@pl, 600000020:0Q.@pl)
+plc(:8B, 100398704:3U.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2555]
+{org:en}
+Soil solutions of the arid zone
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100190783:07.@entry.@pl, 105611062:0T.@def)
+mod(100190783:07.@entry.@pl, 105611062:0T.@def)
+aoj(300806991:0O, 105611062:0T.@def)
+mod(100190783:07.@entry.@pl, 109335240:02)
+mod(100190783:07.@entry.@pl, 109335240:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2556]
+{org:en}
+In soils of the arid zone, high temperatures favor the more complete decomposition of organic remains, which results in an insignificant amount of organic acids in soil solutions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200692143:1B.@entry, 109335240:05.@pl)
+aoj(301288298:3H, 100033615:3V.@indef)
+man(300520214:1Q, 400099341:1L)
+mod(109335240:05.@pl, 105611062:0N.@def)
+obj(106013471:1Z.@def, 109407346:2O)
+mod(100190783:4R.@pl, 109335240:4M)
+plc(200692143:1B.@entry, 109335240:05.@pl)
+aoj(301288298:3H, 100033615:3V.@indef)
+man(300520214:1Q, 400099341:1L)
+mod(109335240:05.@pl, 105611062:0N.@def)
+obj(106013471:1Z.@def, 109407346:2O)
+mod(100190783:4R.@pl, 109335240:4M)
+obj(202774178:33, 100033615:3V.@indef)
+obj(200692143:1B.@entry, 106013471:1Z.@def)
+aoj(301093142:45, 114607521:4D.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:2G, 109407346:2O)
+agt(200692143:1B.@entry, 105011790:0Y.@topic.@pl)
+plc(114607521:4D.@pl, 100190783:4R.@pl)
+agt(200692143:1B.@entry, 105011790:0Y.@topic.@pl)
+plc(114607521:4D.@pl, 100190783:4R.@pl)
+aoj(202774178:33, 109407346:2O)
+aoj(300806991:0I, 105611062:0N.@def)
+aoj(300520214:1Q, 106013471:1Z.@def)
+aoj(300705498:0T, 105011790:0Y.@topic.@pl)
+obj(100033615:3V.@indef, 114607521:4D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2557]
+{org:en}
+The content and composition of mineral salts in soil waters significantly depend on their bonding to saline ground waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:24.@entry, :01)
+mod(107935504:1J.@pl, 109335240:1E)
+aoj(301074458:2V, 114847503:32.@pl)
+to(100148653:2K, 114847503:32.@pl)
+aoj(202663848:24.@entry, :01)
+mod(107935504:1J.@pl, 109335240:1E)
+aoj(301074458:2V, 114847503:32.@pl)
+to(100148653:2K, 114847503:32.@pl)
+plc(105717342:15.@pl, 107935504:1J.@pl)
+man(202663848:24.@entry, 400006259:1Q)
+and:01(103081660:0I.@entry.@topic.@def, 105809192:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(202663848:24.@entry, 100148653:2K)
+obj(202663848:24.@entry, 100148653:2K)
+mod(:01, 105717342:15.@pl)
+mod(100148653:2K, 600000020:2E.@pl)
+mod(105717342:15.@pl, 114662574:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2558]
+{org:en}
+Deep ground waters hardly affect the composition of soil waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200019448:0S.@entry, 114847503:07.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300149120:02, 114847503:07.@topic.@pl)
+mod(103081660:13.@def, 107935504:1N.@pl)
+agt(200019448:0S.@entry, 114847503:07.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300149120:02, 114847503:07.@topic.@pl)
+mod(103081660:13.@def, 107935504:1N.@pl)
+man(200019448:0S.@entry, 400003093:0L)
+obj(200019448:0S.@entry, 103081660:13.@def)
+obj(200019448:0S.@entry, 103081660:13.@def)
+mod(107935504:1N.@pl, 109335240:1I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2559]
+{org:en}
+The chemical composition of soil solutions is formed during the interaction between scanty atmospheric precipitation percolating through the soil and soil components.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200144850:1C.@entry, 103081660:0F.@topic.@def)
+and:01(109335240:48.@entry, 109335240:3Z)
+aoj(303159785:2E, 105061149:2X)
+obj(600000024:26, 105061149:2X)
+mod(100190783:0Z.@pl, 109335240:0U)
+obj(200144850:1C.@entry, 103081660:0F.@topic.@def)
+and:01(109335240:48.@entry, 109335240:3Z)
+aoj(303159785:2E, 105061149:2X)
+obj(600000024:26, 105061149:2X)
+mod(100190783:0Z.@pl, 109335240:0U)
+obj(600000026:3N, 103081021:4D.@def.@pl)
+aoj(600000024:26, 100039021:1U.@def)
+aoj(302692624:06, 103081660:0F.@topic.@def)
+man(201457954:3B.@progress, 600000026:3N)
+dur(200144850:1C.@entry, 100039021:1U.@def)
+mod(103081660:0F.@topic.@def, 100190783:0Z.@pl)
+dur(200144850:1C.@entry, 100039021:1U.@def)
+mod(103081660:0F.@topic.@def, 100190783:0Z.@pl)
+mod(105061149:2X, 302831736:2L)
+obj(201457954:3B.@progress, 105061149:2X)
+mod(103081021:4D.@def.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2560]
+{org:en}
+The chemical composition of soil components depends on the composition of the initial rocks, their weathering, pedogenesis, and eolian transfer, which is very significant in this zone.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:1A.@entry, 103081660:0F.@topic.@def)
+and:01(115669040:2T, 100348008:2G.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(303162547:3M, 100201671:3T.@entry)
+mod(103081021:0Z.@pl, 109335240:0U)
+and:01(100201671:3T.@entry, 115669161:35)
+mod(103081660:0F.@topic.@def, 103081021:0Z.@pl)
+aoj(202663848:1A.@entry, 103081660:0F.@topic.@def)
+and:01(115669040:2T, 100348008:2G.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(303162547:3M, 100201671:3T.@entry)
+mod(103081021:0Z.@pl, 109335240:0U)
+and:01(100201671:3T.@entry, 115669161:35)
+mod(103081660:0F.@topic.@def, 103081021:0Z.@pl)
+mod:01(105611062:51, 600000017:4W)
+mod(103081660:1P.@def, :01)
+mod:01(100348008:2G.@def.@pl, 301011973:28)
+man:01(300625055:4H, 400031899:4C)
+obj(202663848:1A.@entry, 103081660:1P.@def)
+mod:01(115669040:2T, 600000020:2N.@pl)
+obj(202663848:1A.@entry, 103081660:1P.@def)
+mod:01(115669040:2T, 600000020:2N.@pl)
+plc:01(300625055:4H, 105611062:51)
+aoj:01(300625055:4H, 100201671:3T.@entry)
+aoj(302692624:06, 103081660:0F.@topic.@def)
+and:01(115669161:35, 115669040:2T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2561]
+{org:en}
+Atmospheric precipitation does not penetrate deeply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200728954:11.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 105061149:0E.@topic)
+obj(200728954:11.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 105061149:0E.@topic)
+mod(105061149:0E.@topic, 302831736:02)
+man(200728954:11.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 400305570:1B)
+man(200728954:11.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 400305570:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2562]
+{org:en}
+Water is adsorbed by soil particles and is expended for evaporation and plant transpiration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202775987:19.@entry, 201540232:0B)
+obj(201540232:0B, 107935504:02.@topic)
+mod(113569774:28, :01)
+and(202775987:19.@entry, 201540232:0B)
+obj(201540232:0B, 107935504:02.@topic)
+mod(113569774:28, :01)
+pur(202775987:19.@entry, 113569774:28)
+mod(106326406:0S.@pl, 109335240:0N)
+obj(202775987:19.@entry, 107935504:02.@topic)
+obj(202775987:19.@entry, 107935504:02.@topic)
+agt(201540232:0B, 106326406:0S.@pl)
+and:01(100017222:22.@entry, 113572436:1M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2563]
+{org:en}
+Salts formed in the soil solution are not removed from the soil
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200173338:18.@entry.@not, 105717342:02.@topic.@pl)
+plc(200144850:08, 100190783:0R.@def)
+obj(200173338:18.@entry.@not, 105717342:02.@topic.@pl)
+plc(200144850:08, 100190783:0R.@def)
+obj(200144850:08, 105717342:02.@topic.@pl)
+src(200173338:18.@entry.@not, 109335240:1P.@def)
+src(200173338:18.@entry.@not, 109335240:1P.@def)
+mod(100190783:0R.@def, 109335240:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2564]
+{org:en}
+they are gradually accumulated and redistributed in the soil profile in accordance with water transfer and salt solubility.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:02.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+obj:02(600000339:1Z, 105210221:36)
+aoj:02(600000339:1Z, 106516404:1R.@def)
+obj(:02.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+obj:02(600000339:1Z, 105210221:36)
+aoj:02(600000339:1Z, 106516404:1R.@def)
+mod:01(100201671:2O, 107935504:2I)
+plc:02(201379965:11.@entry, 106516404:1R.@def)
+and:01(105717342:31.@entry, 100201671:2O)
+and:02(201379965:11.@entry, 200158804:0L)
+and:02(201379965:11.@entry, 200158804:0L)
+mod:02(105210221:36, :01)
+mod:02(106516404:1R.@def, 109335240:1M)
+man:02(200158804:0L, 400107987:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2565]
+{org:en}
+Shallow ground waters communicate with soil waters through the capillary fringe.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200740577:0O.@entry, 114847503:0A.@topic.@pl)
+mod(103397762:23.@def, 102956069:1T)
+mod(107935504:1A.@pl, 109335240:15)
+agt(200740577:0O.@entry, 114847503:0A.@topic.@pl)
+mod(103397762:23.@def, 102956069:1T)
+mod(107935504:1A.@pl, 109335240:15)
+obj(200740577:0O.@entry, 107935504:1A.@pl)
+man(200740577:0O.@entry, 600000026:1H)
+man(200740577:0O.@entry, 600000026:1H)
+aoj(300691696:02, 114847503:0A.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000026:1H, 103397762:23.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2566]
+{org:en}
+Capillary rise and plant transpiration result in the transfer of saline ground waters toward the Earth surface and their concentration at different depths of the soil bed, such as on a biogeochemical evaporation barrier.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774178:15.@entry, 113569774:0R.@topic)
+and:01(100017222:0L.@entry, 100324384:0C)
+mod:02(105094725:46.@pl, 102818832:4P.@def)
+aoj(301074458:1V, 114847503:22.@pl)
+plc(:8A, 102796623:5Y.@indef)
+obj(100201671:1J.@def, 114847503:22.@pl)
+mod:02(104362025:2X.@def, 108562067:2R)
+aoj(202774178:15.@entry, 113569774:0R.@topic)
+and:01(100017222:0L.@entry, 100324384:0C)
+mod:02(105094725:46.@pl, 102818832:4P.@def)
+aoj(301074458:1V, 114847503:22.@pl)
+plc(:8A, 102796623:5Y.@indef)
+obj(100201671:1J.@def, 114847503:22.@pl)
+mod:02(104362025:2X.@def, 108562067:2R)
+plc:02(100375071:3F.@entry, 105094725:46.@pl)
+mod(113569774:0R.@topic, :01)
+obj(202774178:15.@entry, 100201671:1J.@def)
+mod:02(102818832:4P.@def, 109335240:4K)
+and:02(100375071:3F.@entry, 104362025:2X.@def)
+mod(102796623:5Y.@indef, 113572436:5M)
+man(202774178:15.@entry, 600000068:4U)
+mod:01(100324384:0C, 102956069:02)
+aoj:02(300490413:3W, 105094725:46.@pl)
+man(202774178:15.@entry, 600000068:4U)
+mod:01(100324384:0C, 102956069:02)
+aoj:02(300490413:3W, 105094725:46.@pl)
+obj(600000274:2G, :02)
+aoj(303161805:57, 102796623:5Y.@indef)
+aoj(600000274:2G, 114847503:22.@pl)
+obj(600000068:4U, :8A)
+mod:02(100375071:3F.@entry, 600000020:39.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2567]
+{org:en}
+Therefore, the salt content in soil solutions increases to tens g/l and, in some case, to 100-150 g/l.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200153263:1C.@entry, 400043003:02)
+mod(100190783:12.@pl, 109335240:0X)
+plc(115690441:2S, 102974697:2B)
+gol(200153263:1C.@entry, 115690441:1U)
+man(200153263:1C.@entry, 400043003:02)
+mod(100190783:12.@pl, 109335240:0X)
+plc(115690441:2S, 102974697:2B)
+gol(200153263:1C.@entry, 115690441:1U)
+plc(105809192:0M.@topic.@def, 100190783:12.@pl)
+ben(200153263:1C.@entry, 115690441:2S)
+qua(102974697:2B, 600000034:26)
+obj(200153263:1C.@entry, 105809192:0M.@topic.@def)
+obj(200153263:1C.@entry, 105809192:0M.@topic.@def)
+qua(115690441:2S, "100-150":2K)
+mod(115690441:1U, 115691007:1P)
+mod(105809192:0M.@topic.@def, 105717342:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2568]
+{org:en}
+When higher aridity, the total concentration of soil solutions increases.
+{/org}
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+mod:01(105809192:2V.@entry, 600000016:2M)
+man(200715239:0R.@entry.@past, 600000010:0X)
+man(200715239:0R.@entry.@past, 600000010:0X)
+and:01(105809192:2V.@entry, 100190783:29.@def)
+plc(109197815:1Q.@pl, :01:01)
+mod:01(100190783:29.@def, 109335240:24)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2584]
+{org:en}
+The relative content of cations and anions fixed into ion pairs increases with the sampling depth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:1U.@entry, 105809192:0F.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300006032:06, 105809192:0F.@topic.@def)
+mod(105094725:2M.@def, 105821775:2D)
+obj(200153263:1U.@entry, 105809192:0F.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300006032:06, 105809192:0F.@topic.@def)
+mod(105094725:2M.@def, 105821775:2D)
+gol(200406243:19, 107958407:1O.@pl)
+obj(600000018:24, 105094725:2M.@def)
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+man(200153263:1U.@entry, 600000018:24)
+man(200153263:1U.@entry, 600000018:24)
+obj(200406243:19, :01)
+mod(105809192:0F.@topic.@def, :01)
+mod(107958407:1O.@pl, 109315159:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2585]
+{org:en}
+The portion of HTM1 and HTM2 ions fixed in ion pairs increases from 12-14% in the surface horizons to 44-47% in more saline horizons occurring at depths of 150 to 250 m, and the portion of free ions decreases correspondingly from 76-84 to 50-53%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200151689:5L.@entry, 200153263:1J)
+plc:04("12-14%":1Y, 105127782:2K.@def.@pl)
+fmt:04("44-47%":2W.@entry, "12-14%":1Y)
+mod:03("%":6U.@entry, "50-53":6P)
+and:01(HTM2:0Q.@entry, HTM1:0H)
+plc:04(200723349:3R.@progress, 105094725:44.@pl)
+man(200151689:5L.@entry, 400187228:5V)
+obj(200406243:10, 109315159:0V.@pl)
+aoj:04(301074458:3B, 105127782:3I.@pl)
+and(200151689:5L.@entry, 200153263:1J)
+plc:04("12-14%":1Y, 105127782:2K.@def.@pl)
+fmt:04("44-47%":2W.@entry, "12-14%":1Y)
+mod:03("%":6U.@entry, "50-53":6P)
+and:01(HTM2:0Q.@entry, HTM1:0H)
+plc:04(200723349:3R.@progress, 105094725:44.@pl)
+man(200151689:5L.@entry, 400187228:5V)
+obj(200406243:10, 109315159:0V.@pl)
+aoj:04(301074458:3B, 105127782:3I.@pl)
+obj(200153263:1J, 115699459:06.@topic.@def)
+fmt:02("250":4L.@entry, "150":4E)
+man(200151689:5L.@entry, :03)
+mod(115699459:06.@topic.@def, 109315159:0V.@pl)
+obj:04(200723349:3R.@progress, 105127782:3I.@pl)
+aoj(300916199:5B, 109315159:5G.@pl)
+mod(107958407:1D.@pl, 109315159:19)
+qua:04(106832464:4P, :02:02)
+agt(200151689:5L.@entry, 115699459:50.@def)
+mod:04(105127782:2K.@def.@pl, 104362025:2C)
+plc:04("44-47%":2W.@entry, 105127782:3I.@pl)
+agt(200151689:5L.@entry, 115699459:50.@def)
+mod:04(105127782:2K.@def.@pl, 104362025:2C)
+plc:04("44-47%":2W.@entry, 105127782:3I.@pl)
+mod(115699459:50.@def, 109315159:5G.@pl)
+gol(200406243:10, 107958407:1D.@pl)
+mod:04(105094725:44.@pl, 106832464:4P)
+fmt:03("%":6U.@entry, "76-84":6G)
+mod(109315159:0V.@pl, :01)
+man:04(301074458:3B, 400099341:36)
+man(200153263:1J, :04)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2586]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 and HTM2 ions predominantly form ion pairs with sulfate ions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200144850:0Z.@entry, 109315159:0G.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000018:1E, 109315159:1R.@pl)
+man(200144850:0Z.@entry, 400161018:0L)
+aoj(200144850:0Z.@entry, 109315159:0G.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000018:1E, 109315159:1R.@pl)
+man(200144850:0Z.@entry, 400161018:0L)
+obj(200144850:0Z.@entry, 107958407:18.@pl)
+mod(109315159:0G.@topic.@pl, :01)
+man(200144850:0Z.@entry, 600000018:1E)
+man(200144850:0Z.@entry, 600000018:1E)
+mod(109315159:1R.@pl, 115063493:1J)
+mod(107958407:18.@pl, 109315159:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2587]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 ions most frequently exist as free ions
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202603699:0S.@entry, 600000008:0Y)
+obj(600000008:0Y, 109315159:16.@pl)
+man(400035058:0H, 400536271:0C)
+man(202603699:0S.@entry, 600000008:0Y)
+obj(600000008:0Y, 109315159:16.@pl)
+man(400035058:0H, 400536271:0C)
+man(202603699:0S.@entry, 400035058:0H)
+aoj(202603699:0S.@entry, 109315159:07.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(202603699:0S.@entry, 109315159:07.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300916199:11, 109315159:16.@pl)
+mod(109315159:07.@topic.@pl, HTM1:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2588]
+{org:en}
+the degree to which they are associated with carbonates, bicarbonates, and chlorides is insignificant, especially in the upper soil horizons.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301288298:2H.@entry, 105094565:06.@topic.@def)
+and:01(114775729:1N.@pl, 114798450:1B.@pl)
+gol(200713167:0V, 105094565:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(105127782:3P.@def.@pl, 301206318:3E)
+aoj(301288298:2H.@entry, 105094565:06.@topic.@def)
+and:01(114775729:1N.@pl, 114798450:1B.@pl)
+gol(200713167:0V, 105094565:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(105127782:3P.@def.@pl, 301206318:3E)
+obj(600000018:16, :01)
+plc(400535221:2W, 105127782:3P.@def.@pl)
+gol(200713167:0V, 600000018:16)
+man(301288298:2H.@entry, 400535221:2W)
+man(301288298:2H.@entry, 400535221:2W)
+obj(200713167:0V, 600000020:0M)
+mod(105127782:3P.@def.@pl, 109335240:3K)
+and:01(115016852:24.@entry.@pl, 114775729:1N.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2589]
+{org:en}
+Table 2
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "2":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "2":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2590]
+{org:en}
+Calculated content of cation forms in soil solutions of solonetzes, % of their total content.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200144850:0V.@entry, 105809192:0D.@topic)
+qua(105809192:2F, "%":1Y)
+mod(100190783:19.@pl, 115691900:1M.@pl)
+aoj(200144850:0V.@entry, 105809192:0D.@topic)
+qua(105809192:2F, "%":1Y)
+mod(100190783:19.@pl, 115691900:1M.@pl)
+obj(200637259:02.@past, 105809192:0D.@topic)
+plc(200144850:0V.@entry, 100190783:19.@pl)
+qua(105809192:2F, 303160907:29)
+obj(200144850:0V.@entry, 105809192:2F)
+obj(200144850:0V.@entry, 105809192:2F)
+mod(105809192:2F, 600000020:23.@pl)
+mod(100190783:19.@pl, 109335240:14)
+mod(105809192:0D.@topic, 109238294:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2591]
+{org:en}
+Source
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+104263614:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+104263614:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2592]
+{org:en}
+Minkin, M.B., Gorbunov, N.I., and Sadimenko, P.A.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323141:10.@entry, 500323021:0G)
+and(500323141:10.@entry, 500323021:0G)
+and(500323021:0G, 500323127:02)
+and(500323021:0G, 500323127:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2593]
+{org:en}
+Actual Problems of Physical and Colloidal Chemistry of Soils HTM1 (in Russian), Rostov
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105687338:09.@entry.@pl, 106084469:18)
+aoj(:01, 106084469:18)
+mod(105687338:09.@entry.@pl, 106084469:18)
+aoj(:01, 106084469:18)
+mod(106084469:18, 109335240:1L.@pl)
+mod(105687338:09.@entry.@pl, 300043765:02)
+mod(105687338:09.@entry.@pl, 300043765:02)
+and:01(302903946:0Y.@entry, 300627004:0L)
+[W]
+:02.@parenthesis.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2594]
+{org:en}
+Rostov State Univ., 1982, p. 278.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(115691943:0F.@entry, "1982":0M)
+mod(106832788:0S.@entry, "278":0V)
+tim(115691943:0F.@entry, "1982":0M)
+mod(106832788:0S.@entry, "278":0V)
+mod(115691943:0F.@entry, 303161158:09)
+mod(115691943:0F.@entry, 500004309:02)
+mod(115691943:0F.@entry, 500004309:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2595]
+{org:en}
+A similar regularity is observed for anions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200732552:0Q.@entry, 104767347:0C.@topic.@indef)
+obj(200732552:0Q.@entry, 104767347:0C.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(301409581:04, 104767347:0C.@topic.@indef)
+pur(200732552:0Q.@entry, 109197815:13.@pl)
+pur(200732552:0Q.@entry, 109197815:13.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2596]
+{org:en}
+The portion of HTM1 ions fixed in associates increases from 15-20% in the upper solonetz horizons to 47-51% below 150 cm in depth
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:1B.@entry, 115699459:06.@topic.@def)
+qua(115669285:3A, "150":36)
+mod(105127782:2H.@def.@pl, 115691900:28)
+scn("15-20%":1P, 105127782:2H.@def.@pl)
+mod(109315159:0M.@pl, HTM1:0H)
+obj(200153263:1B.@entry, 115699459:06.@topic.@def)
+qua(115669285:3A, "150":36)
+mod(105127782:2H.@def.@pl, 115691900:28)
+scn("15-20%":1P, 105127782:2H.@def.@pl)
+mod(109315159:0M.@pl, HTM1:0H)
+bas(600000131:30, 115669285:3A)
+src(200153263:1B.@entry, "15-20%":1P)
+obj(200406243:0R.@past, 109315159:0M.@pl)
+aoj(600000131:30, "47-51%":2T)
+gol(200153263:1B.@entry, "47-51%":2T)
+mod(115699459:06.@topic.@def, 109315159:0M.@pl)
+gol(200153263:1B.@entry, "47-51%":2T)
+mod(115699459:06.@topic.@def, 109315159:0M.@pl)
+man(301206318:23, 400099341:3X)
+mod(105127782:2H.@def.@pl, 301206318:23)
+plc(200406243:0R.@past, 107284848:10.@pl)
+scn(600000131:30, 105094725:3G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2597]
+{org:en}
+free sulfates decrease from 80-85 to 49-53% of their total content.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200151689:0G.@entry, 115063493:07.@topic.@pl)
+qua(105809192:1W, "%":1F)
+qua("%":1F, :01:01)
+obj(200151689:0G.@entry, 115063493:07.@topic.@pl)
+qua(105809192:1W, "%":1F)
+qua("%":1F, :01:01)
+mod(115063493:07.@topic.@pl, 300916199:02)
+qua(105809192:1W, 303160907:1Q)
+man(200151689:0G.@entry, "%":1F)
+man(200151689:0G.@entry, "%":1F)
+mod(105809192:1W, 600000020:1K.@pl)
+fmt:01("49-53":16.@entry, "80-85":0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2598]
+{org:en}
+Magnesium and sodium sulfates and magnesium bicarbonates are predominant at depths of 150 to 250 cm.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161183:1R.@entry, :02)
+and:02(114945137:10.@entry.@pl.@topic, 115063493:0N.@pl.@topic)
+mod(105094725:26.@pl, "150":2G)
+aoj(303161183:1R.@entry, :02)
+and:02(114945137:10.@entry.@pl.@topic, 115063493:0N.@pl.@topic)
+mod(105094725:26.@pl, "150":2G)
+plc(303161183:1R.@entry, 105094725:26.@pl)
+and:01(114655371:0G.@entry, 114644249:02)
+ben(303161183:1R.@entry, 115669285:2R)
+ben(303161183:1R.@entry, 115669285:2R)
+mod:02(115063493:0N.@pl.@topic, :01)
+qua(115669285:2R, "250":2N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2599]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 ions and their ion pairs with metals are absent in the upper 0 to 100 cm soil layer
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300165171:1C.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(107958407:0Q.@entry.@pl.@topic, 109315159:0M)
+mod(101463259:2C, 109335240:28)
+mod("0":1W.@def, 301206318:1Q)
+aoj(300165171:1C.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(107958407:0Q.@entry.@pl.@topic, 109315159:0M)
+mod(101463259:2C, 109335240:28)
+mod("0":1W.@def, 301206318:1Q)
+aoj:01(600000019:0W, 107958407:0Q.@entry.@pl)
+tim(300165171:1C.@entry, "0":1W.@def)
+mod:01(109315159:07.@pl.@topic, HTM1:02)
+and:01(107958407:0Q.@entry.@pl.@topic, 109315159:07.@pl.@topic)
+plc(300165171:1C.@entry, 101463259:2C)
+obj:01(600000019:0W, 114625458:11.@pl)
+plc(300165171:1C.@entry, 101463259:2C)
+obj:01(600000019:0W, 114625458:11.@pl)
+mod(109335240:28, 115669285:25)
+qua(101463259:2C, "100":21)
+mod:01(107958407:0Q.@entry.@pl.@topic, 600000020:0G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2600]
+{org:en}
+they are found only at a depth of 180-190 cm, HTM1 particles being predominant (more than 50%).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202775107:0B.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+aoj(303161183:1X.@state, 106326406:1H.@entry.@pl)
+mod(105094725:0R.@indef, 115669285:18)
+obj(202775107:0B.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+aoj(303161183:1X.@state, 106326406:1H.@entry.@pl)
+mod(105094725:0R.@indef, 115669285:18)
+bas:01(400099341:2A.@entry, "50%":2K)
+man(202775107:0B.@entry, 400535197:0H)
+qua(303161183:1X.@state, :01:01.@parenthesis)
+plc(202775107:0B.@entry, 105094725:0R.@indef)
+plc(202775107:0B.@entry, 105094725:0R.@indef)
+mod(106326406:1H.@entry.@pl, HTM1:1C)
+qua(115669285:18, "180-190":10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2601]
+{org:en}
+The fixation of ions into ion pairs increases the total concentration of salts in solutions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200153263:12.@entry, 100276342:06.@topic.@def)
+gol(100276342:06.@topic.@def, 107958407:0W.@pl)
+qua(105717342:23.@pl, 100375071:1M.@def)
+agt(200153263:12.@entry, 100276342:06.@topic.@def)
+gol(100276342:06.@topic.@def, 107958407:0W.@pl)
+qua(105717342:23.@pl, 100375071:1M.@def)
+obj(200153263:12.@entry, 100375071:1M.@def)
+mod(107958407:0W.@pl, 109315159:0S)
+plc(200153263:12.@entry, 100190783:2C.@pl)
+plc(200153263:12.@entry, 100190783:2C.@pl)
+obj(100276342:06.@topic.@def, 109315159:0I.@pl)
+qua(100375071:1M.@def, 303160907:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2602]
+{org:en}
+Table 3
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "3":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "3":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2603]
+{org:en}
+Calculated content of anion forms in soil solutions of solonetzes, % of their total content.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105809192:2E.@entry, 105809192:0D)
+aoj(303162149:02, 105809192:0D)
+qua(105809192:2E.@entry, 303160907:28)
+and(105809192:2E.@entry, 105809192:0D)
+aoj(303162149:02, 105809192:0D)
+qua(105809192:2E.@entry, 303160907:28)
+mod(100190783:18.@pl, 115691900:1L.@pl)
+mod(105809192:2E.@entry, 600000020:22.@pl)
+mod(103384535:0U.@pl, 109197815:0O)
+qua(105809192:2E.@entry, "%":1X)
+qua(105809192:2E.@entry, "%":1X)
+plc(103384535:0U.@pl, 100190783:18.@pl)
+mod(105809192:0D, 103384535:0U.@pl)
+mod(100190783:18.@pl, 109335240:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2604]
+{org:en}
+Source
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+104263614:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+104263614:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2605]
+{org:en}
+Minkin, M.B., Gorbunov, N.I., and Sadimenko, P.A.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323141:10.@entry, 500323021:0G)
+and(500323141:10.@entry, 500323021:0G)
+and(500323021:0G, 500323127:02)
+and(500323021:0G, 500323127:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2606]
+{org:en}
+Actual Problems of Physical and HTM1 Colloidal Chemistry of Soils HTM2 (in Russian), Rostov
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105687338:09.@entry.@pl, 106084469:1D)
+aoj(:01, 106084469:1D)
+mod(105687338:09.@entry.@pl, 106084469:1D)
+aoj(:01, 106084469:1D)
+mod(106084469:1D, 109335240:1Q.@pl)
+mod(105687338:09.@entry.@pl, 300043765:02)
+mod(105687338:09.@entry.@pl, 300043765:02)
+and:01(302903946:13.@entry, 300627004:0L)
+[W]
+:02.@parenthesis.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2607]
+{org:en}
+Rostov State Univ., 1982, p. 278.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(115691943:0F.@entry, "1982":0M)
+mod(106832788:0S.@entry, "278":0V)
+tim(115691943:0F.@entry, "1982":0M)
+mod(106832788:0S.@entry, "278":0V)
+mod(100024720:09, 500004309:02)
+mod(115691943:0F.@entry, 100024720:09)
+mod(115691943:0F.@entry, 100024720:09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2608]
+{org:en}
+High spatial and temporal variability is typical for the composition of soil solutions in both humid and arid zones.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100190783:27.@pl, 109335240:22)
+and:01(301181904:0J.@entry, 302841066:07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2609]
+{org:en}
+The seasonal variability is related to the dynamics of water uptake by plants, water evaporation, variation of biological activity in different periods of plant vegetation, seasonal precipitation, and seasonal changes in water flux directions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774437:0U.@entry, 104735233:0F.@def)
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+mod:01(106197215:6Z.@pl, 100195938:6U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2610]
+{org:en}
+Diurnal dynamics caused by the changes in metabolic processes, dynamics of water vapor condensation, etc., is also manifested.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200423075:3E.@entry, 106113597:0A.@topic)
+aoj:01(301508444:1B, 100029677:1L.@pl)
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+aoj(201645601:0J.@entry, 100191142:0X.@def.@pl)
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+plc(100191142:0X.@def.@pl, :01:01.@entry)
+mod:01(106246700:2J, 115055633:2D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2611]
+{org:en}
+The spatial heterogeneity of soil solution composition is determined by the variation in all soil-affecting factors
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:1O.@entry, 104751098:0E.@topic.@def)
+qua(109335240:2M, 600000011:2I)
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+agt(200019448:2R.@progress, 109335240:2M)
+mod(100190783:10, 109335240:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2612]
+{org:en}
+meso- and microrelief, moisture content, vegetation, and living inhabitants of soils
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(109620078:1U.@entry.@pl, 101065057:17)
+mod(105809192:0Y, 114535431:0P)
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+mod(109620078:1U.@entry.@pl, 109335240:29.@pl)
+mod(100354884:0H, :01)
+and(105809192:0Y, 100354884:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2613]
+{org:en}
+the effect of economic human activity is especially significant.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300625055:1I.@entry, 104809642:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100407535:0V, 300840212:0G)
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+man(300625055:1I.@entry, 400535221:17)
+aoj(301258617:0P, 100407535:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2614]
+{org:en}
+The scale of temporal and spatial variabilities in the soil water composition are frequently comparable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300503982:2M.@entry, 101902877:06.@topic.@def)
+and:01(302841066:0S.@entry, 301181904:0F)
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+aoj(300503982:2M.@entry, 101902877:06.@topic.@def)
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+man(300503982:2M.@entry, 400035058:2B)
+mod(103081660:1V.@def, 107935504:1P)
+aoj(:01, 104735233:10.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2615]
+{org:en}
+Vertical zonality of chemical composition of deep-seated subsurface waters and its causes
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689567:0B.@entry, 103081660:0V)
+mod:01(100007347:2C.@entry.@pl, 600000016:28)
+aoj(302692624:0N, 103081660:0V)
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+aoj(302692624:0N, 103081660:0V)
+mod(103081660:0V, :01)
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+aoj(301204142:02, 115689567:0B.@entry)
+aoj(301204142:02, 115689567:0B.@entry)
+aoj:01(303161703:1A, 115689188:1X.@pl)
+and:01(100007347:2C.@entry.@pl, 115689188:1X.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2616]
+{org:en}
+Vertical hydrochemical zonality is one of the clearest regularities in the distribution of subsurface waters of different composition.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000027:11.@entry, 115689567:0P.@topic)
+aoj(303161723:0G, 115689567:0P.@topic)
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+man(300428404:1C, 400536271:4G)
+aoj(301204142:02, 115689567:0P.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2617]
+{org:en}
+Two types of zonality are described
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200987071:0S.@entry, 104504486:06.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200987071:0S.@entry, 104504486:06.@topic.@pl)
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+qua(115689567:0F, 104504486:06.@topic.@pl)
+qua(115689567:0F, 104504486:06.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2618]
+{org:en}
+almost universal direct zonality and rare inverse zonality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115689567:1G.@entry, 115689567:0Q)
+aoj(300005473:0J, 115689567:0Q)
+aoj(301028623:09, 115689567:0Q)
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+aoj(300017024:13, 115689567:1G.@entry)
+aoj(300017024:13, 115689567:1G.@entry)
+man(301028623:09, 400073033:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2619]
+{org:en}
+Direct hydrochemical zonality is manifested in successive increase in salt content in the subsurface waters with depth, from fresh to saline waters or brines.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200423075:0Z.@entry, 115689567:0N.@topic)
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+mod(115689188:2V.@def.@pl, 302471782:2K)
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+aoj:01(301074458:3Y, 115689188:45.@pl)
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+or:01(115689653:4F.@entry, 115689188:45.@pl)
+man(200423075:0Z.@entry, 600000018:32)
+or:01(115689653:4F.@entry, 115689188:45.@pl)
+aoj(303161908:1D, 100363260:1O)
+obj(100363260:1O, 105809192:25)
+aoj(300005473:02, 115689567:0N.@topic)
+obj(600000018:32, 105094725:37)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2620]
+{org:en}
+The combination of predominant components changes with the salt content
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200109660:18.@entry, 100378985:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(303161183:0L, 103081021:0X.@pl)
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+obj(200109660:18.@entry, 100378985:06.@topic.@def)
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+obj(600000018:1F, 105809192:1T.@def.@pl)
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+man(200109660:18.@entry, 600000018:1F)
+obj(100378985:06.@topic.@def, 103081021:0X.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2621]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 in fresh waters
+{/org}
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+plc(HTM1:02.@entry, 115689188:0F.@pl)
+plc(HTM1:02.@entry, 115689188:0F.@pl)
+aoj(300205295:0A, 115689188:0F.@pl)
+aoj(300205295:0A, 115689188:0F.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2622]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 in slightly saline waters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(HTM1:02.@entry, 115689188:0Q.@pl)
+plc(HTM1:02.@entry, 115689188:0Q.@pl)
+man(301074458:0J, 400036291:0A)
+aoj(301074458:0J, 115689188:0Q.@pl)
+aoj(301074458:0J, 115689188:0Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2623]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 in saline waters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(HTM1:02.@entry, 115689188:0H.@pl)
+plc(HTM1:02.@entry, 115689188:0H.@pl)
+aoj(301074458:0A, 115689188:0H.@pl)
+aoj(301074458:0A, 115689188:0H.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2624]
+{org:en}
+and
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(:02.@entry, :01)
+and(:02.@entry, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2625]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 in brines.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(HTM1:02.@entry, 115689653:0A)
+plc(HTM1:02.@entry, 115689653:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2626]
+{org:en}
+Some hypotheses were advanced to explain the direct zonality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200158222:0N.@entry.@past, 105888929:07.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300005473:1B, 115689567:1I.@def)
+obj(200158222:0N.@entry.@past, 105888929:07.@topic.@pl)
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+pur(200158222:0N.@entry.@past, 200939277:0Z)
+qua(105888929:07.@topic.@pl, 600000034:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2627]
+{org:en}
+Presently, the strongest evidence was obtained within the framework of sedimentation鉾ravitation theory.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202238085:14.@entry.@past, 400048268:02)
+mod(105952979:2R, 106198313:2F)
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+mod(103391770:1O.@def, 105952979:2R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2628]
+{org:en}
+The distribution of waters differing in salt content is mainly controlled by the gravitational stability of the hydrogeochemical profile.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200663160:1T.@entry, 101083077:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(105809192:1B.@pl, 105717342:16)
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+obj(200663160:1T.@entry, 101083077:06.@topic.@def)
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+mod(104778401:2P.@def, 106516404:3N.@def)
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+aoj(302737183:2B, 104778401:2P.@def)
+obj(202666239:0T.@progress, 115689188:0M.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2629]
+{org:en}
+The upper profile is formed under the impact of atmospheric water infiltration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200144850:0M.@entry, 106516404:0B.@topic.@def)
+mod(100976698:1V, 107935504:1P)
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+mod(106516404:0B.@topic.@def, 301206318:06)
+aoj(302831736:1D, 100976698:1V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2630]
+{org:en}
+Penetration of this water in depth is hampered near sea level.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200236289:14.@entry, 100051525:02.@topic)
+plc(107935504:0M, 105094725:0V)
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+man(200236289:14.@entry, 600000139:1D)
+mod(107935504:0M, 600000017:0H)
+obj(100051525:02.@topic, 107935504:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2631]
+{org:en}
+Sedimentation water, generally saline water of marine origin, is predominant below.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161183:1V.@entry, 107935504:0G.@topic)
+mod(107935504:14, 104923743:1K)
+man(107935504:0G.@topic, 400041954:0N)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:2632]
+{org:en}
+When the geological history of the region included a salt accumulation stage, subsalt sediments are filled with heavy evaporite brines.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Because of their high density, brines cannot generally be displaced by lighter fresh waters
+{/org}
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+aoj(300705498:0J, 104941453:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2634]
+{org:en}
+they remain in deep horizons of the sedimentary cover for an indefinitely long time (for more than for 500 million years in the Angara
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:2635]
+{org:en}
+The disturbance of the direct hydrogeochemical zonality is possible only in the case of intensive water flows in sloped beds.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:2636]
+{org:en}
+Such conditions are created in piedmont areas of young folded-mountain regions.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:2637]
+{org:en}
+In these areas, leaching of beds with atmospheric precipitation proceeds at different rates because of difference in their permeability, and an irregular alternating of waters with different salt contents develops in the profile.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000012:2M, 104748836:2X)
+plc(200341560:1U, 102735688:0B.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2638]
+{org:en}
+The appearance of slightly saline waters ( HTM1 , HTM2 , and HTM3 ) is typical for areas with inverse zonality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301595440:21.@entry, 100050195:06.@topic.@def)
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+man(301595440:21.@entry, 600000018:2I)
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+and:01(HTM3:1R.@entry, HTM2:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2639]
+{org:en}
+Development of the chemical properties of subsurface waters in different water-bearing horizons
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(100250259:02.@entry, 105127782:2G.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:1T, 105127782:2G.@pl)
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+mod(115689188:1J.@pl, 302471782:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2640]
+{org:en}
+Subsurface waters in the upper water-bearing horizon
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(115689188:0D.@entry.@pl, 105127782:1A.@def)
+man(301206318:0R, 400099341:1U)
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+mod(105127782:1A.@def, 301206318:0R)
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+mod(115689188:0D.@entry.@pl, 302471782:02)
+obj(300217297:12, 107935504:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2641]
+{org:en}
+The subsurface waters in the upper water-bearing horizon mainly inherit the composition of soil water, through which its atmospheric feed passes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(107800091:3Q, 302831736:3E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2642]
+{org:en}
+Therefore, their composition follows a pronounced climatic zonality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(103081660:0J.@topic, 600000020:0D.@pl)
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+aoj(303055374:1G, 115689567:1P.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2643]
+{org:en}
+The total salt content in waters depends on the precipitation-evaporation ratio and varies within a wide range (from ultrafresh waters to brines)
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(202663848:0Z, 105809192:0H.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2644]
+{org:en}
+its mean value is 0.25 g/kg for the humid regions and 1.36 g/kg for the arid regions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(104979425:0B.@topic, 301113807:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2645]
+{org:en}
+The chemical composition of ground waters is largely determined by the dissolution and hydrolysis of rocks in water-bearing horizons by atmospheric precipitation, with the participation of biogeochemical processes in the soil and water-bearing horizon.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:1H.@entry, 103081660:0E.@topic.@def)
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+mod(105127782:3F.@pl, 102817031:37)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2646]
+{org:en}
+As a result, ground waters have HTM1 , HTM2 , HTM3 , and HTM4 ions as the main components and a near neutral reaction.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200065370:0S.@entry, 600000159:02)
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+mod(109315159:1R.@pl, :01)
+and:02(100202816:32.@entry.@indef, 103081021:28.@pl.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2647]
+{org:en}
+The average composition of subsurface waters in the upper water-bearing horizon is given in Table 4.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:2648]
+{org:en}
+Table 4
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "4":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "4":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2649]
+{org:en}
+Average composition of ground waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(103081660:0A.@entry, 115689188:0V.@pl)
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+aoj(300486290:02, 103081660:0A.@entry)
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+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Source
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+104263614:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+104263614:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2651]
+{org:en}
+Shvartsev, S.A., HTM1 Hydrogeochemistry of the Hypergenesis Zone HTM2 (in Rusian), Moscow
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
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+[/W]
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+
+[S:2652]
+{org:en}
+Nedra, 1998
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323607:02.@entry, "1998":09)
+tim(500323607:02.@entry, "1998":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2653]
+{org:en}
+Subsurface waters in deep water-bearing horizons
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:2654]
+{org:en}
+Subsurface waters of marine origin compose the major part of subsurface waters in the deep water-bearing horizons.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:2655]
+{org:en}
+Sediments formed on the sea bottom are impregnated with seawater from the outset.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2656]
+{org:en}
+Upon burial and compaction of sediments, the water is squeezed in part, and the residual interstitial water enters into various chemical and biochemical reactions.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:2657]
+{org:en}
+Nonetheless, the main salt composition of seawater remains, and the total salt content (30-35 g/kg) and the sodium chloride composition persist even after many millions years.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:2658]
+{org:en}
+The predominance of waters of marine genesis is typical for platforms with the thick sedimentary cover.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2659]
+{org:en}
+Interaction with enclosing rocks is of importance for the composition of saline subsurface waters.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2660]
+{org:en}
+Because of the long contact, subsurface waters are saturated with most minerals present in the rock.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300393508:1H.@entry, 600000012:02)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:2661]
+{org:en}
+When water-bearing horizons include calcite ( HTM1 ), subsurface waters are almost always in equilibrium with it.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(600000051:2K.@entry, 200183879:0U.@should)
+cnt(114935751:12, HTM1:1C.@parenthesis)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2662]
+{org:en}
+However, the saturation rate significantly depends on the mineral nature.
+{/org}
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+aoj(301680559:1O, 104623113:1W.@def)
+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+Study of sediments on the ocean bottom has shown that an extremely slow reaction of dolotimization proceeds between sediments and impregnating interstitial water
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
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+{org:en}
+whose equilibrium is not attained even over millions years.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(115201505:1J.@pl, 115690392:1A)
+{/unl}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Subsurface waters can be oversaturated with some minerals.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202776540:0R.@entry.@ability, 115689188:0D.@topic.@pl)
+qua(114662574:1F.@pl, 600000034:1A)
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+mod(115689188:0D.@topic.@pl, 302471782:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+It was shown that strong oversaturation does not persist long, and an excess of substance precipitates from water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+This condition limits the accumulation of many components in subsurface waters.
+{/org}
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+qua(103081021:1D.@pl, 600000028:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+High concentrations of elements that form barely soluble compounds with the main components of the Earth's crust are extremely rare in natural waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200144850:13, 103081859:1N.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2669]
+{org:en}
+This is true for Si (precipitated as quartz HTM1 ), Fe (goethite FeOOH), Al (gibbsite HTM2 and clay minerals), F (fluorite HTM3 ), P (apatite HTM4 ), Mn (pyrolusite HTM5 ), and some microelements.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300023120:0A.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+cnt:08(500323522:1I.@pl, :02.@parenthesis)
+and:08(106831712:34.@pl, 115669269:23.@pl)
+cnt:08(500323552:47.@pl, :07.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(HTM1:1A, 114693733:13)
+mod:04(114662574:2T.@entry.@pl, :03)
+qua:08(115690208:52.@entry.@pl, 600000034:4X)
+man:01(303162760:0N.@entry, 600000023:10)
+and:08(115669269:23.@pl, 500323522:1I.@pl)
+aoj(300023120:0A.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+cnt:08(500323522:1I.@pl, :02.@parenthesis)
+and:08(106831712:34.@pl, 115669269:23.@pl)
+cnt:08(500323552:47.@pl, :07.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(HTM1:1A, 114693733:13)
+mod:04(114662574:2T.@entry.@pl, :03)
+qua:08(115690208:52.@entry.@pl, 600000034:4X)
+man:01(303162760:0N.@entry, 600000023:10)
+and:08(115669269:23.@pl, 500323522:1I.@pl)
+cnt:08(106832788:3O.@pl, :06.@parenthesis)
+and:08(500323522:1I.@pl, 115669237:0J.@pl)
+and:08(115690208:52.@entry.@pl, 500323552:47.@pl)
+aoj:08(:01.@parenthesis, 115669237:0J)
+mod:05(HTM3:3G.@entry, 114675356:37)
+and:08(106832788:3O.@pl, 106831712:34.@pl)
+mod:03(HTM2:2G, 114676943:27)
+pur(300023120:0A.@entry, :08:08)
+mod:02(115695209:1V.@entry, 114677314:1M)
+cnt:08(106831712:34.@pl, :05.@parenthesis)
+pur(300023120:0A.@entry, :08:08)
+mod:02(115695209:1V.@entry, 114677314:1M)
+cnt:08(106831712:34.@pl, :05.@parenthesis)
+mod:07(HTM5:4L.@entry, 114692973:4A)
+and:03(114813182:2P.@entry, HTM2:2G)
+and:08(500323552:47.@pl, 106832788:3O.@pl)
+obj:01(600000023:10, HTM1:1A)
+cnt:08(115669269:23.@pl, :04.@parenthesis)
+mod:06(HTM4:3Z.@entry, 114666510:3R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2670]
+{org:en}
+It should be noted that the accumulation of most microelements (including toxic and radioactive ones) in subsurface waters is limited by their capacity to sorb on the surface of minerals of enclosing rocks
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201020005:0F.@entry.@should.@past, 200235368:3K)
+obj(100372013:0U.@def, 115690208:1F.@pl)
+plc(201540449:4D, 104362025:4N.@def)
+and:01(300426907:2E.@entry, 302449430:24)
+agt(200235368:3K, 100720951:41)
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+obj(201020005:0F.@entry.@should.@past, 200235368:3K)
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+agt(200235368:3K, 100720951:41)
+obj:02(600000007:1U.@entry, 600000027:2Q.@pl)
+mod(100348008:5J.@pl, 303162196:59)
+pur(200235368:3K, 201540449:4D)
+qua(115690208:1F.@pl, 600000067:1A)
+mod(114662574:4X.@pl, 100348008:5J.@pl)
+obj(200235368:3K, 100372013:0U.@def)
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+obj(200235368:3K, 100372013:0U.@def)
+aoj(:02.@parenthesis, 115690208:1F.@pl)
+mod(104362025:4N.@def, 114662574:4X.@pl)
+mod(115689188:3A.@pl, 302471782:2Z)
+mod(100720951:41, 600000020:3V.@pl)
+aoj:02(:01, 600000027:2Q.@pl)
+plc(100372013:0U.@def, 115689188:3A.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2671]
+{org:en}
+clay minerals, iron hydroxides, calcite, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115689145:0Y.@entry, 114935751:0P)
+mod(114914670:0D.@pl, 103584829:09)
+and(115689145:0Y.@entry, 114935751:0P)
+mod(114914670:0D.@pl, 103584829:09)
+and(114914670:0D.@pl, 114813182:02.@pl)
+and(114935751:0P, 114914670:0D.@pl)
+and(114935751:0P, 114914670:0D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2672]
+{org:en}
+On the whole, the interaction with rocks significantly changes the ratio among the components in subsurface waters, but it hardly affects the total salt content (except for the dissolution of rock salt, which will be considered below).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200109660:1L.@entry, 600000253:02)
+mod:01(105717342:5J.@pl, 100348008:5E)
+agt(200019448:3O.@entry, 600000016:3E)
+obj(600000064:23, 103081021:2D.@def.@pl)
+mod(105809192:4B.@def, 105717342:46)
+man(200109660:1L.@entry, 400006259:17)
+man(200019448:3O.@entry, 400003093:3H)
+man(200109660:1L.@entry, 600000253:02)
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+man(200019448:3O.@entry, 400003093:3H)
+aoj(600000019:0W, 100039021:0K.@topic.@def)
+obj:01(200691312:63.@will, 105717342:5J.@pl)
+obj(200109660:1L.@entry, 113819207:1X.@def)
+obj(200019448:3O.@entry, 105809192:4B.@def)
+mod(115689188:32.@pl, 302471782:2R)
+obj:01(100215314:4Z.@def, 105717342:5J.@pl)
+agt(200109660:1L.@entry, 100039021:0K.@topic.@def)
+man:01(200691312:63.@will, 400079866:6E)
+man(200019448:3O.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+agt(200109660:1L.@entry, 100039021:0K.@topic.@def)
+man:01(200691312:63.@will, 400079866:6E)
+man(200019448:3O.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+plc(103081021:2D.@def.@pl, 115689188:32.@pl)
+obj:01(600000221:4K.@entry, 100215314:4Z.@def)
+aoj(600000064:23, 113819207:1X.@def)
+qua(105809192:4B.@def, 303160907:40)
+obj(600000019:0W, 100348008:11.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2673]
+{org:en}
+The reason is that the total salt content in subsurface waters mainly depends on the content of highly soluble sodium and calcium chlorides.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 105651680:06.@topic.@def)
+qua:02(105809192:10.@def.@pl, 303160907:0P)
+aoj:02(302265015:2N, 115016852:3E.@pl)
+man:02(202663848:1Q.@entry, 400535216:1J)
+aoj(:02.@entry, 105651680:06.@topic.@def)
+qua:02(105809192:10.@def.@pl, 303160907:0P)
+aoj:02(302265015:2N, 115016852:3E.@pl)
+man:02(202663848:1Q.@entry, 400535216:1J)
+man:02(302265015:2N, 400089267:2G)
+obj:02(202663848:1Q.@entry, 105809192:25.@def.@pl)
+and:01(114632648:36.@entry, 114655371:2V)
+aoj:02(202663848:1Q.@entry, 105809192:10.@def.@pl)
+mod:02(105809192:10.@def.@pl, 105717342:0V)
+aoj:02(202663848:1Q.@entry, 105809192:10.@def.@pl)
+mod:02(105809192:10.@def.@pl, 105717342:0V)
+mod:02(115016852:3E.@pl, :01)
+mod:02(105809192:25.@def.@pl, 115016852:3E.@pl)
+obj:02(105809192:10.@def.@pl, 115689188:1C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2674]
+{org:en}
+Active biogeochemical processes proceed in subsurface waters from an early stage of their development, in the near-surface parts of sedimentary deposits.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200341560:0Y.@entry, 100029677:0O.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000081:34, 104362025:35)
+mod(100306900:25.@indef, 100250259:2K)
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+aoj(303161805:09, 100029677:0O.@topic.@pl)
+mod(115692970:3H.@def.@pl, 100372448:42.@pl)
+src(200341560:0Y.@entry, 100306900:25.@indef)
+aoj(300031974:02, 100029677:0O.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100250259:2K, 600000020:2E.@pl)
+plc(200341560:0Y.@entry, 115692970:3H.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302952109:3Q, 100372448:42.@pl)
+plc(200341560:0Y.@entry, 115692970:3H.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302952109:3Q, 100372448:42.@pl)
+aoj(300812952:1Z, 100306900:25.@indef)
+mod(115689188:1K.@pl, 302471782:19)
+aoj(600000081:34, 115692970:3H.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2675]
+{org:en}
+These processes are gradually extinguished in the depth of the Earth's crust, except in areas with active penetration of atmospheric waters (e.g. on the periphery of artesian basins).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300736020:0W.@entry, 100029677:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300031974:2R, 100051525:2Y)
+mod(109260218:1Z.@def, 108562067:1T)
+aoj:01(300098933:4M, 102801525:4V.@pl)
+man(300736020:0W.@entry, 400107987:0M)
+obj:01(115699356:3X.@entry, 113903576:49.@def)
+aoj(300736020:0W.@entry, 100029677:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300031974:2R, 100051525:2Y)
+mod(109260218:1Z.@def, 108562067:1T)
+aoj:01(300098933:4M, 102801525:4V.@pl)
+man(300736020:0W.@entry, 400107987:0M)
+obj:01(115699356:3X.@entry, 113903576:49.@def)
+obj(600000019:2M, 100051525:2Y)
+plc(300736020:0W.@entry, 105094725:1G.@def)
+mod(115689188:3P.@pl, 302831736:3D)
+aoj(600000019:2M, 102735688:2G.@pl)
+man(300736020:0W.@entry, 600000222:26)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 115689188:3P.@pl)
+man(300736020:0W.@entry, 600000222:26)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 115689188:3P.@pl)
+obj(600000222:26, 102735688:2G.@pl)
+mod(100029677:08.@topic.@pl, 600000022:02.@pl)
+mod(105094725:1G.@def, 109260218:1Z.@def)
+mod:01(113903576:49.@def, 102801525:4V.@pl)
+obj(100051525:2Y, 115689188:3P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2676]
+{org:en}
+In spite of the limited (in geological terms) period of activity, biogeochemical processes can significantly change the composition of subsurface waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200109660:33.@entry.@ability, 600000162:02)
+man(300529191:0I, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod(115689188:44.@pl, 302471782:3T)
+man(200109660:33.@entry.@ability, 400006259:2P)
+man(200109660:33.@entry.@ability, 600000162:02)
+man(300529191:0I, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod(115689188:44.@pl, 302471782:3T)
+man(200109660:33.@entry.@ability, 400006259:2P)
+mod(106843520:1C.@def, 100407535:1M)
+obj(200109660:33.@entry.@ability, 103081660:3E.@def)
+obj(600000162:02, 106843520:1C.@def)
+agt(200109660:33.@entry.@ability, 100029677:2B.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:01(302905591:0U, 105855904:15.@entry.@pl)
+agt(200109660:33.@entry.@ability, 100029677:2B.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:01(302905591:0U, 105855904:15.@entry.@pl)
+mod(100029677:2B.@topic.@pl, 303161805:1W)
+mod(103081660:3E.@def, 115689188:44.@pl)
+aoj(300529191:0I, 106843520:1C.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2677]
+{org:en}
+The most important microbiological reduction follows the summary equation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200150776:1B.@entry, 100192300:11.@topic)
+man(301275562:0B, 400536271:06)
+aoj(301275562:0B, 100192300:11.@topic)
+agt(200150776:1B.@entry, 100192300:11.@topic)
+man(301275562:0B, 400536271:06)
+aoj(301275562:0B, 100192300:11.@topic)
+mod(100185307:1V.@def, 106467007:1N)
+obj(200150776:1B.@entry, 100185307:1V.@def)
+obj(200150776:1B.@entry, 100185307:1V.@def)
+aoj(303161141:0L, 100192300:11.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2678]
+{org:en}
+Therefore, the subsurface waters in bulk sediments containing dispersed organic matter are almost always free from sulfates.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300916199:2Y.@entry, 400043003:02)
+obj(201616608:1S.@past, 100020827:29)
+plc(115689188:0S.@topic.@def.@pl, 109428967:17.@pl)
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+man(300916199:2Y.@entry, 400043003:02)
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+man(300916199:2Y.@entry, 400019339:2R)
+mod(109428967:17.@pl, 105025413:12)
+plf(300916199:2Y.@entry, 115063493:38)
+aoj(202701210:1H.@progress, 109428967:17.@pl)
+aoj(300916199:2Y.@entry, 115689188:0S.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:22, 100020827:29)
+aoj(300916199:2Y.@entry, 115689188:0S.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:22, 100020827:29)
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+man(400019339:2R, 400073033:2K)
+obj(202701210:1H.@progress, 100020827:29)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2679]
+{org:en}
+Evaporite brines occupy the lowest place in the profile of sedimentary beds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202648639:0J.@entry, 107937203:0C.@topic.@pl)
+mod(106516404:1E.@def, 102818832:21.@pl)
+aoj(301206474:0U, 100721431:11.@def)
+agt(202648639:0J.@entry, 107937203:0C.@topic.@pl)
+mod(106516404:1E.@def, 102818832:21.@pl)
+aoj(301206474:0U, 100721431:11.@def)
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+obj(202648639:0J.@entry, 100721431:11.@def)
+obj(202648639:0J.@entry, 100721431:11.@def)
+aoj(302952109:1P, 102818832:21.@pl)
+man(301206474:0U, 400536271:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2680]
+{org:en}
+They are abundant in sedimentary cover, because about 30% of the present-day land surface was covered by halogenic basins at least once during the geological history of the Earth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(300013887:0B.@entry, 200048633:2O.@past)
+aoj(302905591:45, 106155567:4G.@def)
+man(200048633:2O.@past, 400118869:3P)
+bas(400071165:1E, "30%":1K)
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+aoj(303162595:2Z, 102801525:39)
+aoj(300013887:0B.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+man(400118869:3P, 600000217:3G)
+aoj(300013887:0B.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+man(400118869:3P, 600000217:3G)
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+mod(104362025:2C.@topic.@def, 109334396:27)
+mod(106155567:4G.@def, 108562067:4V.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2681]
+{org:en}
+Because of their high density (up to 1.3 HTM1 ), brines readily percolate down the sediment profile (penetrating even through clay layers) and fill all the pore space under the bottom of halogenic basin down to the basement.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200261533:41.@entry, 201457954:1U)
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+mod(106516404:2M.@def, 109428967:2D)
+obj(200261533:41.@entry, 106389553:4J.@def)
+obj:02(600000026:3C, 101463259:3P.@pl)
+man(201457954:1U, :01.@parenthesis)
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+obj(:02.@parenthesis, 106516404:2M.@def)
+agt(200261533:41.@entry, 115689653:1F.@topic)
+man:02(600000026:3C, 400017639:37)
+man(201457954:1U, 600000012:02)
+agt(200261533:41.@entry, 115689653:1F.@topic)
+man:02(600000026:3C, 400017639:37)
+man(201457954:1U, 600000012:02)
+mod(106389553:4J.@def, 105245906:4E)
+obj(600000012:02, 104941453:0O)
+obj(600000192:24, 106516404:2M.@def)
+aoj(600000009:4S, 106389553:4J.@def)
+obj:01(600000047:0X.@entry, HTM1:17)
+man(201457954:1U, 600000192:24)
+aoj(303162595:5C, 102801525:5M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2682]
+{org:en}
+These heavy brines are difficult to displace by lighter waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300744916:0P.@entry, 115689653:0E.@topic)
+mod(115689653:0E.@topic, 600000022:02.@pl)
+aoj(300269989:1D, 115689188:1L.@pl)
+aoj(300744916:0P.@entry, 115689653:0E.@topic)
+mod(115689653:0E.@topic, 600000022:02.@pl)
+aoj(300269989:1D, 115689188:1L.@pl)
+ins(202013571:11, 115689188:1L.@pl)
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+pur(300744916:0P.@entry, 202013571:11)
+aoj(300462409:08, 115689653:0E.@topic)
+man(300269989:1D, 400099341:23)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2683]
+{org:en}
+Therefore, brines are well kept in the depth of the Earth's crust.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201065877:0S.@entry, 400043003:02)
+mod(109260218:1P.@def, 108562067:1H)
+man(201065877:0S.@entry, 400011093:0O)
+man(201065877:0S.@entry, 400043003:02)
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+plc(201065877:0S.@entry, 105094725:14.@def)
+obj(201065877:0S.@entry, 115689653:0D.@topic)
+obj(201065877:0S.@entry, 115689653:0D.@topic)
+mod(105094725:14.@def, 109260218:1P.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2684]
+{org:en}
+High concentrations of salts (100-400 g/kg) and sodium-calcium chloride composition are typical for evaporite brines, as well as dolomitization reactions, which result in large amounts of magnesium.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301595440:2H.@entry, 100375071:07.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100375071:07.@topic.@pl, :02)
+aoj(202774178:4J, 100202816:41.@pl)
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+mod(100375071:07.@topic.@pl, :02)
+aoj(202774178:4J, 100202816:41.@pl)
+mod:02(115016852:1S, 114632648:1L)
+mod(115689653:33, 115009192:2T)
+mod:02(103081660:21.@entry, 114655371:1E)
+qua(114644249:5A, 100033615:4Z.@pl)
+aoj(600000015:3B, 115689653:33)
+and:02(103081660:21.@entry, 105717342:0P.@pl)
+obj(202774178:4J, 114644249:5A)
+qua:01(115690787:14.@entry, "100-400":0W)
+pur(301595440:2H.@entry, 115689653:33)
+aoj(300705498:02, 100375071:07.@topic.@pl)
+pur(301595440:2H.@entry, 115689653:33)
+aoj(300705498:02, 100375071:07.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100202816:41.@pl, 115695087:3M)
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+mod:02(103081660:21.@entry, 115016852:1S)
+aoj(300527870:4T, 100033615:4Z.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2685]
+{org:en}
+Along with evaporite brines, saline waters can be formed upon the dissolution of natural salt beds by waters of atmospheric supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200144850:1G.@entry.@past.@ability, 600000115:02)
+aoj(301074458:0V, 115689188:12.@topic.@pl)
+obj(100215314:1W.@def, 102818832:2O.@pl)
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+aoj(200144850:1G.@entry.@past.@ability, 115689188:2W.@pl)
+mod(115689653:0N, 115009192:0D)
+mod(102818832:2O.@pl, 105717342:2J)
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+obj(600000158:1N, 100215314:1W.@def)
+aoj(302831736:36, 113563522:3I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2686]
+{org:en}
+Dissolution brines have as high salt concentration as evaporite brines, but they differ from the latter in composition (sodium chloride and a low relative content of other components).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202666239:2B.@entry.@contrast.@should, 200065370:0L)
+mod(107937203:0E.@topic.@pl, 100215314:02)
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+mod:01(115016852:3L.@indef, 114655371:3E)
+and:01(105809192:4D.@entry.@indef, 115016852:3L.@indef)
+aoj(300705498:0T, 100375071:13)
+plf(202666239:2B.@entry.@contrast.@should, 600000200:2R.@def)
+man(200065370:0L, 600000061:0Q)
+aoj:01(300006032:44, 105809192:4D.@entry.@indef)
+mod(107937203:1U.@pl, 115009192:1K)
+plc(202666239:2B.@entry.@contrast.@should, 103081660:31)
+man(200065370:0L, 600000061:1H)
+aoj:01(301206474:40, 105809192:4D.@entry.@indef)
+obj(600000061:1H, 107937203:1U.@pl)
+aoj(202666239:2B.@entry.@contrast.@should, 600000020:26)
+aoj(200065370:0L, 107937203:0E.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(202666239:2B.@entry.@contrast.@should, 600000020:26)
+aoj(200065370:0L, 107937203:0E.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(105809192:4D.@entry.@indef, 103081021:4U.@pl)
+mod(100375071:13, 105717342:0Y)
+cnt(103081660:31, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000061:0Q, 100375071:13)
+mod:01(103081021:4U.@pl, 600000270:4O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2687]
+{org:en}
+Geochemists found parameters, which allow brines of different genesis to be distinguished.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200715239:0E.@entry.@past, 115695289:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(107937203:18.@pl, 107324380:1S)
+pur(200723545:12, 200650353:26)
+agt(200715239:0E.@entry.@past, 115695289:02.@topic.@pl)
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+pur(200723545:12, 200650353:26)
+agt(200723545:12, 105859071:0K.@pl)
+gol(200715239:0E.@entry.@past, 105859071:0K.@pl)
+gol(200715239:0E.@entry.@past, 105859071:0K.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:1I, 107324380:1S)
+obj(200723545:12, 107937203:18.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2688]
+{org:en}
+The Br : Cl ratio is one of the most effective parameters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000027:0N.@entry, 113819207:0E.@topic.@def)
+man(300044132:13, 400536271:0Y)
+aoj(600000027:0N.@entry, 113819207:0E.@topic.@def)
+man(300044132:13, 400536271:0Y)
+aoj(300044132:13, 105859071:1D.@pl)
+pof(600000027:0N.@entry, 105859071:1D.@pl)
+pof(600000027:0N.@entry, 105859071:1D.@pl)
+mod(113819207:0E.@topic.@def, "Br Cl":06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2689]
+{org:en}
+In evaporite brines, this ratio is higher and in dissolution brines significantly lower than in seawater (0.003).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689653:0F.@entry, 115009192:05)
+obj(600000051:4B.@entry, 115008847:2S)
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+man(301206474:2E.@entry, 400006259:20)
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+plc(301206474:2E.@entry, 115689653:1R)
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+[W]
+:0L.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2690]
+{org:en}
+Ecological value of soil solutions and ground waters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104979425:0D.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(115689188:1B.@entry.@pl, 303155671:15)
+mod(104979425:0D.@entry, :01)
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+aoj(302906478:02, 104979425:0D.@entry)
+mod:01(100190783:0R.@pl, 109335240:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2691]
+{org:en}
+The ecological value of soil solutions is determined by the fact that they affect plants and ground waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:18.@entry, 104979425:0H.@topic.@def)
+cnt(105817396:1Q.@def, 200019448:25)
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+mod(100190783:0V.@pl, 109335240:0Q)
+mod:01(115689188:2T.@entry.@pl, 103462594:2N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2692]
+{org:en}
+It is important for the human society that the composition of soil solutions directly affects the quantity and quality of agricultural crops and the quality of potable subsurface water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301275562:08.@entry, 200019448:2G.@topic)
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+man(200019448:2G.@topic, 400051848:27)
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+aoj(301275562:08.@entry, 200019448:2G.@topic)
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+man(200019448:2G.@topic, 400051848:27)
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+mod(107966140:0W.@def, 301258617:0Q)
+aoj:02(302790222:3J, 115689438:3W)
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+pur(301275562:08.@entry, 107966140:0W.@def)
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+pur(301275562:08.@entry, 107966140:0W.@def)
+and:01(104723816:38.@entry.@def, 105108740:2V.@def)
+and:03(104723816:4H.@entry.@def, :02)
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+mod(100190783:1X.@pl, 109335240:1S)
+mod:03(107935504:5A, 302471782:50)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2693]
+{org:en}
+Although plant roots are capable of assimilating the chemical elements from compounds loosely retained by solid soil phases, soil solutions represent the main source of plant nutrition.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200825447:3X.@entry, 600000038:02)
+src(200159642:12.@progress, 103081859:25.@pl)
+mod(106135915:4W, 100017222:4Q)
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+mod(106135915:4W, 100017222:4Q)
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+agt(200610010:2N.@past, 104676540:3A.@pl)
+obj(300308015:0R, 200159642:12.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2694]
+{org:en}
+The concentrations of chemical elements in soil solution optimal for plants depend on the genetic features of plants and their development stage, but dilute solutions with salt concentration of 0.01-0.05% are the most favorable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:25.@entry, 100375071:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+cnt(100375071:4Y, "0.01-0.05%":5F)
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+mod(105868954:0W.@pl, 302692624:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2695]
+{org:en}
+Increase in salt concentrations in soil solution increases the osmotic pressure and hampers the uptake of nutrients by plants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(100363260:02.@topic, 100375071:0J.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2696]
+{org:en}
+The content of salts in the soil is generally determined in water extracts that presumably imitate the soil solution rather than in the soil solution itself.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200699815:1C.@entry, 201694263:2L)
+mod(100190783:32.@def, 109335240:2X)
+mod(105809192:06.@topic.@def, 105717342:0H.@pl)
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+mod(100190783:3Z.@def, 109335240:3U)
+man(201694263:2L, 400053952:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2697]
+{org:en}
+Water extracts from soils are obtained by mixing the soil with water at a ratio of 1 : 5, shaking the suspension for 3 min, and filtering the solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(115689670:08.@topic.@pl, 107935504:02)
+plc(200184117:1B.@progress, 113819207:27.@indef)
+mod:01(115694055:3G, "3":3E)
+and:01(201458664:3P.@entry.@progress, 200014034:2N.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2698]
+{org:en}
+In Russia, soils, for which the salt content in water extracts exceeds 0.25%, are classified among saline soils.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200654625:2C.@entry, 500004285:05)
+mod(115689670:1K.@pl, 107935504:1E)
+obj(202669081:1T, 109335240:0D.@pl)
+aoj(301074458:2T, 109335240:30.@pl)
+plc(200654625:2C.@entry, 500004285:05)
+mod(115689670:1K.@pl, 107935504:1E)
+obj(202669081:1T, 109335240:0D.@pl)
+aoj(301074458:2T, 109335240:30.@pl)
+plc(105809192:13.@def, 115689670:1K.@pl)
+obj(600000079:2N, 109335240:30.@pl)
+obj(202669081:1T, "0.25%":21)
+man(200654625:2C.@entry, 600000079:2N)
+man(200654625:2C.@entry, 600000079:2N)
+agt(202669081:1T, 105809192:13.@def)
+pur(109335240:0D.@pl, 500004285:05)
+mod(105809192:13.@def, 105717342:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2699]
+{org:en}
+The salinization type is determined by the predominant ions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0R.@entry, 104504486:0J.@topic.@def)
+mod(104504486:0J.@topic.@def, 115690051:06)
+obj(200699815:0R.@entry, 104504486:0J.@topic.@def)
+mod(104504486:0J.@topic.@def, 115690051:06)
+aoj(303161183:19, 109315159:1L.@def.@pl)
+agt(200699815:0R.@entry, 109315159:1L.@def.@pl)
+agt(200699815:0R.@entry, 109315159:1L.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2700]
+{org:en}
+The sodic salinization is the most dangerous
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300651039:11.@entry, 115690051:0C.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300651039:11.@entry, 115690051:0C.@topic.@def)
+aoj(303163742:06, 115690051:0C.@topic.@def)
+man(300651039:11.@entry, 400536271:0W)
+man(300651039:11.@entry, 400536271:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2701]
+{org:en}
+therefore, sodic salinization is diagnosed for soils, the water extracts from which contain 0.06% HTM1 ions and more.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200645552:0Z.@entry, 400043003:02)
+mod(115689670:1U.@def.@pl, 107935504:1O)
+frm(115689670:1U.@def.@pl, 109335240:1D.@pl)
+man(200645552:0Z.@entry, 400043003:02)
+mod(115689670:1U.@def.@pl, 107935504:1O)
+frm(115689670:1U.@def.@pl, 109335240:1D.@pl)
+qua:01(109315159:30.@pl, "0.06%":2P)
+pur(200645552:0Z.@entry, 109335240:1D.@pl)
+and:01(600000124:3D.@entry, 109315159:30.@pl)
+obj(200645552:0Z.@entry, 115690051:0J.@topic)
+obj(200645552:0Z.@entry, 115690051:0J.@topic)
+obj(202701210:2E, :01)
+aoj(202701210:2E, 115689670:1U.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(109315159:30.@pl, HTM1:2V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2702]
+{org:en}
+The ion ratio in solution is of importance for plants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105168261:0Y.@entry, 113819207:0A.@topic.@def)
+mod(113819207:0A.@topic.@def, 109315159:06)
+aoj(105168261:0Y.@entry, 113819207:0A.@topic.@def)
+mod(113819207:0A.@topic.@def, 109315159:06)
+plc(113819207:0A.@topic.@def, 100190783:0J)
+pur(105168261:0Y.@entry, 100017222:1D.@pl)
+pur(105168261:0Y.@entry, 100017222:1D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2703]
+{org:en}
+Ions from the soil solution can both favor and hamper the uptake of other ions by plants (synergism and antagonism of ions, respectively).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(:01.@entry, 109315159:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(:02.@entry.@parenthesis, 109315159:3J.@pl)
+obj(113571580:1R.@def, 109315159:27.@pl)
+and:01(200236289:1D.@entry.@ability, 200692143:13.@ability)
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+mod(:02.@entry.@parenthesis, 109315159:3J.@pl)
+obj(113571580:1R.@def, 109315159:27.@pl)
+and:01(200236289:1D.@entry.@ability, 200692143:13.@ability)
+frm(109315159:02.@topic.@pl, 100190783:0L.@def)
+obj(:01.@entry, 113571580:1R.@def)
+man(109315159:3J.@pl, 400137915:3P)
+obj(600000035:51, 100017222:2J.@pl)
+man(:01.@entry, 600000074:0Y)
+and:02(101074252:35.@entry, 106191854:2R)
+man(:01.@entry, 600000074:0Y)
+and:02(101074252:35.@entry, 106191854:2R)
+mod(109315159:27.@pl, 600000053:21)
+aoj(600000035:51, 113571580:1R.@def)
+mod(100190783:0L.@def, 109335240:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2704]
+{org:en}
+Plants consume the essential nutrients N, P, and K, the necessary micronutrients B, Zn, Co, and Mo, and other elements from the soil solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200600903:09.@entry, 100017222:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:04(300343552:23, 100021734:2D.@def.@pl)
+and:05(:04, :02)
+mod(100190783:4E.@def, 109335240:49)
+and:05(105868954:3R.@entry.@pl, :04)
+and:01(106832788:1E, 106832572:1B)
+agt(200600903:09.@entry, 100017222:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:04(300343552:23, 100021734:2D.@def.@pl)
+and:05(:04, :02)
+mod(100190783:4E.@def, 109335240:49)
+and:05(105868954:3R.@entry.@pl, :04)
+and:01(106832788:1E, 106832572:1B)
+and:03(500323559:2X.@pl, 500323565:2T.@pl)
+obj(200600903:09.@entry, :05:05)
+and:01(106832248:1L.@entry, 106832788:1E)
+and:03(500323873:35.@entry.@pl, 500323559:2X.@pl)
+src(200600903:09.@entry, 100190783:4E.@def)
+mod:02(:01.@entry, 100021734:0Y.@def.@pl)
+src(200600903:09.@entry, 100190783:4E.@def)
+mod:02(:01.@entry, 100021734:0Y.@def.@pl)
+mod:04(:03.@entry, 100021734:2D.@def.@pl)
+mod:05(105868954:3R.@entry.@pl, 600000053:3L)
+aoj:02(300900616:0O, 100021734:0Y.@def.@pl)
+and:03(500323565:2T.@pl, 105400978:2Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2705]
+{org:en}
+The composition of soil solutions is not determined by the conventional procedures for estimating the soil supply with nutrients.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103081660:06.@entry.@def, 100190783:0Q.@pl)
+mod(103081660:06.@topic.@def, 100190783:0Q.@pl)
+aoj(300605516:1P, 100577068:22.@def.@pl)
+agt(200699815:17.@entry.@not, 100577068:22.@def.@pl)
+mod(103081660:06.@entry.@def, 100190783:0Q.@pl)
+mod(103081660:06.@topic.@def, 100190783:0Q.@pl)
+aoj(300605516:1P, 100577068:22.@def.@pl)
+agt(200699815:17.@entry.@not, 100577068:22.@def.@pl)
+mod(113563522:31.@def, 109335240:2W)
+obj(200699815:17.@entry.@not, 103081660:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000019:38, 113563522:31.@def)
+mod(100190783:0Q.@pl, 109335240:0L)
+mod(100190783:0Q.@pl, 109335240:0L)
+obj(200672433:2H.@progress, 113563522:31.@def)
+pur(100577068:22.@def.@pl, 200672433:2H.@progress)
+obj(600000019:38, 100021734:3D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2706]
+{org:en}
+This estimation includes the determination of the nutrient contents in various extracts, which contain both nutrients from the soil solution and their labile compounds occurring in dynamic equilibrium with them in the solid soil phase.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0I.@entry, 105803379:07.@topic)
+aoj:01(300291181:64, 104676540:6F.@def)
+and:01(103081859:4G.@entry.@pl, 100190783:3Q.@def.@pl)
+aoj(202701210:2P, 115689670:29.@pl)
+man:01(303160996:4Q.@progress, 600000018:5N)
+plc(106489659:1P.@def, 115689670:29.@pl)
+mod(105803379:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+aoj:01(300894879:49, 103081859:4G.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(200183879:0I.@entry, 105803379:07.@topic)
+aoj:01(300291181:64, 104676540:6F.@def)
+and:01(103081859:4G.@entry.@pl, 100190783:3Q.@def.@pl)
+aoj(202701210:2P, 115689670:29.@pl)
+man:01(303160996:4Q.@progress, 600000018:5N)
+plc(106489659:1P.@def, 115689670:29.@pl)
+mod(105803379:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+aoj:01(300894879:49, 103081859:4G.@entry.@pl)
+obj(202701210:2P, 100021734:32.@pl)
+obj:01(600000018:5N, 600000020:5S)
+mod(100151497:0V.@def, 106489659:1P.@def)
+mod:01(100190783:3Q.@def.@pl, 109335240:3L)
+mod:01(103081859:4G.@entry.@pl, 600000020:43.@pl)
+plf(202701210:2P, :01:01)
+aoj:01(300808191:53, 105659365:5B)
+obj(200183879:0I.@entry, 100151497:0V.@def)
+mod:01(104676540:6F.@def, 109335240:6A)
+aoj:01(303160996:4Q.@progress, 103081859:4G.@entry.@pl)
+obj(200183879:0I.@entry, 100151497:0V.@def)
+mod:01(104676540:6F.@def, 109335240:6A)
+aoj:01(303160996:4Q.@progress, 103081859:4G.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(303160904:21, 115689670:29.@pl)
+scn:01(303160996:4Q.@progress, 105659365:5B)
+mod(106489659:1P.@def, 100021734:1G)
+plc:01(303160996:4Q.@progress, 104676540:6F.@def)
+mod(100021734:32.@pl, 600000323:2X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2707]
+{org:en}
+For example, the phosphorus supply of soil is frequently estimated by the phosphate content in a 0.1 N acetate-lactate extract (the A-L method).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000094:02.@entry, 200672433:1N)
+mod(114599806:2X, 106832572:2V)
+mod(105809192:2E.@def, 107928578:24)
+man(200672433:1N, 400035058:1C)
+mod(113563522:0U.@topic.@def, 114649197:0J)
+obj(600000094:02.@entry, 200672433:1N)
+mod(114599806:2X, 106832572:2V)
+mod(105809192:2E.@def, 107928578:24)
+man(200672433:1N, 400035058:1C)
+mod(113563522:0U.@topic.@def, 114649197:0J)
+mod(115689670:3D.@indef, 114679780:35)
+agt(200672433:1N, 105809192:2E.@def)
+obj(113563522:0U.@topic.@def, 109335240:14)
+qua(115689670:3D.@indef, "0.1":2R)
+obj(200672433:1N, 113563522:0U.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(105660268:3U.@entry.@def, 500323977:3Q)
+obj(200672433:1N, 113563522:0U.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(105660268:3U.@entry.@def, 500323977:3Q)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 115689670:3D.@indef)
+plc(105809192:2E.@def, 115689670:3D.@indef)
+mod(114679780:35, 114599806:2X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2708]
+{org:en}
+When the phosphorus content is lower than HTM1 soil, the phosphorus supply of soil is classified low.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200654625:2G.@entry, 301206474:0X)
+aoj(301206474:0X, 105809192:0M.@topic.@def)
+obj(113563522:1Y.@topic.@def, 109335240:28)
+tim(200654625:2G.@entry, 301206474:0X)
+aoj(301206474:0X, 105809192:0M.@topic.@def)
+obj(113563522:1Y.@topic.@def, 109335240:28)
+mod(109335240:1D, HTM1:18)
+man(200654625:2G.@entry, 600000252:2R)
+man(301206474:0X, 400099341:2T)
+obj(200654625:2G.@entry, 113563522:1Y.@topic.@def)
+obj(200654625:2G.@entry, 113563522:1Y.@topic.@def)
+bas(301206474:0X, 109335240:1D)
+mod(113563522:1Y.@topic.@def, 114649197:1N)
+mod(105809192:0M.@topic.@def, 114649197:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2709]
+{org:en}
+The potassium content HTM1 in the same extract for light-textured soils and HTM2 for heavy-textured soils attests to low potassium supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200820352:30.@entry, HTM1:0O.@topic)
+and:01(HTM2:26.@entry, 109335240:1W.@pl)
+mod(HTM1:0O.@topic, 105809192:0G.@def)
+mod(113563522:3P, 114650807:3F)
+obj(200820352:30.@entry, HTM1:0O.@topic)
+and:01(HTM2:26.@entry, 109335240:1W.@pl)
+mod(HTM1:0O.@topic, 105809192:0G.@def)
+mod(113563522:3P, 114650807:3F)
+aoj(300355611:10, 115689670:15)
+aoj(301206474:3B, 113563522:3P)
+obj(202776701:2L.@past, 109335240:2U.@pl)
+cnt(115689670:15, :01)
+gol(200820352:30.@entry, 113563522:3P)
+obj:01(202776701:1N.@past, 109335240:1W.@pl)
+gol(200820352:30.@entry, 113563522:3P)
+obj:01(202776701:1N.@past, 109335240:1W.@pl)
+mod(105809192:0G.@def, 114650807:06)
+pur(HTM1:0O.@topic, 115689670:15)
+obj(:01, 109335240:2U.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2710]
+{org:en}
+A soil is considered as depleted in boron, when the boron content in a hot water extract is lower than 0.1 mg/kg.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200691312:0B.@entry, 202774646:0P.@past)
+aoj(300033077:20, 115689670:29.@indef)
+bas(301206474:2K, 115691526:2Z)
+plc(202774646:0P.@past, 114631871:11)
+man(200691312:0B.@entry, 202774646:0P.@past)
+aoj(300033077:20, 115689670:29.@indef)
+bas(301206474:2K, 115691526:2Z)
+plc(202774646:0P.@past, 114631871:11)
+plc(105809192:1N.@topic.@def, 115689670:29.@indef)
+bas(202774646:0P.@past, 301206474:2K)
+qua(115691526:2Z, "0.1":2V)
+obj(200691312:0B.@entry, 109335240:03.@topic)
+mod(115689670:29.@indef, 107935504:23)
+obj(200691312:0B.@entry, 109335240:03.@topic)
+mod(115689670:29.@indef, 107935504:23)
+man(301206474:2K, 400099341:51)
+aoj(301206474:2K, 105809192:1N.@topic.@def)
+mod(105809192:1N.@topic.@def, 114631871:1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2711]
+{org:en}
+Soil contamination is frequently diagnosed by the increased content of chemical elements in soil extracts.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200645552:0Z.@entry, 100276987:07.@topic)
+plc(105868954:29.@pl, 115689670:2Q.@pl)
+mod(105809192:1Q.@def, 105868954:29.@pl)
+obj(200645552:0Z.@entry, 100276987:07.@topic)
+plc(105868954:29.@pl, 115689670:2Q.@pl)
+mod(105809192:1Q.@def, 105868954:29.@pl)
+mod(100276987:07.@topic, 109335240:02)
+man(200645552:0Z.@entry, 400035058:0O)
+mod(115689670:2Q.@pl, 109335240:2L)
+agt(200645552:0Z.@entry, 105809192:1Q.@def)
+agt(200645552:0Z.@entry, 105809192:1Q.@def)
+aoj(302692624:21, 105868954:29.@pl)
+obj(200153263:1G.@past, 105809192:1Q.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2712]
+{org:en}
+It was found that the increase in the content of metals and nonmetals in soil solutions and soil extracts of similar compositions results in an increase in their content in plants, decrease in plant biomass, and finally in plant death.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200715239:09.@entry.@past, 202774178:3O.@topic)
+mod:03(100219575:6F.@entry, 100017222:69)
+mod:01(114625458:1T.@entry.@pl, 303161142:1Q)
+mod(105809192:4K, 600000020:4E.@pl)
+mod:02(100190783:28.@pl, 109335240:23)
+obj(100363260:42.@indef, 105809192:4K)
+mod:02(115689670:2R.@entry.@pl, 109335240:2M)
+obj(200715239:09.@entry.@past, 202774178:3O.@topic)
+mod:03(100219575:6F.@entry, 100017222:69)
+mod:01(114625458:1T.@entry.@pl, 303161142:1Q)
+mod(105809192:4K, 600000020:4E.@pl)
+mod:02(100190783:28.@pl, 109335240:23)
+obj(100363260:42.@indef, 105809192:4K)
+mod:02(115689670:2R.@entry.@pl, 109335240:2M)
+plc(:01, :02:02)
+man:03(100219575:6F.@entry, 400048138:5Y)
+obj(202774178:3O.@topic, 100363260:42.@indef)
+mod:02(115689670:2R.@entry.@pl, 103081660:3B.@pl)
+mod(105809192:14.@def, :01)
+and:03(100219575:6F.@entry, 105024691:5L)
+aoj(202774178:3O.@topic, 100363260:0O.@def)
+mod:03(105024691:5L, 100017222:5F)
+and:02(115689670:2R.@entry.@pl, 100190783:28.@pl)
+aoj(202774178:3O.@topic, 100363260:0O.@def)
+mod:03(105024691:5L, 100017222:5F)
+and:02(115689670:2R.@entry.@pl, 100190783:28.@pl)
+obj(100363260:0O.@def, 105809192:14.@def)
+obj(100351638:53.@entry, :03:03)
+plc(105809192:4K, 100017222:4V.@pl)
+aoj:02(301409581:33, 103081660:3B.@pl)
+and:01(114625458:1T.@entry.@pl, 114625458:1F.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2713]
+{org:en}
+Soil solutions in the zone of active economic activity are subjected to pollution with all classes of contaminants
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201118292:1P.@entry, 100190783:07.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100407535:1C, 300840212:13)
+qua(100884466:2L.@pl, 600000011:2H)
+obj(600000018:2C, 100884466:2L.@pl)
+obj(201118292:1P.@entry, 100190783:07.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100407535:1C, 300840212:13)
+qua(100884466:2L.@pl, 600000011:2H)
+obj(600000018:2C, 100884466:2L.@pl)
+mod(105611062:0O.@def, 100407535:1C)
+gol(201118292:1P.@entry, 114516743:22)
+mod(100190783:07.@topic.@pl, 109335240:02)
+man(201118292:1P.@entry, 600000018:2C)
+man(201118292:1P.@entry, 600000018:2C)
+plc(100190783:07.@topic.@pl, 105611062:0O.@def)
+mod(100884466:2L.@pl, 114821984:2W.@pl)
+aoj(300031974:0W, 100407535:1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2714]
+{org:en}
+metals, nonmetals, pesticides, oils and oil products, chlorinated organics, and other substances.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2715]
+{org:en}
+The soil solutions themselves are usually not analyzed for estimating the degree of soil contamination.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105094565:24.@def, 100276987:2J)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:2716]
+{org:en}
+As for the nutrient supply of soils, various extractants are used, which solubilize not only soil nutrients, but also the solid-phase compounds that regulate the level of their concentrations in soil solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:02(105093890:4N.@def, 100375071:52.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2717]
+{org:en}
+These compounds are named mobile or available.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+gol(200947439:0M.@entry, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2718]
+{org:en}
+For example, HTM1 solution is widely used as extractant for the determination of mobile metal compounds in soils.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000094:02.@entry, 201158572:13)
+mod(100190783:0K.@topic, HTM1:0F)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2719]
+{org:en}
+Norms for soil quality based on the content of some metals in this extract were developed in Russia.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(104723816:0H, 109335240:0C)
+mod(115689670:1X, 600000017:1S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2720]
+{org:en}
+The maximum permissible level of metal in this extract is taken as 23 mg/kg soil for Zn and 3 mg/kg for Cu.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+pur:01(115691526:2O.@entry, 500323540:2Y)
+mod(105093890:0Q.@topic.@def, 114625458:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2721]
+{org:en}
+The acidification of atmospheric precipitation under the action of technogenic discharge of nitrogen and sulfur oxides, which results in the acidification of soil solutions, became a topical problem, especially for northern countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(113426238:06.@entry.@def, 105061149:0Z)
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+gol(200149583:4W.@past, 105687338:5D.@indef)
+and:01(114656219:2Z.@entry, 114647235:2M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2722]
+{org:en}
+Presently, the emission of anthropogenic oxides to the atmosphere with waste from the energy, metallurgical, and transport enterprises almost an order of magnitude exceeds their influx from the natural sources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202669081:4M.@entry, 400048268:02)
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+frm(115397442:50, 104263614:5O.@def.@pl)
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+to(101253060:0H.@topic.@def, 108499057:1L.@def)
+obj(202669081:4M.@entry, 115397442:50)
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+mod(100796886:3H.@pl, 104633197:2G.@def)
+obj(101253060:0H.@topic.@def, 114971519:17.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2723]
+{org:en}
+The pH of precipitation decreases from 5.6 in uncontaminated regions to 4.1-4.2 and even to 3 in contamination regions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200151689:0Q.@entry, 105039106:06.@topic.@def)
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+man:01("3":2P.@entry, 400017639:2H)
+mod(105039106:06.@topic.@def, 105061149:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2724]
+{org:en}
+The reaction of soil solution exerts direct and indirect effects on plants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201166093:0W.@entry, 100202816:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(100202816:06.@topic.@def, 100190783:0N)
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+mod(100190783:0N, 109335240:0I)
+and:01(300762355:1E.@entry, 300005473:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2725]
+{org:en}
+Plant species differ in their response to the soil solution reaction.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202666239:0G.@entry, 105844881:08.@topic)
+mod(100190783:1H, 109335240:1C)
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+mod(100202816:1Q.@def, 100190783:1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2726]
+{org:en}
+For example, pH = 4-5 is optimal for lupine, and pH = 6-7 is optimal for corn.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(303161279:1R.@entry, 303161279:0R)
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+aoj(303161279:1R.@entry, 115695837:1F.@topic)
+aoj(303161279:0R, 115695835:0F.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2727]
+{org:en}
+On the other hand, the acidification of soil solution deteriorates the status of soil microbocenosis and decreases the biochemical activity of soils and the decomposition rate of plant remains.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:2728]
+{org:en}
+Agronomic properties of soils are deteriorating HTM1 the exchangeable and total acidities of soils increase, and exchangeable calcium and magnesium are removed from the soil adsorbing complex.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:2729]
+{org:en}
+The reaction of the soil solution affects the solubility of chemical compounds in the soil and their availability for plants.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2730]
+{org:en}
+When the acidity of soil solution increases, the content of molybdenum decreases, and those of iron, manganese, copper, zinc, cadmium, and nickel increase.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{org:en}
+The increase in aluminum concentration is especially dangerous.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Free aluminum ions inhibit cell division in roots, decrease the intensity of plant respiration, and disturb the uptake of nutrients.
+{/org}
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+[S:2733]
+{org:en}
+The soil is capable of resisting the negative impact of acid precipitation primarily due to interaction with solid soil phases (carbonates, exchangeable complex, iron and aluminum oxides, and silicates), but this capacity is not unlimited.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:2734]
+{org:en}
+Soils with pH 5.0 to 5.5, total exchangeable bases lower than 5 meq/100 g, and base saturation lower than 50% are the least resistant to acidification.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:2735]
+{org:en}
+The danger of soil contamination is also that contaminants can arrive with soil solution to ground waters, in particular to potable water.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:2736]
+{org:en}
+The contamination of ground waters by nitrates constitutes a severe danger.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:2737]
+{org:en}
+In industrial zones, nitrates arrive predominantly with fuel energetics waste or, more rarely, with transport waste.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2738]
+{org:en}
+In agricultural soils, water is contaminated with nitrates from nitrogen fertilizers.
+{/org}
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+mod(114859344:23.@pl, 114647235:1U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2739]
+{org:en}
+The world production of nitrogen fertilizers increased by more than 30 times during the second half of the twentieth century.
+{/org}
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+[S:2740]
+{org:en}
+Contamination is caused by unutilized fertilizer nitrates, soil runoff, livestock waste, and waste storage and disposal areas.
+{/org}
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+[S:2741]
+{org:en}
+Nitrates are characterized by active migration in soil due to gravity flow, diffusion, capillary movement, and convection transfer.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The high migration capacity of nitrates is determined by the high solubility and low adsorption capacity of their compounds.
+{/org}
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+[S:2743]
+{org:en}
+There is evidence that the contamination of water by nitrates (20-30 mg/l) was observed at a depth of 2-3 m upon the liberal application of nitrogen fertilizers (300-1000 kg/ha), while their content in uncontaminated soils is measured in tenths of a milligram per liter.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2744]
+{org:en}
+The contamination of soils and soil solutions can result in the formation of ground waters with the nitrate or nitrite-nitrate composition extrinsic to their nature.
+{/org}
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+obj(301349041:49, 104623113:4S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2745]
+{org:en}
+Ground waters are actively used by men, mainly for domestic water supply and irrigation.
+{/org}
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+Anthropogenic changes in subsurface waters are manifested in deterioration of their quality (because of the penetration of contaminants from the surface and intensification of negative natural processes upon the enhanced water withdrawal) and exhaustion of fresh water resources.
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+{org:en}
+Mining enterprises have a high negative effect on ground waters.
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+[S:2750]
+{org:en}
+Mining operations include pumping out the water arriving to excavations (carriers and mines), which decreases the level of groundwater table around the enterprise.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:2751]
+{org:en}
+This phenomenon is called a cone of depression.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:2752]
+{org:en}
+The formation of a cone of depression can result in the drying of wells, water holes, sources, and even small surface currents.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:2753]
+{org:en}
+The working of the Lebedinskii iron-ore quarry (Kursk Magnetic Anomaly, Russia) resulted in the formation of a depression cone several thousands square kilometers in area.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:2754]
+{org:en}
+The level of the water table near the quarry decreased by 120 to 130 m.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:2755]
+{org:en}
+The analysis of ground waters in different countries is performed in accordance with both national and international programs.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2756]
+{org:en}
+The estimation of the ground water quality is based on the comparison of the contents of various chemical compounds in waters with their maximum permissible levels.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+These levels are generally established on the basis of the response of living organisms to the consumption of different chemical compounds with water.
+{/org}
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+[S:2758]
+{org:en}
+In Russia, maximum permissible levels in natural waters are determined for more than 130 substances.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:2759]
+{org:en}
+Standards exist for numerous pesticides
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+lower numbers of norms are developed for chlorinated organics, oil products, metals, and nonmetals.
+{/org}
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+[S:2761]
+{org:en}
+Along with the standards developed and applied in every country, the World Health Organization (WHO) also develops similar norms.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The regulation of water quality considers the economic use of water.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:2763]
+{org:en}
+The most severe requirements are imposed on potable water.
+{/org}
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+mod(115669633:0I.@topic.@pl, 301129185:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2764]
+{org:en}
+The standard levels developed in different countries can vary.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(200234057:0M.@past, 108168978:19.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2765]
+{org:en}
+In 1999, in accordance with the resolution of the European Environmental Agency (EAA), Danish Environmental Protection Agency (DEPA) analyzed the policy and strategy of some countries (Austria, Denmark, England, Spain, and USA) in the area of protection of ground waters and water sources from contamination.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+frm(100784755:73, 100276987:8R)
+and:02(500323518:6G.@entry, 500004377:65)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2766]
+{org:en}
+On the basis of the work completed, the quality of ground waters in these countries was estimated, and common and special criteria of water quality were revealed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(115689188:1N.@pl, 108168978:23.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2767]
+{org:en}
+For example, the maximum permissible levels vary in the range of 10-50 mg/l for HTM1 (the WHO criterion is 50 mg/l), 8-50 mg/l for As (WHO, 10 mg/l), 15-50 mg/l for Pb (WHO, 10 mg/l), 0.5-5 mg/l for Cd (WHO, 3 mg/l), 25-100 mg/l for Cr (WHO, 50 mg/l), 10-100 mg/l for Ni (WHO, 20 mg/l), HTM2 and 1-2 mg/l for Hg (WHO, 1 mg/l).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301760944:0R, 105093890:13.@topic.@def.@pl)
+pur:08(:04.@parenthesis, 500323623:69)
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+aoj:07("1 mg/l":A5.@entry, :A6)
+pur:08(:03.@parenthesis, 500323562:54)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2768]
+{org:en}
+The maximum permissible levels of pesticides in waters vary significantly, from 0.03 ?
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303160998:1L.@entry, 105093890:0Q.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(114980215:10.@pl, 115689188:1E.@pl)
+equ:01(115669126:3L.@parenthesis, 115694262:3B)
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+aoj(303160998:1L.@entry, 105093890:0Q.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+man(301760944:0E, 400535292:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2769]
+{org:en}
+The resistance of subsurface waters to contamination and the possibility of their self-purification from contaminants depend on the pollutant properties and those of soils and grounds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:3C.@entry, 100202284:06.@topic.@def)
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+mod:01(100252894:2H, 600000020:26.@pl)
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+obj:01(105792010:1R.@entry.@def, 100252894:2H)
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+and:02(103462594:4Y.@entry.@pl, 109335240:4O.@pl)
+mod(115689188:0V.@pl, 302471782:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2770]
+{org:en}
+The self-purification mechanisms of ground waters from mineral and organic pollutants differ principally.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202666239:2G.@entry, 100098385:0O.@topic.@def.@pl)
+frm(115689188:18.@pl, :01)
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+aoj(202666239:2G.@entry, 100098385:0O.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+mod(100098385:0O.@topic.@def.@pl, 100252894:0B)
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+mod(100098385:0O.@topic.@def.@pl, 115689188:18.@pl)
+and:01(114857278:25.@entry.@pl, 114662574:1L.@pl)
+man(202666239:2G.@entry, 400535469:2N)
+man(202666239:2G.@entry, 400535469:2N)
+mod(115689188:18.@pl, 303155671:12)
+mod(100252894:0B, 302794670:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2771]
+{org:en}
+The environmental implications of ground water contamination by inorganic substances can be mitigated by their absorption by colloids and suspended particles to remove them from the solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200198850:2K.@entry.@ability, 107238102:0K.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+ins(107238102:0K.@topic.@def.@pl, 100019613:22.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2772]
+{org:en}
+The adsorption capacity of soils with respect to contaminants depends on their physical and chemical properties, primarily on the reaction of soils, their particle-size composition, and humus content.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:1S.@entry, 100720951:0H.@topic.@def)
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+mod:02(103081660:4Q, 105095691:4L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2773]
+{org:en}
+As for organic pollutants, along with their adsorption by solid phases, complete or partial self-purification of natural waters is possible due to biotic and abiotic (photochemical destruction, oxidation, and other processes) decomposition to final or less toxic intermediate products.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:03(100029677:67.@entry.@pl, 600000031:61)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2774]
+{org:en}
+Based on these approaches, it is possible to produce maps of ground water resistance to contamination.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(301821266:0X.@entry, 600000136:02)
+mod(100202284:21, 303155671:1P)
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+aoj(301821266:0X.@entry, 201621555:19)
+mod(100202284:21, 107935504:1V)
+to(100202284:21, 100276987:2F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2775]
+{org:en}
+An example can be provided by the map of contamination resistance for ground waters of England and Wales (1 : 100 000), which was composed by the English Environmental Protection Agency in 1987.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(201626138:3T.@past, 500324069:49.@def)
+agt(200406963:0K.@entry.@ability, 103720163:13.@def)
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+mod(100202284:1O, 100276987:1A)
+obj(201626138:3T.@past, 103720163:13.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2776]
+{org:en}
+The map was based on parameters of geological structure of the territory (water-bearing layers and their permeability) and soil cover (the leaching potential determined by physical and chemical properties of soils), as well as on additional information concerning the hydrology and chemistry of ground waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(302351064:0E.@entry, 600000015:6F)
+mod:01(101463259:2K.@pl, 300217297:2C)
+mod:03(114482620:4F.@entry.@def, 115669517:46)
+aoj(302905591:11, 104931965:1C)
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+mod(105091527:74, 303161014:6T)
+aoj:03(:02, 104012260:5P.@pl)
+man(302351064:0E.@entry, 600000015:6F)
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+mod:03(114482620:4F.@entry.@def, 115669517:46)
+aoj(302905591:11, 104931965:1C)
+mod(:05.@entry, 115689188:8Z.@pl)
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+mod(105091527:74, 303161014:6T)
+aoj:03(:02, 104012260:5P.@pl)
+mod:04(100988893:3V.@entry, 109335240:3Q)
+mod:01(101463259:2K.@pl, 107935504:27)
+obj(302351064:0E.@entry, 105859071:0N.@pl)
+aoj(600000182:7G, 105091527:74)
+mod:03(104012260:5P.@pl, 109335240:63.@pl)
+cnt:04(100988893:3V.@entry, :03.@parenthesis)
+mod(115689188:8Z.@pl, 303155671:8T)
+mod:01(104940496:31.@entry, 600000020:2V.@pl)
+aoj(302351064:0E.@entry, 103720163:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000015:6F, 105091527:74)
+agt:03(200699815:4P, 104012260:5P.@pl)
+aoj(302351064:0E.@entry, 103720163:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000015:6F, 105091527:74)
+agt:03(200699815:4P, 104012260:5P.@pl)
+and:04(100988893:3V.@entry, 105999134:1W.@def)
+and:05(106084469:8C.@entry.@def, 106119729:7Y.@def)
+and:01(104940496:31.@entry, 101463259:2K.@pl)
+mod(104931965:1C, :04)
+obj(600000182:7G, :05.@entry)
+and:02(302692624:5G.@entry, 300627004:53)
+obj:03(200699815:4P, 114482620:4F.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2777]
+{org:en}
+This experience is not unique.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300491511:0P.@entry.@not, 105758059:07.@topic)
+aoj(300491511:0P.@entry.@not, 105758059:07.@topic)
+mod(105758059:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(105758059:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2778]
+{org:en}
+Similar data indicate that, first, knowledge of the formation of the chemical status of subsurface waters can be used for prediction of water quality and, second, that soil and ground waters are highly resistant to contaminants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(:01.@entry, 301774869:5N)
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+mod:01(100023271:11, "1":0U)
+obj:01(201158572:37.@ability, 100023271:11)
+aoj(301774869:5N, :02)
+agt:01(200923793:0F, 108462320:0A.@topic)
+aoj:01(302692624:1Z, 113945919:28.@def)
+cnt(:01.@entry, 301774869:5N)
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+mod:01(100023271:11, "1":0U)
+obj:01(201158572:37.@ability, 100023271:11)
+aoj(301774869:5N, :02)
+agt:01(200923793:0F, 108462320:0A.@topic)
+aoj:01(302692624:1Z, 113945919:28.@def)
+mod:01(104723816:3Z, 107935504:3T)
+and:02(115689188:54.@entry.@pl.@topic, 109335240:4P.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(200923793:0F, 201158572:37.@ability)
+obj:01(113945919:28.@def, 115689188:2T.@pl)
+obj:01(105775081:3F, 104723816:3Z)
+man(301774869:5N, 400089267:5G)
+and:01("2":4C.@entry, 200923793:0F)
+obj:01(100925207:1I.@def, 113945919:28.@def)
+and:01("2":4C.@entry, 200923793:0F)
+obj:01(100925207:1I.@def, 113945919:28.@def)
+pur:01(201158572:37.@ability, 105775081:3F)
+ben(301774869:5N, 114821984:60.@pl)
+aoj:01(301409581:02, 108462320:0A.@topic)
+mod:01(115689188:2T.@pl, 302471782:2I)
+mod:01(100023271:11, 100925207:1I.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2779]
+{org:en}
+Conclusion
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2780]
+{org:en}
+Soil and ground water greatly influence on the ecological state of the planet.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202536557:0V.@entry, :01)
+and:01(107935504:0H.@entry.@topic, 109335240:02.@topic)
+obj(100024720:1N.@def, 109394007:20.@def)
+agt(202536557:0V.@entry, :01)
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+obj(100024720:1N.@def, 109394007:20.@def)
+man(202536557:0V.@entry, 400056539:0N)
+obj(202536557:0V.@entry, 100024720:1N.@def)
+obj(202536557:0V.@entry, 100024720:1N.@def)
+mod:01(107935504:0H.@entry.@topic, 303155671:0B)
+aoj(302906478:1C, 100024720:1N.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2781]
+{org:en}
+Their chemical composition is the result of two types of congruent events
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115698567:0Z.@entry.@def, 103081660:0G.@topic)
+mod(103081660:0G.@topic, 600000020:02.@pl)
+qua(104504486:1D.@pl, "2":19)
+aoj(115698567:0Z.@entry.@def, 103081660:0G.@topic)
+mod(103081660:0G.@topic, 600000020:02.@pl)
+qua(104504486:1D.@pl, "2":19)
+mod(104504486:1D.@pl, 100029378:1W)
+mod(115698567:0Z.@entry.@def, 104504486:1D.@pl)
+mod(115698567:0Z.@entry.@def, 104504486:1D.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:08, 103081660:0G.@topic)
+aoj(300561600:1M, 100029378:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2782]
+{org:en}
+the influence of neighboring media on ground water and the influence of ground water on other natural media.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100157081:06.@entry.@def, 106254475:0V.@pl)
+mod:01(100157081:1O.@entry.@def, 107935504:27)
+and:01(100157081:1O.@entry.@def, 107935504:1A.@def)
+mod(100157081:06.@entry.@def, 106254475:0V.@pl)
+mod:01(100157081:1O.@entry.@def, 107935504:27)
+and:01(100157081:1O.@entry.@def, 107935504:1A.@def)
+aoj:01(301335708:2M, 106254475:2U.@pl)
+mod(106254475:0V.@pl, 303161866:0J)
+mod:01(106254475:2U.@pl, 600000031:2G)
+plc(106254475:0V.@pl, :01:01)
+plc(106254475:0V.@pl, :01:01)
+mod:01(107935504:27, 303155671:21)
+obj:01(100157081:1O.@entry.@def, 106254475:2U.@pl)
+mod:01(107935504:1A.@def, 303155671:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2783]
+{org:en}
+These categories of water provide the necessary supply and quality of water for plant nutrition and drinking water for people.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200406963:0S.@entry, 105838765:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105838765:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+pur(107935504:20, :02:02)
+aoj(300343552:14, :01)
+agt(200406963:0S.@entry, 105838765:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105838765:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+pur(107935504:20, :02:02)
+aoj(300343552:14, :01)
+mod:02(106135915:2G, 100017222:2A)
+mod(:01, 107935504:20)
+and:02(107936263:2U.@entry, 106135915:2G)
+obj(200406963:0S.@entry, :01:01)
+obj(200406963:0S.@entry, :01:01)
+pur(:02, 107942152:3D)
+and:01(104723816:1P.@entry.@def, 113563522:1E.@def)
+mod(105838765:08.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2784]
+{org:en}
+As there is a deficit of drinking water on the planet, unsatisfactory water qualities constitute a global dangerous modern ecological problem.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(202620587:2F.@entry, 202603699:0B)
+obj(105114371:0G.@indef, 107935504:0Z)
+aoj(300414354:39, 105687338:3R.@indef)
+aoj(301568684:2S, 105687338:3R.@indef)
+rsn(202620587:2F.@entry, 202603699:0B)
+obj(105114371:0G.@indef, 107935504:0Z)
+aoj(300414354:39, 105687338:3R.@indef)
+aoj(301568684:2S, 105687338:3R.@indef)
+mod(104723816:25.@topic.@pl, 107935504:1Z)
+obj(202620587:2F.@entry, 105687338:3R.@indef)
+mod(107935504:0Z, 303155687:0R)
+aoj(302082218:1K, 104723816:25.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(202620587:2F.@entry, 104723816:25.@topic.@pl)
+plc(107935504:0Z, 109394007:1C.@def)
+aoj(202620587:2F.@entry, 104723816:25.@topic.@pl)
+plc(107935504:0Z, 109394007:1C.@def)
+aoj(302906478:3G, 105687338:3R.@indef)
+aoj(300651039:2Z, 105687338:3R.@indef)
+aoj(202603699:0B, 105114371:0G.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2785]
+{org:en}
+Efforts of specialists from all over the world should be combined for the assessment, prognosis and regulation of the chemical state of ground water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202309008:1N.@entry.@should.@past, 100621627:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(400064946:0U, :0U)
+obj(100024720:3L.@def, 107935504:40)
+and:01(100805034:2U.@entry.@def, 100153665:2G.@def)
+obj(202309008:1N.@entry.@should.@past, 100621627:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(400064946:0U, :0U)
+obj(100024720:3L.@def, 107935504:40)
+and:01(100805034:2U.@entry.@def, 100153665:2G.@def)
+mod(100621627:02.@topic.@pl, 110631941:0D.@pl)
+mod(:01, 100024720:3L.@def)
+mod(107935504:40, 303155671:3U)
+pur(202309008:1N.@entry.@should.@past, :01:01)
+pur(202309008:1N.@entry.@should.@past, :01:01)
+aoj(302692624:3C, 100024720:3L.@def)
+and:01(100153665:2G.@def, 105146055:24.@def)
+frm(110631941:0D.@pl, :0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2786]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2787]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2788]
+{org:en}
+Arid zone soils
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300806991:02, 109335240:0B.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300806991:02, 109335240:0B.@entry.@pl)
+mod(109335240:0B.@entry.@pl, 105611062:06)
+mod(109335240:0B.@entry.@pl, 105611062:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2789]
+{org:en}
+zonal soils with an impermacide water regime, i.e. with excess of annual evaporation over annual precipitation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115689159:1C, 109335240:08.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300678024:1W, 113572436:23)
+mod(115669360:14.@indef, 107935504:0Y)
+obj(600000019:0E, 115669360:14.@indef)
+aoj(115689159:1C, 109335240:08.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300678024:1W, 113572436:23)
+mod(115669360:14.@indef, 107935504:0Y)
+obj(600000019:0E, 115669360:14.@indef)
+obj(105118437:1M, 113572436:23)
+aoj(302589913:02, 109335240:08.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300678024:2K, 105061149:2R)
+obj(600000019:1H, 105118437:1M)
+aoj(600000019:0E, 109335240:08.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000049:2F, 105061149:2R)
+aoj(600000019:0E, 109335240:08.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000049:2F, 105061149:2R)
+obj(115689159:1C, 600000019:1H)
+mod(115669360:14.@indef, 303163356:0M)
+aoj(600000049:2F, 113572436:23)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2790]
+{org:en}
+Artesian water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300098933:02, 107935504:0B.@entry)
+aoj(300098933:02, 107935504:0B.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2791]
+{org:en}
+water from the water-bearing horizons capable of flowing from wells because of excess hydraulic head.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+frm(107935504:02.@entry, 105127782:0V.@def.@pl)
+rsn(200217427:1F.@progress, 600000012:1Y)
+obj(300217297:0N, 107935504:0H)
+frm(107935504:02.@entry, 105127782:0V.@def.@pl)
+rsn(200217427:1F.@progress, 600000012:1Y)
+obj(300217297:0N, 107935504:0H)
+mod(101318381:2Q, 300048858:29)
+mod(105127782:0V.@def.@pl, 300217297:0N)
+obj(600000012:1Y, 101318381:2Q)
+aoj(300308015:14, 105127782:0V.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300308015:14, 105127782:0V.@def.@pl)
+src(200217427:1F.@progress, 104572344:1S.@pl)
+obj(300308015:14, 200217427:1F.@progress)
+mod(101318381:2Q, 303073751:2G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2792]
+{org:en}
+Automorphic soils
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303162142:02, 109335240:0E.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(303162142:02, 109335240:0E.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2793]
+{org:en}
+soils with the atmospheric water supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000019:08, 109335240:02.@entry.@pl)
+mod(113563522:0Z.@def, 107935504:0T)
+aoj(600000019:08, 109335240:02.@entry.@pl)
+mod(113563522:0Z.@def, 107935504:0T)
+mod(113563522:0Z.@def, 302831736:0H)
+obj(600000019:08, 113563522:0Z.@def)
+obj(600000019:08, 113563522:0Z.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2794]
+{org:en}
+Cone of depression
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103089348:02.@entry, 100112674:0A)
+mod(103089348:02.@entry, 100112674:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2795]
+{org:en}
+an area of decreased head levels resulting from the intensive water withdrawal from the water-bearing horizon.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(102735688:05.@entry.@indef, 105093890:0S.@pl)
+frm(100053913:1Y.@def, 105127782:2W.@def)
+mod(105093890:0S.@pl, 101318381:0N)
+mod(102735688:05.@entry.@indef, 105093890:0S.@pl)
+frm(100053913:1Y.@def, 105127782:2W.@def)
+mod(105093890:0S.@pl, 101318381:0N)
+mod(105127782:2W.@def, 102817031:2O)
+obj(200151689:0D.@past, 105093890:0S.@pl)
+mod(100053913:1Y.@def, 107935504:1S)
+obj(200340704:0Z.@progress, 105093890:0S.@pl)
+obj(200340704:0Z.@progress, 105093890:0S.@pl)
+aoj(301512275:1I, 100053913:1Y.@def)
+src(200340704:0Z.@progress, 100053913:1Y.@def)
+mod(102817031:2O, 107935504:2I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2796]
+{org:en}
+Evaporite brines
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107937203:0C.@entry, 115009192:02)
+mod(107937203:0C.@entry, 115009192:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2797]
+{org:en}
+highly mineralized solutions resulting from the evaporation of surface water, which impregnate the evaporites.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200585606:09.@past, 100190783:0L.@entry.@pl)
+mod(107935504:21.@pl, 104362025:1T)
+obj(113572436:1E.@def, 107935504:21.@pl)
+obj(200585606:09.@past, 100190783:0L.@entry.@pl)
+mod(107935504:21.@pl, 104362025:1T)
+obj(113572436:1E.@def, 107935504:21.@pl)
+src(200340704:0V.@progress, 113572436:1E.@def)
+man(200585606:09.@past, 400089267:02)
+obj(200340704:0V.@progress, 100190783:0L.@entry.@pl)
+obj(200340704:0V.@progress, 100190783:0L.@entry.@pl)
+obj(200053159:2E, 115009192:2T.@def.@pl)
+agt(200053159:2E, 107935504:21.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2798]
+{org:en}
+Evaporites
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115009192:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+115009192:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2799]
+{org:en}
+sedimentary rocks (carbonates and salts) resulting from the evaporation of surface
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200340704:17.@progress, 100348008:0E.@entry.@pl)
+obj(113572436:1Q.@def, 104362025:25)
+and:01(105717342:10.@entry.@pl, 114798450:0L.@pl)
+obj(200340704:17.@progress, 100348008:0E.@entry.@pl)
+obj(113572436:1Q.@def, 104362025:25)
+and:01(105717342:10.@entry.@pl, 114798450:0L.@pl)
+aoj(302952109:02, 100348008:0E.@entry.@pl)
+cnt(100348008:0E.@entry.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+cnt(100348008:0E.@entry.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+src(200340704:17.@progress, 113572436:1Q.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2800]
+{org:en}
+(mainly sea) waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107935504:0F.@entry.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod(107935504:0F.@entry.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+man:01(109426788:0A.@entry, 400535216:03)
+man:01(109426788:0A.@entry, 400535216:03)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2801]
+{org:en}
+Head level
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105093890:07.@entry, 101318381:02)
+mod(105093890:07.@entry, 101318381:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2802]
+{org:en}
+the conventional surface of water rise in holes and wells supplied from a specified water-bearing horizon.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200155143:10.@entry, 104362025:0J.@topic.@def)
+obj(200947077:24.@past, 105127782:2S.@indef)
+and:01(104572344:1I.@entry.@pl, 103526198:18.@pl)
+obj(200155143:10.@entry, 104362025:0J.@topic.@def)
+obj(200947077:24.@past, 105127782:2S.@indef)
+and:01(104572344:1I.@entry.@pl, 103526198:18.@pl)
+mod(104362025:0J.@topic.@def, 107935504:0U)
+obj(202327200:1O, :01)
+obj(300217297:2K, 107935504:2E)
+plc(200155143:10.@entry, :01:01)
+plc(200155143:10.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(105127782:2S.@indef, 300217297:2K)
+src(202327200:1O, 105127782:2S.@indef)
+aoj(300605516:06, 104362025:0J.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2803]
+{org:en}
+Humid zone soils
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302549393:02, 109335240:0D.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(302549393:02, 109335240:0D.@entry.@pl)
+mod(109335240:0D.@entry.@pl, 105611062:08)
+mod(109335240:0D.@entry.@pl, 105611062:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2804]
+{org:en}
+zonal soils with percolative water regime, i.e. with the excess of annual precipitation over annual evaporation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115689159:19, 109335240:08.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300678024:1X, 105061149:24)
+mod(115669360:11, 107935504:0V)
+obj(600000019:0E, 115669360:11)
+aoj(115689159:19, 109335240:08.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300678024:1X, 105061149:24)
+mod(115669360:11, 107935504:0V)
+obj(600000019:0E, 115669360:11)
+aoj(600000049:2I, 105061149:24)
+aoj(302589913:02, 109335240:08.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300678024:2N, 113572436:2U)
+obj(600000019:1E, 105061149:24)
+aoj(600000019:0E, 109335240:08.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000049:2I, 113572436:2U)
+aoj(600000019:0E, 109335240:08.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000049:2I, 113572436:2U)
+obj(115689159:19, 600000019:1E)
+aoj(303162053:0J, 115669360:11)
+mod(105061149:24, 105118437:1N.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2805]
+{org:en}
+Hydromorphic soils
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161725:02, 109335240:0F.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(303161725:02, 109335240:0F.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2806]
+{org:en}
+soil with the predominant underground water supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000019:07, 109335240:02.@entry)
+mod(113563522:1A.@def, 303160997:0S)
+aoj(600000019:07, 109335240:02.@entry)
+mod(113563522:1A.@def, 303160997:0S)
+aoj(303161183:0G, 113563522:1A.@def)
+obj(600000019:07, 113563522:1A.@def)
+obj(600000019:07, 113563522:1A.@def)
+mod(113563522:1A.@def, 107935504:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2807]
+{org:en}
+Mineralization of natural waters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(115689274:02.@entry, 107935504:0S.@pl)
+obj(115689274:02.@entry, 107935504:0S.@pl)
+mod(107935504:0S.@pl, 301335708:0K)
+mod(107935504:0S.@pl, 301335708:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2808]
+{org:en}
+the total content of chemical substances in waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105809192:0C.@entry.@def, 100019613:0W.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:0N, 100019613:0W.@pl)
+mod(105809192:0C.@entry.@def, 100019613:0W.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:0N, 100019613:0W.@pl)
+plc(100019613:0W.@pl, 107935504:1A.@pl)
+qua(105809192:0C.@entry.@def, 303160907:06)
+qua(105809192:0C.@entry.@def, 303160907:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2809]
+{org:en}
+Sedimentation waters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107935504:0G.@entry.@pl, 111445395:02)
+mod(107935504:0G.@entry.@pl, 111445395:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2810]
+{org:en}
+waters "sealed" (buried) in the pores of bottom sediments at the stage of their formation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201234625:0T.@parenthesis.@past, 107935504:02.@entry.@pl)
+mod(109428967:1N.@pl, 300229978:1H)
+mod(105245906:18.@def.@pl, 109428967:1N.@pl)
+obj(201234625:0T.@parenthesis.@past, 107935504:02.@entry.@pl)
+mod(109428967:1N.@pl, 300229978:1H)
+mod(105245906:18.@def.@pl, 109428967:1N.@pl)
+plc(201234625:0T.@parenthesis.@past, 105245906:18.@def.@pl)
+mod(100925207:2J, 600000020:2D.@pl)
+aoj(301697318:0F.@single_quote, 107935504:02.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301697318:0F.@single_quote, 107935504:02.@entry.@pl)
+obj(100306900:24.@def, 100925207:2J)
+plc(109428967:1N.@pl, 100306900:24.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2811]
+{org:en}
+Soil absorbing complex
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201540232:07.@progress, 105870365:0H.@entry)
+agt(201540232:07.@progress, 105870365:0H.@entry)
+obj(201540232:07.@progress, 109335240:02)
+obj(201540232:07.@progress, 109335240:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2812]
+{org:en}
+the totality of finely dispersed mineral, organic, and organo--mineral solid soil components, which contain ions capable of exchanging with ions from the soil solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104765851:06.@entry.@def, 103081021:2B.@pl)
+aoj(300308015:36, 109315159:31.@pl)
+mod(103081021:2B.@pl, 109335240:26)
+mod(100190783:4G.@def, 109335240:4B)
+aoj(:01, 103081021:2B.@pl)
+obj(600000018:3S, 109315159:3X.@pl)
+mod(104765851:06.@entry.@def, 103081021:2B.@pl)
+aoj(300308015:36, 109315159:31.@pl)
+mod(103081021:2B.@pl, 109335240:26)
+mod(100190783:4G.@def, 109335240:4B)
+aoj(:01, 103081021:2B.@pl)
+obj(600000018:3S, 109315159:3X.@pl)
+man(201616608:0P.@past, 400102463:0I)
+obj(201616608:0P.@past, 103081021:2B.@pl)
+man(202257370:3H.@progress, 600000018:3S)
+and:01(301093142:18, 301680559:0Z)
+aoj(202701210:2T, 103081021:2B.@pl)
+obj(300308015:36, 202257370:3H.@progress)
+aoj(202701210:2T, 103081021:2B.@pl)
+obj(300308015:36, 202257370:3H.@progress)
+and:01(303162287:1L.@entry, 301093142:18)
+aoj(300291181:20, 103081021:2B.@pl)
+frm(109315159:3X.@pl, 100190783:4G.@def)
+obj(202701210:2T, 109315159:31.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2813]
+{org:en}
+Soil waters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107935504:07.@entry.@pl, 109335240:02)
+mod(107935504:07.@entry.@pl, 109335240:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2814]
+{org:en}
+water solution localized in soil pores and capillaries, which includes both moisture bound to solid soil phases and gravitation moisture capable of moving in the soil profile under the action of gravity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301108276:0H, 100190783:08.@entry)
+aoj:02(300291181:2R, 104676540:32.@pl)
+obj:02(300308015:45, 200124442:4G.@progress)
+mod:01(105245906:0Z.@pl, 109335240:0U)
+obj:02(100037396:5H.@def, 107512147:5R)
+aoj(200183879:1S, :01)
+mod:02(106516404:4Z.@def, 109335240:4U)
+aoj(301108276:0H, 100190783:08.@entry)
+aoj:02(300291181:2R, 104676540:32.@pl)
+obj:02(300308015:45, 200124442:4G.@progress)
+mod:01(105245906:0Z.@pl, 109335240:0U)
+obj:02(100037396:5H.@def, 107512147:5R)
+aoj(200183879:1S, :01)
+mod:02(106516404:4Z.@def, 109335240:4U)
+aoj:02(300308015:45, 114535431:3W.@entry)
+gol:02(200567291:2I, 104676540:32.@pl)
+plc(301108276:0H, :01:01)
+plc:02(200124442:4G.@progress, 106516404:4Z.@def)
+and:02(114535431:3W.@entry, 114535431:29)
+obj:02(200567291:2I, 114535431:29)
+mod(100190783:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+mod:02(104676540:32.@pl, 109335240:2X)
+man:02(200124442:4G.@progress, 600000003:57)
+mod(100190783:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+mod:02(104676540:32.@pl, 109335240:2X)
+man:02(200124442:4G.@progress, 600000003:57)
+obj(200183879:1S, :02)
+mod:02(114535431:29, 600000323:21)
+and:01(102956069:19.@entry.@pl, 105245906:0Z.@pl)
+obj:02(600000003:57, 100037396:5H.@def)
+mod:02(114535431:3W.@entry, 106198313:3K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2815]
+{org:en}
+Subsurface waters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107935504:0D.@entry.@pl, 302471782:02)
+mod(107935504:0D.@entry.@pl, 302471782:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2816]
+{org:en}
+waters occurring below the soil surface in the sediment layers and fractures of massive crystalline rocks, which are capable of moving under the action of gravity or hydraulic pressure head.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200723349:09.@progress, 107935504:02.@entry.@pl)
+obj:02(300308015:3B, 200124442:3M.@progress)
+and:02(100376994:1X.@entry.@pl, 101463259:1M.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(303073751:4O, 101318381:57.@entry)
+scn(104362025:0Y.@def, :02:02)
+mod:02(100037396:43.@def, :01)
+obj(200723349:09.@progress, 107935504:02.@entry.@pl)
+obj:02(300308015:3B, 200124442:3M.@progress)
+and:02(100376994:1X.@entry.@pl, 101463259:1M.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(303073751:4O, 101318381:57.@entry)
+scn(104362025:0Y.@def, :02:02)
+mod:02(100037396:43.@def, :01)
+aoj:02(301185916:2A, 100348008:2U.@pl)
+bas(600000091:0J, 104362025:0Y.@def)
+obj:02(600000003:3T, 100037396:43.@def)
+aoj:02(300308015:3B, 100348008:2U.@pl)
+mod:02(101463259:1M.@def.@pl, 109428967:1D)
+man(200723349:09.@progress, 600000091:0J)
+man:02(200124442:3M.@progress, 600000003:3T)
+man(200723349:09.@progress, 600000091:0J)
+man:02(200124442:3M.@progress, 600000003:3T)
+obj:02(100376994:1X.@entry.@pl, 100348008:2U.@pl)
+mod:01(101318381:57.@entry, 100113113:4Y)
+mod(104362025:0Y.@def, 109335240:0T)
+or:01(101318381:57.@entry, 107512147:4D)
+aoj:02(300268869:2I, 100348008:2U.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2817]
+{org:en}
+Water-bearing horizons
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105127782:0G.@entry.@pl, 300217297:08)
+mod(105127782:0G.@entry.@pl, 300217297:08)
+obj(300217297:08, 107935504:02)
+obj(300217297:08, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2818]
+{org:en}
+water-saturated permeable beds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300393508:08, 102818832:0S.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300393508:08, 102818832:0S.@entry.@pl)
+obj(300393508:08, 107935504:02)
+aoj(301772032:0I, 102818832:0S.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301772032:0I, 102818832:0S.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2819]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2820]
+{org:en}
+Garrels, R. and Christ, Ch. (1968).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(:01.@entry, "1968":0V.@parenthesis)
+tim(:01.@entry, "1968":0V.@parenthesis)
+and:01(500323238:0I.@entry, 500323443:02)
+and:01(500323238:0I.@entry, 500323443:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2821]
+{org:en}
+Solutions, Minerals, and Equilibria, pp. 73-88.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105659365:0R.@pl.@entry, 114662574:0D.@pl)
+and(105659365:0R.@pl.@entry, 114662574:0D.@pl)
+qua(115669681:13.@entry, "73-88":17)
+and(114662574:0D.@pl, 100190783:02.@pl)
+and(114662574:0D.@pl, 100190783:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2822]
+{org:en}
+This book describes the use of thermodynamics in environmental geochemistry
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200987071:0C.@entry, 102870092:07.@topic)
+mod(102870092:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+plc(106114578:0X, 106090304:1T)
+agt(200987071:0C.@entry, 102870092:07.@topic)
+mod(102870092:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+plc(106114578:0X, 106090304:1T)
+obj(100947128:0Q.@def, 106114578:0X)
+obj(200987071:0C.@entry, 100947128:0Q.@def)
+obj(200987071:0C.@entry, 100947128:0Q.@def)
+mod(106090304:1T, 302943151:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2823]
+{org:en}
+Groundwater Protection in Selected Countries
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(100784755:0E.@entry, 108168978:11.@pl)
+plc(100784755:0E.@entry, 108168978:11.@pl)
+aoj(302123475:0S, 108168978:11.@pl)
+mod(100784755:0E.@entry, 115669379:02)
+mod(100784755:0E.@entry, 115669379:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2824]
+{org:en}
+Point Resources (1999).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(105154676:08.@entry.@pl, "1999":0J.@parenthesis)
+tim(105154676:08.@entry.@pl, "1999":0J.@parenthesis)
+mod(105154676:08.@entry.@pl, 103974215:02)
+mod(105154676:08.@entry.@pl, 103974215:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2825]
+{org:en}
+Draft. Prepared by Water Tech A/S, Denmark.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100115667:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100115667:02.@entry
+[/W]
+plc(500323957:0L, 500003229:11)
+plc(500323957:0L, 500003229:11)
+agt(201754271:09.@entry, 500323957)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2826]
+{org:en}
+Analysis of the state of natural waters in different counties
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100634276:02.@entry, 100024720:0I.@def)
+mod(107935504:0Z.@pl, 301335708:0R)
+obj(100634276:02.@entry, 100024720:0I.@def)
+mod(107935504:0Z.@pl, 301335708:0R)
+plc(107935504:0Z.@pl, 108546183:1J.@pl)
+mod(100024720:0I.@def, 107935504:0Z.@pl)
+mod(100024720:0I.@def, 107935504:0Z.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:19, 108546183:1J.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2827]
+{org:en}
+Drever, J.I.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323342:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323342:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2828]
+{org:en}
+The Geochemistry of Natural Waters, Prentice-Hall.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(106090304:06.@entry.@def, 500324248:12)
+plc(106090304:06.@entry.@def, 500324248:12)
+mod(107935504:0U.@pl, 301335708:0M)
+mod(106090304:06.@entry.@def, 107935504:0U.@pl)
+mod(106090304:06.@entry.@def, 107935504:0U.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2829]
+{org:en}
+This is a review of geochemical methods of investigation of processes in natural waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100897811:0C.@entry.@indef, 600000022:02.@topic)
+plc(100029677:1Q.@pl, 115689188:2B)
+aoj(303161173:0M, 105660268:0Y.@pl)
+aoj(100897811:0C.@entry.@indef, 600000022:02.@topic)
+plc(100029677:1Q.@pl, 115689188:2B)
+aoj(303161173:0M, 105660268:0Y.@pl)
+mod(105660268:0Y.@pl, 100633864:19)
+mod(100897811:0C.@entry.@indef, 105660268:0Y.@pl)
+mod(100897811:0C.@entry.@indef, 105660268:0Y.@pl)
+mod(115689188:2B, 301335708:23)
+obj(100633864:19, 100029677:1Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2830]
+{org:en}
+This book is a good resource for upper-level undergraduates and graduates students.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105154676:0M.@entry.@indef, 102870092:07.@topic)
+mod:01(110736602:1B.@pl, 105093890:15)
+and:01(103451473:1U.@entry, 110736602:1B.@pl)
+aoj(105154676:0M.@entry.@indef, 102870092:07.@topic)
+mod:01(110736602:1B.@pl, 105093890:15)
+and:01(103451473:1U.@entry, 110736602:1B.@pl)
+aoj(300523364:0H, 105154676:0M.@entry.@indef)
+mod(102870092:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+pur(105154676:0M.@entry.@indef, :01:01)
+pur(105154676:0M.@entry.@indef, :01:01)
+mod:01(105093890:15, 301206318:0Z)
+mod:01(103451473:1U.@entry, 110665698:23.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2831]
+{org:en}
+Kovda V.A.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324341:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500324341:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2832]
+{org:en}
+The principles of pedology.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105872477:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 115669692:0K)
+mod(105872477:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 115669692:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2833]
+{org:en}
+Russian translation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100330984:0A.@entry, 109728403:02)
+mod(100330984:0A.@entry, 109728403:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2834]
+{org:en}
+Publishing Hause, "Nauka".
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(500324252:02.@entry, 115692940:0Q.@single_quote)
+cnt(500324252:02.@entry, 115692940:0Q.@single_quote)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2835]
+{org:en}
+Moscow. Part 2. 1973.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500004288:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500004288:02.@entry
+[/W]
+mod(103892891:0A.@entry, "2":0C)
+[W]
+"1973":0F.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2836]
+{org:en}
+P. 406
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(106832788:02.@entry, "406":05)
+qua(106832788:02.@entry, "406":05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2837]
+{org:en}
+The regularity of the properties of soils waters and the influencing factors
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01, 104767347:06.@entry.@def)
+and:01(105858317:1Z.@entry.@def.@pl, 107935504:18.@pl.@def)
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+and:01(105858317:1Z.@entry.@def.@pl, 107935504:18.@pl.@def)
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+mod(104767347:06.@entry.@def, 104012260:0O.@def.@pl)
+mod(104767347:06.@entry.@def, 104012260:0O.@def.@pl)
+obj:01(202536557:1N.@progress, 105858317:1Z.@entry.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2838]
+{org:en}
+Krainov, S.P. and Shvets, V.M. (1992).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(:01.@entry, "1992":11.@parenthesis)
+tim(:01.@entry, "1992":11.@parenthesis)
+and:01(500323168:0N.@entry, 500324272:02)
+and:01(500323168:0N.@entry, 500324272:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2839]
+{org:en}
+Hydrogeochemistry (in Russian), Moscow
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 115691792:02.@entry)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 115691792:02.@entry)
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+[W]
+500004288:0Y.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2840]
+{org:en}
+Nedra.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323607:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323607:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2841]
+{org:en}
+This is the best Russian handbook of hydrogeochemistry.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(106421301:0R.@entry.@def, 600000022:02.@topic)
+aoj(302957276:0J, 106421301:0R.@entry.@def)
+aoj(106421301:0R.@entry.@def, 600000022:02.@topic)
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+mod(106421301:0R.@entry.@def, 115691792:13)
+man(300523364:0E, 400536271:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2842]
+{org:en}
+Kryukov, P.A.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323431:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323431:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2843]
+{org:en}
+Rocks, Soils and Soil Solutions (in Russian), Novosibirsk
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100190783:0O.@entry.@pl, 109335240:09.@pl)
+and(100190783:0O.@entry.@pl, 109335240:09.@pl)
+and(109335240:09.@pl, 100348008:02.@pl)
+mod(100190783:0O.@entry.@pl, 109335240:0J)
+mod(100190783:0O.@entry.@pl, 109335240:0J)
+[W]
+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2844]
+{org:en}
+Nauka.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115692940:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115692940:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2845]
+{org:en}
+The forms of water in different objects of Earth's crust and methods of their investigation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103384535:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 107935504:0F)
+mod:01(100002684:0Y.@pl, 109260218:1H)
+mod:01(105660268:1U.@entry.@pl, 100633864:2B)
+mod(103384535:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 107935504:0F)
+mod:01(100002684:0Y.@pl, 109260218:1H)
+mod:01(105660268:1U.@entry.@pl, 100633864:2B)
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+mod:01(100633864:2B, 600000020:25.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2846]
+{org:en}
+Moore, J.W. and Ramamoorthy, S. (1984).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(:01.@entry, "1984":0Z.@parenthesis)
+tim(:01.@entry, "1984":0Z.@parenthesis)
+and:01(500323466:0I.@entry, 500323346:02)
+and:01(500323466:0I.@entry, 500323346:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2847]
+{org:en}
+Heavy Metals in Natural Waters, Berlin
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(114625458:08.@entry.@pl, 102831335:0Y)
+mod(107935504:0Q.@pl, 301335708:0I)
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+plc(114625458:08.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2848]
+{org:en}
+Springer-Verlag.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323919:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323919:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2849]
+{org:en}
+Content and species of heavy metals in natural waters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(:01.@entry, 114625458:0V.@pl)
+aoj(300462409:0P, 114625458:0V.@pl)
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+and:01(105844881:0E.@entry, 105809192:02)
+mod(107935504:1D.@pl, 301335708:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2850]
+{org:en}
+Russian-English-German-French Hydrological Dictionary, Geneva
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(106418901:19.@entry, 500004419:1L)
+to:01(109728403:02, 107442569:0A)
+to:01(109747722:0I, 109732903:0P.@entry)
+plc(106418901:19.@entry, 500004419:1L)
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+to:01(107442569:0A, 109747722:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2851]
+{org:en}
+UNESCO, 1976.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323519:02.@entry, "1976":0A)
+tim(500323519:02.@entry, "1976":0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2852]
+{org:en}
+Shvartsev, S.A.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115696002:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115696002:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2853]
+{org:en}
+Hydrogeochemistry of the Hypergenesis Zone (in Russian), Moscow
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115691792:02.@entry, 105611062:14.@def)
+mod(115691792:02.@entry, 105611062:14.@def)
+mod(105611062:14.@def, 115691794:0R)
+mod(105611062:14.@def, 115691794:0R)
+[W]
+:01.@parenthesis.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2854]
+{org:en}
+Nedra.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323607:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323607:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2855]
+{org:en}
+This is the most recent review of chemical compositions of ground waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100897811:0Q.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(103081660:19.@pl, 114806838:10)
+man(301642477:0J, 400536271:0E)
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+mod(100897811:0Q.@entry, 103081660:19.@pl)
+mod(100897811:0Q.@entry, 103081660:19.@pl)
+mod(103081660:19.@pl, 114847503:1P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2856]
+{org:en}
+Solomons, W. and Forsner, USolo. (1984).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(:01.@entry, "1984":10.@parenthesis)
+tim(:01.@entry, "1984":10.@parenthesis)
+and:01(500323491:0J.@entry, 500323503:02)
+and:01(500323491:0J.@entry, 500323503:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2857]
+{org:en}
+Metals in the Hydrocycle. Berlin
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(114625458:02.@entry.@pl, 107341038:0L.@def)
+tim(114625458:02.@entry.@pl, 107341038:0L.@def)
+mod(107341038:0L.@def, 303160971:0G)
+mod(107341038:0L.@def, 303160971:0G)
+[W]
+102831335:0S.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2858]
+{org:en}
+Springer-Verlag.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323919:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323919:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2859]
+{org:en}
+A book about the soluble compounds of metals in ecosystem
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000013:09, 102870092:04.@entry.@indef)
+aoj(302265015:0J, 103081859:0R.@def.@pl)
+aoj(600000013:09, 102870092:04.@entry.@indef)
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+obj(600000013:09, 103081859:0R.@def.@pl)
+plc(114625458:14.@pl, 108368757:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2860]
+{org:en}
+Sposito, G.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323296:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323296:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2861]
+{org:en}
+The Thermodynamics of Soil Solutions, Oxford University Press.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106114578:06.@entry.@def, 100190783:0T.@pl)
+mod(106114578:06.@entry.@def, 100190783:0T.@pl)
+mod(100190783:0T.@pl, 109335240:0O)
+mod(100190783:0T.@pl, 109335240:0O)
+[W]
+500323589:14.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2862]
+{org:en}
+Analysis of the geterogenic system of soil solution from a thermodynamic point of view
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100634276:02.@entry, 104377057:0U.@def)
+aoj(302908041:1P, 105076237:23.@indef)
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+obj(104377057:0U.@def, 100190783:19)
+mod(100190783:19, 109335240:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2863]
+{org:en}
+Vernadsky, V.I.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323009:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323009:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2864]
+{org:en}
+The History of Natural Waters, in: Selected Works (in Russian), Moscow
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106155567:06.@entry.@colon.@def, 107935504:0P.@pl)
+aoj(302123475:11, 100575741:1A.@pl)
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+mod(107935504:0P.@pl, 301335708:0H)
+[W]
+:01.@parenthesis.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2865]
+{org:en}
+USSR Academy of Sciences, vol. 4, issue 2, pp. 12-494.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(500323974:07.@entry, 500323525:02)
+qua(115669681:19.@entry, "12-494":1D)
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+mod(115689976:0S.@entry, "4":0X)
+mod(115689976:0S.@entry, "4":0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2866]
+{org:en}
+This was the first attempt at systematization of all the natural waters on the Earth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100786195:0L.@entry.@past.@def, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(115689188:1V.@def, 600000011:1F)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2867]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketches
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161322:02, 104227144:0F.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(303161322:02, 104227144:0F.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2868]
+{org:en}
+Galina V. Motuzova HTM1 graduated from the Faculty of Soil Science, Moscow State University after M.V. Lomonosov in 1962.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:2869]
+{org:en}
+She received her Ph. D. (1973) and Doctor of Biology (1992) in soil science and chemistry of chemical elements' search at Moscow State University, Faculty of Soil Science.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:02(106084469:28.@entry, 105999797:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2870]
+{org:en}
+Since 1973 she has held the positions of Staff Junior, Senior Scientist and Staff Associate Professor of Soil Science, from 1995- Staff Professor Soil Science at the Faculty of Soil Science, Moscow State University after M.V. Lomonosov, Moscow, Russia.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+Prof. G. Motuzova is the author of more than 240 scientific publications.
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+Her research interests are in the fields of soil science, ecology, soil chemistry, interactions of soils with pollutants and their influence on neighboring media.
+{/org}
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+She is dealing now with the ability of soils to protect ground water from pollutants.
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:2874]
+{org:en}
+Dmitry V. Grichuk HTM1 graduated from the Geological Faculty of Moscow State University after M.V. Lomonosov in 1971.
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+[S:2875]
+{org:en}
+He received his Ph.D. (1976) at the Geological Faculty of Moscow State University and Doctor of Geology (1998' at Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry of RAS, Moscow, Russia in hydro chemical processes' search and their modelling.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+1974 he hold the positions of Staff Junior, Senior Scientist and Staff Associate Professor of Geochemistry, from 2000 -Staff Professor, Department of Geochemistry, Geological Faculty, Moscow State University.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:2877]
+{org:en}
+His research interests are in the fields of geochemistry of natural waters, and thermodynamic modelling of hydrothermal processes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:2878]
+{org:en}
+He is the author about 130 publications.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:2879]
+{org:en}
+He is currently working in ecological geochemistry.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(200150096:0I.@entry.@progress, 106090304:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2880]
+{org:en}
+CLIMATE CHANGE AND WATER RESOURCES
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105154676:0R.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0L)
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+and(105154676:0R.@entry.@pl, 100191142:0A)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:2881]
+{org:en}
+CLIMATE CHANGE AND WATER RESOURCES
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105154676:0R.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0L)
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+and(105154676:0R.@entry.@pl, 100191142:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2882]
+{org:en}
+N. de Groot
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323409:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323409:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2883]
+{org:en}
+Water Center for the Humid Tropics of Latin America and the Caribbean, CATHALAC, Republic of Panama / Resource Analysis, the Netherlands
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(100725506:08.@entry, 108675145:0T.@def.@pl)
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+[W]
+:03.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2884]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2885]
+{org:en}
+Climate change, water resources, competing users, impacts and implications
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(107238102:1S.@entry.@pl, 107338552:1G.@pl)
+mod(105154676:0O.@pl, 107935504:0I)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2886]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2887]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2888]
+{org:en}
+Climate Impacts on Water Supplies
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(107338552:0A.@entry.@pl, 114519366:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2889]
+{org:en}
+Climate Change and Hydrological modeling
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(303161050:0L, 100937895:0Y.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2890]
+{org:en}
+Sea Level Rise
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100324384:0C.@entry, 105093890:06)
+mod(100324384:0C.@entry, 105093890:06)
+mod(105093890:06, 109426788:02)
+mod(105093890:06, 109426788:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2891]
+{org:en}
+Climate Impacts on Water Demand
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(107338552:0A.@entry.@pl, 114519366:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2892]
+{org:en}
+Socioeconomic Impacts and Policy Implications
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(107238102:0Z.@entry.@pl, 107338552:0G.@pl)
+and(107238102:0Z.@entry.@pl, 107338552:0G.@pl)
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+mod(107238102:0Z.@entry.@pl, 105901508:0S)
+mod(107238102:0Z.@entry.@pl, 105901508:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2893]
+{org:en}
+Conclusions and Recommendations
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(104673668:0I.@entry.@pl, 105781541:02.@pl)
+and(104673668:0I.@entry.@pl, 105781541:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2894]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2895]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2896]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2897]
+{org:en}
+All life on this planet depends on the availability of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:2898]
+{org:en}
+Our planet is the only planet on which the existence of water in liquid phase is known.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:2899]
+{org:en}
+In continuous movement under and above the surface of the earth, water serves as an indispensable resource in the ecosystems of this planet.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+A simplified diagram illustrating solar radiation.
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+Figure 2
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+Surface observations, over land and sea, build up a record of global average annual temperatures since 1860.
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+The temperature for 1997 (green bar) includes observations up to the end of September
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+Hadley Centre
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+The atmosphere contains natural concentrations of greenhouse gases that influence the radiative balance of the incoming solar energy (Figure 1).
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+Without these greenhouse gases the average temperature on the earth would be almost 30?C lower, making life impossible on the higher latitudes.
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+On the other hand, natural processes and human activities increase atmospheric concentrations of aerosols which have an opposite effect on radiative balances and tend to cool the atmosphere (Figure 1).
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+Changes in greenhouse gases and aerosols, taken together, are projected to lead to regional and global changes in temperature (Figure 2), precipitation, and other climate variables-resulting in global changes in soil moisture, an increase in global mean sea level, and prospects for more severe extreme high-temperature events, floods, and droughts in some places.
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+Based on the range of sensitivities of climate to changes in the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and plausible changes in emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols, climate models project that the mean annual global surface temperature will increase by 1-3.5?C by 2100, that global mean sea level will rise by 15-95 cm, and that changes in the spatial and temporal patterns of precipitation would occur.
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+These long-term, large-scale, human-induced changes will interact with natural variability on time scales of days to decades [e.g., the El Ni?o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon] and thus influence social and economic well-being.
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+Figure 3
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+Simplified illustration of the hydrological cycle
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+Scientific studies show that human health, ecological systems, and socioeconomic sectors (e.g., hydrology and water resources, food and fiber production, coastal systems, and human settlements), all of which are vital to sustainable development, are sensitive to changes in climate-including both the magnitude and rate of climate change-as well as to changes in climate variability.
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+Whereas many regions are likely to experience adverse effects of climate change-some of which are potentially irreversible-some effects of climate change are likely to be beneficial.
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+Climate change represents an important additional stress on those systems already affected by increasing resource demands, unsustainable management practices, and pollution, which in many cases may be equal to or greater than those of climate change.
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+The hydrological cycle moves enormous quantities of water around the world (Figure 4).
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+This movement is partly relatively fast as one drop of water stays an average of 14 days in a river and about 10 days in the atmosphere.
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+Figure 4
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+Fluxes in the hydrological cycle
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+Human efforts to alter the atmospheric stages of the hydrological cycle date back to ancient times.
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+Prayer, dances, human and animal sacrifices, and other rituals have been tried to bring rain.
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+Although it is questionable whether any of these intentional efforts have significantly altered precipitation patterns, the balance of evidence now suggests that humans are influencing the global climate and, thereby, altering the hydrological cycle, however inadvertently.
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+Climate Change and its impact on the availability of water resources will intensify in many regions of the world the competition for water between the different users.
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+Furthermore, the ongoing increase of the population on this planet and the changes of water use habits will boost the need for fresh water causing problems especially in regions where natural resources are already under severe pressure regarding quantity as well as quality (e.g. developing countries and urban areas.)
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+Often, it is mentioned that regional conflicts and wars will develop around the right to use water.
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+Climate Change might bring relieve in some of those areas, but unfortunately it is expected that in many regions where water is already becoming scarce, climate change will only aggravate the existing situation.
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+Climate Impacts on Water Supplies
+{/org}
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+Unfortunately predictions on rainfall being an indispensable factor of many socioeconomic activities are still very uncertain.
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+General Circulation Models (GCM) are far less consistent and reliable in their predictions of regional patterns of precipitation and the factors controlling evapotranspiration than they are with temperatures.
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+Especially at regional and local geographic scales, rainfall projections are much more speculative as for example the average temperature rise resulting from the changes in atmospheric concentrations of the most important greenhouse gases.
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+The most recent analysis of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) indicates a series of possible effects a greenhouse warming might have on the supply of water and the hydrological balance, including
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+GCM used to predict climate change suggest that a 1.5 to 4.5 ?C rise in global mean temperature would increase global mean precipitation about 3 to 15 percent, but results from GCM are very divergent, especially on smaller scales where orographic or other local circumstances play an important role, including the phenomenon of heat islands (areas that through their absorption of heat make them warmer than the surrounding areas, e.g. metropolitan areas)
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+The timing and regional patterns of precipitation will change, and more intense precipitation days are likely.
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+Although the regional distribution is uncertain, precipitation is expected to increase in higher latitudes, particularly in winter.
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+This conclusion extends to the mid-latitudes in most GCM results.
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+Evapotranspiration (ET) -- water evaporated from the surface and transpired from plants -- rises with air temperature.
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+Consequently, even in areas with increased precipitation, higher ET rates may lead to reduced runoff, implying a possible reduction in renewable water supplies.
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+More annual runoff caused by increased precipitation is likely in the high latitudes.
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+The frequency and severity of droughts could increase in some areas as a result of a decrease in total rainfall, more frequent dry spells, and higher ET.
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+Relatively small changes in temperature and precipitation in these areas could result in large percentage changes in runoff, increasing the likelihood and severity of droughts and/or floods.
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+Seasonal disruptions might occur in the water supplies of mountainous areas if more precipitation falls as rain than snow and if the length of the snow storage season is reduced.
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+Water quality problems may increase where there is less flow to dilute contaminants introduced from natural and human sources.
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+Climate Change and Hydrological Modeling
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+In general, higher temperatures should increase evaporation and therefore precipitation.
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+Climate models indicate that a doubling of atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide would increase global precipitation by about 5 percent.
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+These changes will not occur homogeneously around the Globe as can be seen in Figure 5.
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+Figure 5
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+The change in annual precipitation for the 2050s compared with the present day, when the climate model is driven with an increase in greenhouse gas concentrations equivalent to about a 1% increase per year in CO2.
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+The picture shows the average of four model runs with different starting conditions.
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+Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research
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+Results from different General Circulation Models on a CO2 - doubling scenario, indicate that the influence of CO2 doubling on precipitation is still very unclear.
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+;Furthermore, the current generation of climate models still cannot make regional forecasts as the grids of the models are to wide to include for example small scale orographic forcing factors.Furthermore, the current generation of climate models still cannot make regional forecasts as the grids of the models are too wide to include for example small scale orographic forcing factors.
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+Warming would also tend to reduce winter snow accumulation in mountains and other cold regions.
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+Water resources would become even more vulnerable than they are now.
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+Diminished snow accumulation in winter would reduce the spring runoff that can be vital to replenishing lakes and rivers
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+a 10 percent decline in precipitation and a temperature rise of 1-2 ?C could reduce runoff by 40-70 percent in drier basins.
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+As stated before the models that attempt to predict the changes that will be caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have more problems in being consistent with precipitation that they are inconsistent with temperatures.
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+For example, a study described in Yates, 1997, compares the results of four different models that suggest that South America could experience a range of runoff changes.
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+The results from these four models are not very consistent.
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+They are fairly consistent in the expected increase in temperature for a doubling of the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, but the results for precipitation show significant divergence (Table 1).
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+When introducing these numbers in the Turc-Pike runoff model to calculate the changes in annual runoff, great variation can be observed in the results (Table 2) and it becomes apparent that it is difficult to make sound water management decisions based upon these figures.
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+Especially the results for northern South America show considerable discrepancy varying from 93.3 percent increase to 49.1 percent decrease of regional runoff.
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+Table 1
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+
+[S:2992]
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+Precipitation (ratios) and Temperature (?C) changes over South America for four different GCM for a doubling of the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (source: Yates, 1997).
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+[S:2993]
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+Table 2
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+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "2":08)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:2994]
+{org:en}
+Annual change (%) in regional runoff over South America calculated with the Turc-Pike model (source: Yates, 1997)
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+[S:2995]
+{org:en}
+Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
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+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:2996]
+{org:en}
+United Kingdom Meteorological Office
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+[W]
+500324331:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
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+
+[S:2998]
+{org:en}
+Gothard Institute for Space Studies
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+[W]
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+Percentage change in 30-year average annual runoff by the 2080s.
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+[S:3002]
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+University of Southampton
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+Worsening droughts combined with the over-exploitation of water resources would cause salt to leach from the soil, thus raising the salinity of the unsaturated zone (the layer between the ground surface and the underlying water table).
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+Together, these various effects would have extremely negative consequences for river watersheds, lake levels, aquifers, and other sources of freshwater.
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+Reduced water supply would place greater stress on people, agriculture, and the environment.
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+In regions where the runoff will increase (Figure 6) climate change could result in an increased availability of water for agriculture, industry and/or domestic use but it could also lead to increased frequency of inundation.
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+Countries that do not have the resources (human, financial or technical) will not be able to adapt to the increasing availability of water.
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+A potentially positive impact of climate change will then only negatively affect socio economic activities.
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+Leaching and intrusions of salt-water into freshwater stores would make groundwater unfit for household and agricultural use (this has already occurred in many parts of the world).
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+Decreasing runoff as was calculated for the northern part of South America, would cause an increase in the use of groundwater which in some cases might lead to a groundwater production that supercedes the recharge of the aquifer causing water levels to drop.
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+Conflicts over water resources are likely to worsen in fertile basins such as the Nile and Mekong and in regions with rapid population growth and increasing problems with drought.
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+Marginal areas such as the Sahel would be at particular risk.
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+Sea Level Rise
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+The global mean sea-level may have already risen by around 15 centimeters during the past century.
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+According to a number of studies, the sea has been rising at the rate of 1-2 millimeters per year over the past 100 years.
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+Measuring past and current changes in sea-level, however, is extremely difficult.
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+There are many potential sources of error and systematic bias, such as the uneven geographic distribution of measuring sites and the effect of the land itself as it rises and subsides.
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+Climate change is expected to cause a further rise of about 20 centimeters by the year 2030.
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+Forecasts of a rising sea-level are based on climate model results, which indicate that the earth's average surface temperature may increase by 1-3.5 ?C over the next 100 years.
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+Higher sea-levels would threaten low-lying coastal areas and small islands.
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+The sea-level rise figures given by the IPCC may appear modest.
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+Elsewhere, tourist beaches, cultural and historical sites, fishing centers, and other areas of special value would be at risk.
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+Wetlands not only help to control floods, but they are critical to biodiversity and to the life-cycles of many species.
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+Flat river deltas, which are often agriculturally productive, would also be at risk.
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+Among the most vulnerable are the Amazon, Ganges, Indus, Mekong, Mississippi, Niger, Nile, Po, and Yangtze.
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+The damage caused by floods, storms, and tropical cyclones might worsen.
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+Major harbor areas would experience more frequent flooding during extreme high tides and, in particular, during storm surges.
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+Countries already prone to devastating floods, such as low-lying Bangladesh, would be the most affected.
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+Warmer water and a resulting increase in humidity over the oceans might even encourage tropical cyclones, and changing wave patterns could produce more swells and tidal waves in certain regions.
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+{org:en}
+Figure 7
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+Percentage change in the number of people at risk under sea-level rise scenario and constant (1990s) protection (left bar) and the sea-level rise scenario and evolving protection (right bar).
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+Figure 7 presents the percentage of increase of the number of people at risk under a sea level rise scenario with constant and evolving protection of coastal areas.
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+Summarizing, it can be stated that freshwater resources of coastal areas, and small islands in particular, are endangered by climate change due to the following five mechanisms
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+deterioration of water quality due to a decrease in the dilution of wastes discharged to surface water, groundwater and to the marine environment.
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+{org:en}
+An important aspect of rising sea level is its long timescale.
+{/org}
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+Sea level will rise as melted water from land ice runs into the ocean and as the ocean waters expand.
+{/org}
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+[S:3078]
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+Even if climate change could be halted, the surface warming already incurred will progressively penetrate deeper and deeper into the ocean, causing sea level to rise still further.
+{/org}
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+[S:3079]
+{org:en}
+Figure 8 shows how the thermal expansion component of sea-level rise in the Hadley Centre climate model will increase fivefold over the 500 years after all climate change is stopped, and will continue to increase for centuries further.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Therefore, sea level will continue to rise even if further climate change is halted.
+{/org}
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+[S:3081]
+{org:en}
+Climate Impacts on Water Demand
+{/org}
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+[S:3082]
+{org:en}
+According to Lundqvist & Falkenmark, basically four main functions of water in the water cycle have to be taken into account in developing a proper coping policy related to anthropogenic interventions in water balances and demands
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Health function as manifested in the fundamental importance of safe drinking water as a basic precondition for socioeconomic development
+{/org}
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+
+[S:3084]
+{org:en}
+Habitat function of water bodies, hosting aquatic ecosystems, which are easily disturbed when the water in the water bodies gets polluted
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:3085]
+{org:en}
+Carrier function for dissolved and suspended material picked up by the mobile water along its pathway through atmosphere, landscape and water courses, and carried along.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+This function plays a central role in the land degradation process (leaching of nutrients, erosion and sedimentation)
+{/org}
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+cnt(100029677:1P.@def, :02.@parenthesis)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+and
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+and(:02.@entry, :01)
+and(:02.@entry, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Production function in economic development- There are two production functions to distinguish
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
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+biomass production, operated by a flow of "green " water, entering through the roots and leaving through the foliage
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+and
+{/org}
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+and(:02.@entry, :01)
+and(:02.@entry, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+societal production in households and industry, based on "blue " water, withdrawn while passing through the landscape, and delivered to cities and industries through water supply systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+Different water functions are relevant for different sectors of society, each driven by its own political driving forces.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Changes in water balances will have impact on either four of those functions.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3094]
+{org:en}
+A decrease of the water availability could cause increasing pressure on the resource and intensification of the competition between different water users being for industrial, agricultural, health or biological functions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:3095]
+{org:en}
+Increasing competition between users
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:3096]
+{org:en}
+Water demand patterns of the future are expected to be characterized by growing competition between sectors, especially in developing countries.
+{/org}
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+[S:3097]
+{org:en}
+Competition will be particularly intense around HTM1 the cities.
+{/org}
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+man(300393683:0Z.@entry.@will, 400084223:0M)
+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+The demands of households, industrial plants and agriculture will inevitably put increasing stress on water.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+Decreasing availability of water for agriculture in rural areas will accelerate the migration process to the cities.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:3100]
+{org:en}
+In the developed world, use levels are stabilizing
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:3101]
+{org:en}
+water- saving modalities of use and water re-use are gradually expanding as the costs of water supply and treatment are more directly charged to users.
+{/org}
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+In developing countries the margins for increased demand are considerable, on account of rising industrial sectors, unmet domestic and municipal needs, and agriculture.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:3103]
+{org:en}
+Climate Change will change the existing "equilibriums " as changes in the water balances will occur causing a decreasing availability in some regions while decreasing pressure on this natural resource in other regions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3104]
+{org:en}
+Also the behavior of people will change towards the use of water, as increased temperatures will increase demand of water in many of the socio economic activities
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3105]
+{org:en}
+Population Growth and Urbanization
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:3106]
+{org:en}
+For many centuries people have been living together in cities
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:3107]
+{org:en}
+In many cases their choice of a certain location was based on the presence of water
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+for navigation and trade, for domestic and craft use, for food production (fish and crops), or even in defense of the inhabitants against enemies.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3109]
+{org:en}
+The presence of urban areas affects the hydrology of local and adjacent regions in a number of ways, such as groundwater withdrawal for water supply, surface and groundwater pollution, increased precipitation downwind of cities, and increased flood flow, due to a decrease of the area where water can infiltrate.
+{/org}
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+In 1965 about one third of the world's population lived in cities.
+{/org}
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+The 1998 Human Development Report of the United Nations it is indicated that in 1970, close to 37 percent of the total world population lived in urban areas.
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+In the year 1995 it was estimated to be little over 45 percent and for 2015 it is expected to be just below 55 percent.
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+{org:en}
+If the UN projections are to become true, by the year 2015 a little below 7.2 billion people will inhabit the earth, meaning that 3.9 billion people will be living in cities.
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+This is especially due to the growth of middle large cities (1-5 million people).
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+In 1999, only about 15 percent of urban dwellers live in cities with more than 5 million people, while over 60 per cent live in towns and cities with populations between one and five million.
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+At the same time, the relative concentration of the poor in towns and cities is increasing.
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+UN estimates suggested that by the year 2000 half the world's poorest people, or some 420 million, would be living in urban settlements.
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+Situations in, especially, the mayor cities in the humid tropics are already unstable in many perspectives (e.g. health, pollution, water supply) and it is inevitable that the even higher population growth and the changes induced by the impacts of climate change in these urban areas will increase the already rising pressure on the natural resources in these regions.
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+
+[S:3119]
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+Especially because of the intensive use that is being made already of the resources and the small margin of flexibility that is present to adapt to changing circumstances.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+An extra effect that changes the climate in urban areas is the process called "urban heat islands " (Figure 9).
+{/org}
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+Changes in cover (concrete and sink instead of trees and grass) change climate on micro scale as the ratio of energy radiation / absorption is being changed and therefore temperature are higher than in rural areas.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Figure 9
+{/org}
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+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "9":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3123]
+{org:en}
+Simplified Illustration of the "UrbanHeatIsland " phenomenon
+{/org}
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+The World Resources Institute indicated that globally, water withdrawals for domestic and municipal usages -- drinking, preparing food, bathing, washing clothes and dishes, flushing toilets, and watering lawns and gardens -- account for a modest part of the total, being 8 percent.
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+Population growth, and especially the growth of the populations of third world cities, would be responsible for a substantial part of this increase.
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+Agricultural activities
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+This objective can be achieved by increasing the productivity on land already cultivated and by expanding the area of arable land.
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+Irrigation has a paramount role in both activities.
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+Agriculture already is by far the major water user world-wide.
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+Around 70 percent of total withdrawals are for irrigation.
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+As demand for agricultural products increases, needs for additional irrigated land and corresponding water supplies also mount.
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+Globally, irrigated areas have increased from about 50 million hectares in 1900 to 100 million in 1950 and more than 240 million in 1997, mostly to respond to growing third world needs.
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+Figure 10
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+Percentage change in average crop yields for the climate change scenario.
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+Effects of CO2 are taken into account.
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+Crops modelled are
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+wheat, maize and rice.
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+Changes shown are averaged for national or regional levels based on the economic components of the Basic Linked System.
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+Source
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+[S:3143]
+{org:en}
+Jackson Institute, University College London
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+{org:en}
+Goddard Institute for Space Studies
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+{org:en}
+International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis
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+It is expected that the increasing atmospheric concentration of CO2 will positively influence in many places the crop yields.
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+Estimated changes in national grain crop yields were made based on simulations using IBSNAT/ICASA crop models and the climate change scenarios at 82 sites.
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+Maps of average projected crop yields are shown in Figure 10 for the 2020s, 2050s, and 2080s.
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+Strong regional differences are seen in these results.
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+This clearly has implications for adaptation policies.
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+Yields and profitability of irrigated relative to dry land farming tend to increase as conditions become hotter and drier.
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+Consequently, in areas with available and affordable water supplies, hotter and drier conditions would increase both the land under irrigation and the amount of water applied per irrigated acre.
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+Increased water use efficiency attributable to higher atmospheric CO2 levels would tend to counter the tendency to apply more water as temperatures rise.
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+Industrial and thermoelectric power uses
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+Industrial use and energy -- which includes water for purposes such as processing, washing, and cooling in facilities that manufacture products and generation of electric power -- accounts for 23 percent of withdrawals worldwide.
+{/org}
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+A rise in water temperature would reduce the efficiency of cooling systems, contributing to an increased demand for cooling water.
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+Since more than 95 percent of the freshwater withdrawn for industrial and thermoelectric power use is now returned to ground and surface water sources, this increased demand would not represent a major increase in consumptive use.
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+But if aquatic ecosystems were threatened by higher water temperatures resulting from either a global warming or from warmed-up return flows of water used for cooling, these uses might be subjected to more stringent environmental regulations.
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+Changes in the quantity, quality, and timing of runoff stemming from greenhouse warming would affect instream water uses such as hydroelectric power generation, navigation, recreation, and maintenance of ecosystems.
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+More importantly, the prospect that a global warming will alter in unknown ways, the local and regional supplies and demands of water reinforce the need for institutions that facilitate adaptation to whatever the future brings and promote more efficient water management and use.
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+Conclusions and Recommendations
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+Around the world, growing populations and rising living standards are increasing humanity's consumption of water.
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+If climate change does reduce precipitation or increases the intensity of storms and therefore surface runoff, catastrophic situations are certain to arise.
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+To respond to this threat, we first of all have to cure the disease before treating the symptoms.
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+Nevertheless, a start should be made to identify ways to adapt to the changes and mitigate to the extent possible the negative impacts expected from climate change.
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+Also, ways to profit from the changes should be studied.
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+People will have to be sensitized to the problems of water wastage.
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+Policies or taxes should be introduced that cut waste and constrain demand.
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+Finally, a survey of the vulnerability and resiliency of water basins is needed to support water-use planning in the event that climate change has its predicted impacts.
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+With the ongoing growth of population numbers in many counties on this planet attention should be given on how to manage demand in order to minimize use and exploitation of the resources.
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+Especially in areas that already have to cope with shortages of potable water and increasing competition between different users.
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+For demand management public awareness of the value of water and the actual pressure that is posed upon quality as well as quantity of the resource is crucial.
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+As water and its availability are influenced by many different anthropogenic as well as natural elements, the problems we face can only be solved in a way that includes as many of these elements as possible.
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+In the end the impacts of climate change on water balances and, therefore, the availability of water will depend on the baseline condition of the water supply system and the ability of water resources managers to respond not only to climate change but also to population growth and changes in demand.
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+Related Chapters
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+{unl}
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+IPCC, Watson, R.T., M.C. Zinyowera, and R.H. Moss (eds.)
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+Climate Change 1995
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+{org:en}
+Impacts Adaptations, and Mitigation of Climate Change
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+Scientific Technical Analyses.
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+mod(100634276:0N.@entry.@pl, 302084804:02)
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+Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
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+[W]
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+[S:3209]
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+Technical contribution of Working Group II to the Second Assessment Report for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
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+[S:3210]
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+Lundqvist J. & Falkenmark M., 1997
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+[S:3211]
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+World freshwater problem-Call for a new realism.
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+Background paper for the Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater Resources of the World report, WMO, Geneva
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+[S:3213]
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+background information for the discussion on global availability of freshwater resources
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:3214]
+{org:en}
+Yates, D.N., 1997
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+[W]
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+[W]
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+Climate change impacts on the hydrologic resources of South America
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+mod(105154676:17.@def.@pl, 115690991:1K)
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+an annual, continental scale assessment, from Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change in Latin America, Climate Research Special
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+Vol. 9 Nos. 1 and 2
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+mod(115689976:02.@entry, "9":07)
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+
+[S:3218]
+{org:en}
+Inter Research, Oldendorf / Luhe, Germany.
+{/org}
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+mod(100636921:08.@entry, 303163390:02)
+mod(100636921:08.@entry, 303163390:02)
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+
+[S:3219]
+{org:en}
+publication on climate change impacts on different aspects in the Latin American region
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+aoj(600000036:03, 101101958:02.@entry)
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+[S:3220]
+{org:en}
+World Resources Institute, 1999
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+[/W]
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+{org:en}
+World Resources 1998-99.
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+mod(105154676:08.@entry.@pl, "1998-99":0I)
+mod(105154676:08.@entry.@pl, "1998-99":0I)
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+mod(105154676:08.@entry.@pl, 105670972:02)
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+[S:3222]
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+New York
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:3223]
+{org:en}
+Oxford University Press.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
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+[/W]
+[W]
+500323589:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3224]
+{org:en}
+Statistical information on world resources
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000036:0S, 105091527:0E.@entry)
+mod(105154676:0Z.@pl, 105670972:0T)
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+obj(600000036:0S, 105154676:0Z.@pl)
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+[S:3225]
+{org:en}
+UNDP, 1998
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
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+[/W]
+[W]
+500323943:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+"1998":08.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:3226]
+{org:en}
+Human Development Report 1998, Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom
+{/org}
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+plc(103868406:1M, 500003672:1U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3227]
+{org:en}
+Statistical information on human development
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000036:0S, 105091527:0E.@entry)
+aoj(301258617:0T, 100250259:0Z)
+aoj(600000036:0S, 105091527:0E.@entry)
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+
+[S:3228]
+{org:en}
+UNEP, WMO, 1997
+{/org}
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+[W]
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+[/W]
+[W]
+"1997":0D.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3229]
+{org:en}
+Common Questions About Climate Change, Brochure
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+{unl}
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+[/W]
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+
+[S:3230]
+{org:en}
+general information on Climate Change
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000036:0O, 105091527:0A.@entry)
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+aoj(600000036:0O, 105091527:0A.@entry)
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+obj(600000036:0O, 100191142:0X)
+obj(600000036:0O, 100191142:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3231]
+{org:en}
+COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(:01.@entry, 108499057:0Z.@def)
+mod(:01.@entry, 108499057:0Z.@def)
+and:01(104931965:0I.@entry, 103081660:02)
+and:01(104931965:0I.@entry, 103081660:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3232]
+{org:en}
+COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(:01.@entry, 108499057:0Z.@def)
+mod(:01.@entry, 108499057:0Z.@def)
+and:01(104931965:0I.@entry, 103081660:02)
+and:01(104931965:0I.@entry, 103081660:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3233]
+{org:en}
+Zaitseva Nina. A.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323020:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323020:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3234]
+{org:en}
+Russian Academy of Sciences, Department of Earth Sciences, Russia
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323556:02.@entry, 105853273:0V)
+mod(105999797:1F.@pl, 108562067:19)
+plc(500323556:02.@entry, 105853273:0V)
+mod(105999797:1F.@pl, 108562067:19)
+mod(105853273:0V, 105999797:1F.@pl)
+plc(105853273:0V, 500004285:1P)
+plc(105853273:0V, 500004285:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3235]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3236]
+{org:en}
+absolute humidity, adiabatic temperature change, advection, aerosol, air, air mass, air pollutants, air (atmospheric) pressure, anticyclone, atmosphere, aurora, cloud, greenhouse effect, condensation, contrail, convection, cyclone, dew, dew point, evaporation, greenhouse effect, heterosphere, homosphere, mesosphere, minor gases, radiation, stratosphere, troposphere, ionosphere, water, water vapor, wind
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100345641:B7.@entry, 115055633:B0)
+mod(101042242:28, 104727214:24)
+and(111422597:1Q, 113427989:1F)
+and(113452614:5X, 109255519:5N)
+and(115691784:88, 115691481:7U)
+and(100113113:3C, 114857278:2I.@pl)
+and(109462600:9Y, 109448090:9K)
+aoj(300744141:0L, 100191142:17)
+aoj(300005205:02, 114535643:0B)
+and(109247410:4J, 111427241:4B)
+and(103974215:6R, 114834132:6I)
+and(101042242:28, 104727214:1Z)
+and(107935504:AN, 108588916:AB)
+and(113427989:1F, 100191142:17)
+and(104809642:51, 109247410:4J)
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+and(113452614:5X, 109255519:5N)
+and(115691784:88, 115691481:7U)
+and(100113113:3C, 114857278:2I.@pl)
+and(109462600:9Y, 109448090:9K)
+aoj(300744141:0L, 100191142:17)
+aoj(300005205:02, 114535643:0B)
+and(109247410:4J, 111427241:4B)
+and(103974215:6R, 114834132:6I)
+and(101042242:28, 104727214:1Z)
+and(107935504:AN, 108588916:AB)
+and(113427989:1F, 100191142:17)
+and(104809642:51, 109247410:4J)
+mod(104809642:7M, 303070101:7B)
+and(114857278:2I.@pl, 101042242:28)
+and(114481080:92.@pl, 109352578:8K)
+and(111443721:3Q, 100113113:3C)
+and(111443721:69, 113452614:5X)
+mod(115055633:B0, 107935504:AU)
+and(100191142:17, 114535643:0B)
+and(106246700:59, 104809642:51)
+and(104809642:7M, 113572436:6Y)
+aoj(302831736:2Z.@parenthesis, 104727214:2U)
+and(101252918:99, 114481080:92.@pl)
+and(108499057:3Z, 111443721:3Q)
+and(114834132:6I, 111443721:69)
+and(104727214:1Z, 111422597:1Q)
+and(115055633:B0, 107935504:AN)
+and(109255519:5N, 106246700:59)
+and(115691481:7U, 104809642:7M)
+mod(100113113:3C, 104727214:2U)
+and(115055633:B0, 107935504:AN)
+and(109255519:5N, 106246700:59)
+and(115691481:7U, 104809642:7M)
+mod(100113113:3C, 104727214:2U)
+and(109448090:9K, 101252918:99)
+mod(100191142:17, 105011790:0V)
+and(111427241:4B, 108499057:3Z)
+mod(103974215:6R, 114834132:6N)
+and(108588916:AB, 109462600:9Y)
+mod(104809642:51, 303070101:4Q)
+and(113572436:6Y, 103974215:6R)
+mod(114857278:2I.@pl, 104727214:2E)
+aoj(301415219:8W, 114481080:92.@pl)
+mod(111443721:3Q, 301817405:3M)
+and(109352578:8K, 115691784)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3237]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3238]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3239]
+{org:en}
+Brief history of atmospheric studies
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106155567:08.@entry, 104345028:0V.@pl)
+mod(106155567:08.@entry, 104345028:0V.@pl)
+mod(104345028:0V.@pl, 302831736:0J)
+aoj(300547166:02, 106155567:08.@entry)
+aoj(300547166:02, 106155567:08.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3240]
+{org:en}
+Meteorological elements and units of measurement
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105869857:0U.@entry.@pl, 105868954:0H.@pl)
+and(105869857:0U.@entry.@pl, 105868954:0H.@pl)
+aoj(303161104:02, 105868954:0H.@pl)
+mod(105869857:0U.@entry.@pl, 100996969:13)
+mod(105869857:0U.@entry.@pl, 100996969:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3241]
+{org:en}
+Composition of atmospheric air
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103081660:02.@entry, 104727214:0T)
+mod(103081660:02.@entry, 104727214:0T)
+mod(104727214:0T, 302831736:0H)
+mod(104727214:0T, 302831736:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3242]
+{org:en}
+Structure of the atmosphere
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104931965:02.@entry, 108499057:0J.@def)
+mod(104931965:02.@entry, 108499057:0J.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3243]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3244]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3245]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3246]
+{org:en}
+Biographical sketch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3247]
+{org:en}
+Summary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3248]
+{org:en}
+Weather influences our everyday lives, i.e. our activities, jobs, health and comfort.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202536557:0A.@entry, 111524662:02.@topic)
+obj(115689159:15, :01)
+mod(100006269:0Y.@pl, 600000005:0L)
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+obj(202536557:0A.@entry, 100006269:0Y.@pl)
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+mod(100006269:0Y.@pl, 300970947:0P)
+mod:01(100407535:1E.@pl, 600000005:1A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3249]
+{org:en}
+And everyone should understand that weather is the state of the atmosphere, one of the most important part of our physical environment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200588888:0M.@entry.@should, :01)
+pos:01(108567235:3K, 600000005:37)
+aoj:01(600000027:29, 111524662:15.@topic)
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+agt(200588888:0M.@entry.@should, 600000577:06)
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+obj:01(100024720:1K.@def.@entry, 108499057:1X.@def)
+man:01(301275562:2P, 400536271:2K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3250]
+{org:en}
+The Earth's physical environment is traditionally divided into three major parts (spheres)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200642098:1G.@entry, 108567235:0N.@topic.@def)
+mod(103892891:25.@pl, 301471002:1Z)
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+obj(200642098:1G.@entry, 108567235:0N.@topic.@def)
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+man(200642098:1G.@entry, 400476807:12)
+mod(108567235:0N.@topic.@def, 300627004:0E)
+gol(200642098:1G.@entry, 103892891:25.@pl)
+gol(200642098:1G.@entry, 103892891:25.@pl)
+mod(108567235:0N.@topic.@def, 108562067:06)
+qua(103892891:25.@pl, "3":1T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3251]
+{org:en}
+the solid earth or lithosphere
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300291181:06, :01.@entry)
+aoj(300291181:06, :01.@entry)
+or:01(109339810:0L.@entry.@def, 108562067:0C.@def)
+or:01(109339810:0L.@entry.@def, 108562067:0C.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3252]
+{org:en}
+the water portion of the planet, the hydrosphere
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(109394007:0R.@entry.@def, 109307902:13.@def)
+mod(109394007:0R.@entry.@def, 109307902:13.@def)
+mod(115699459:0C.@def, 107935504:06)
+mod(109394007:0R.@entry.@def, 115699459:0C.@def)
+mod(109394007:0R.@entry.@def, 115699459:0C.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3253]
+{org:en}
+and the Earth's gaseous envelope, the atmosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103291741:0Q.@entry.@def, 108499057:14.@def)
+mod(103291741:0Q.@entry.@def, 108499057:14.@def)
+aoj(302262542:0I, 103291741:0Q.@entry.@def)
+mod(103291741:0Q.@entry.@def, 108562067:0A)
+mod(103291741:0Q.@entry.@def, 108562067:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3254]
+{org:en}
+And, it is significant that our environment is highly integrated and is not dominated by rock, water, or air alone.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300625055:0D.@entry, :01)
+mod:02(108567235:11.@topic, 600000005:0X)
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+agt:02(202539334:29.@entry.@not.@topic, :01)
+man:02(301326148:1N.@topic.@not, 400089267:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3255]
+{org:en}
+They are in continuous interaction as air comes into contact with rock, rock with water, and water with air.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000117:11, 100039021:0P.@entry)
+aoj:01(600000019:2H, 100348008:2C)
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+obj(200341917:18, 104727214:14)
+obj:01(600000019:3A, 104727214:3F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3256]
+{org:en}
+Moreover, the biosphere, the totality of lifeforms on our planet, is associated with each of the three physical domains and is an equally integral part of the Earth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(103892891:45.@entry.@indef, 200713167:1Z)
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+man(300515870:3W, 400022131:3O)
+mod(109394007:1O, 600000005:1K)
+qua(108000118:36.@def.@pl, "3":2R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3257]
+{org:en}
+The interplay and interaction among the spheres of the Earth's environment are uncountable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303160522:29.@entry, :01)
+mod(108567235:1T.@def, 108562067:1L)
+obj(600000064:0W, 104274530:16.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303160522:29.@entry, :01)
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+aoj(600000064:0W, :01)
+mod(104274530:16.@def.@pl, 108567235:1T.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3258]
+{org:en}
+Acted on by the combined effects of the Earth's motion and energy from the Sun, our planet's formless and invisible envelope of air reacts by producing an infinite variety of weather, which, in turn, creates the global climates.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(201640207:5M, 600000208:5D)
+obj(201621555:40.@progress, 111524662:4X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3259]
+{org:en}
+For better understanding of the atmosphere people created many instruments and methods of sounding the atmosphere from the very surface up to its upper limits.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(201640207:1N.@entry.@past, 105805475:0G)
+obj(600000047:41, 105124057:4H.@pl)
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+obj(202134927:2R.@progress, 108499057:34.@def)
+obj(201640207:1N.@entry.@past, :01:01)
+mod(105124057:4H.@pl, 301206318:4B)
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+mod(105124057:4H.@pl, 600000016:47)
+agt(201640207:1N.@entry.@past, 107942152:1G.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105124057:4H.@pl, 600000016:47)
+man(202134927:2R.@progress, 600000047:41)
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+aoj(300067379:09, 105805475:0G)
+mod(104362025:3T.@def, 400031899:3O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3260]
+{org:en}
+Meteorological elements and units are actually the physical ones as all processes running in the atmosphere are physical ones but taking place in the very complicated medium.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(600000027:1Q.@entry.@def.@pl, 600000039:1V)
+plc(202774213:3U.@progress, 106254475:4O.@def)
+aoj:01(303161104:02, 105868954:0H.@pl)
+qua(100029677:22.@topic.@pl, 600000011:1Y)
+mod(600000027:1Q.@entry.@def.@pl, 300627004:1H)
+man(302177584:4C, 400031899:47)
+man(600000027:1Q.@entry.@def.@pl, 600000039:1V)
+plc(202774213:3U.@progress, 106254475:4O.@def)
+aoj:01(303161104:02, 105868954:0H.@pl)
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+mod(600000027:1Q.@entry.@def.@pl, 300627004:1H)
+man(302177584:4C, 400031899:47)
+obj(202774213:3U.@progress, 600000027:3E.@pl)
+man(600000027:1Q.@entry.@def.@pl, 400149138:14)
+aoj(302177584:4C, 106254475:4O.@def)
+aoj(600000027:3E.@pl, 100029677:22.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(600000027:1Q.@entry.@def.@pl, :01)
+man(202774213:3U.@progress, 600000098:3J)
+aoj(600000027:1Q.@entry.@def.@pl, :01)
+man(202774213:3U.@progress, 600000098:3J)
+obj(600000039:1V, 600000027:3E.@pl)
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+obj(200332672:2C.@progress, 100029677:22.@topic.@pl)
+mod(600000027:3E.@pl, 300627004:35)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3261]
+{org:en}
+Composition of the atmospheric air is extremely favorable for all life-forms, and if nobody still knows how the life appeared on the planet, no one should have any doubts that the life exists here only owing to this beautiful "blanket ".
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(:01.@entry, 300604978:1E)
+aoj(300604978:1E, 103081660:02.@topic)
+man:01(600000225:5R, 400535197:5M)
+cnt:01(104757522:4M.@pl, 202603699:5A)
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+aoj:01(200065370:4D.@entry.@should, 600000810:3Z.@topic)
+mod(103384535:21.@pl, 300521584:1S)
+aoj:01(300217728:65, 102849154:6L.@single_quote)
+and(:01.@entry, 300604978:1E)
+aoj(300604978:1E, 103081660:02.@topic)
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+cnt:01(104757522:4M.@pl, 202603699:5A)
+obj(103081660:02.@topic, 104727214:0X.@def)
+obj:01(200422090:3B.@past.@should, 100006269:36.@topic.@def)
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+mod(103384535:21.@pl, 300521584:1S)
+aoj:01(300217728:65, 102849154:6L.@single_quote)
+man:01(202603699:5A, 600000225:5R)
+man(200594337:2S, 400031304:2M)
+and:01(200065370:4D.@entry.@should, 200422090:3B.@past.@should)
+man(300604978:1E, 400535251:14)
+mod:01(102849154:6L.@single_quote, 600000017:60)
+aoj:01(202603699:5A, 100006269:55.@topic.@def)
+aoj(200594337:2S, 400535957:2F)
+con(:01.@entry, 200594337:2S)
+pur(300604978:1E, 103384535:21.@pl)
+obj:01(600000225:5R, 102849154:6L.@single_quote)
+con(:01.@entry, 200594337:2S)
+pur(300604978:1E, 103384535:21.@pl)
+obj:01(600000225:5R, 102849154:6L.@single_quote)
+mod:01(104757522:4M.@pl, 600000052:4I)
+mod(104727214:0X.@def, 302831736:0L)
+plc:01(200422090:3B.@past.@should, 109394007:3R.@def)
+obj:01(200065370:4D.@entry.@should, 104757522:4M.@pl)
+mod(103384535:21.@pl, 100006269:1W)
+man:01(200422090:3B.@past.@should, 400536278:2Y)
+man:01(202603699:5A, 400108479:5H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3262]
+{org:en}
+The atmosphere extends from the Earth's surface up to thousands km above the ground.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200154141:07.@entry, 600000047:14)
+obj(600000072:1N, 103462594:1X.@def)
+aoj(600000072:1N, 115669024:1K)
+man(200154141:07.@entry, 600000047:14)
+obj(600000072:1N, 103462594:1X.@def)
+aoj(600000072:1N, 115669024:1K)
+obj(600000047:14, 115669024:1K)
+src(200154141:07.@entry, 115690588:0O.@def)
+src(200154141:07.@entry, 115690588:0O.@def)
+mod(115669024:1K, 115690851:1A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3263]
+{org:en}
+Basic property of the atmosphere is that it consists of several important layers
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 104012260:08.@topic)
+mod(104012260:08.@topic, 108499057:0O.@def)
+qua:01(101463259:27.@pl, 600000059:1P)
+aoj(:01.@entry, 104012260:08.@topic)
+mod(104012260:08.@topic, 108499057:0O.@def)
+qua:01(101463259:27.@pl, 600000059:1P)
+obj:01(202774237:1D.@entry, 101463259:27.@pl)
+aoj:01(202774237:1D.@entry, 600000016:1A.@topic)
+aoj:01(202774237:1D.@entry, 600000016:1A.@topic)
+aoj(300026168:02, 104012260:08.@topic)
+aoj:01(301275562:1X, 101463259:27.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3264]
+{org:en}
+troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere (highest region of the atmosphere).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@parenthesis, :01.@entry)
+and:01(109457367:15, 109352578:0T)
+man:02(300705498:1Y, 400536271:2U)
+aoj(:02.@parenthesis, :01.@entry)
+and:01(109457367:15, 109352578:0T)
+man:02(300705498:1Y, 400536271:2U)
+aoj:02(300705498:1Y, 105221895:26.@entry)
+and:01(109448090:0F, 109462600:02)
+mod:02(105221895:26.@entry, 108499057:2K.@def)
+mod:02(105221895:26.@entry, 108499057:2K.@def)
+and:01(109352578:0T, 109448090:0F)
+and:01(109277432:1N.@entry, 109457367:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3265]
+{org:en}
+Each has its own character of the temperature profile.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:07.@entry, 600000092:02.@topic)
+mod(104616916:0J, 301768724:0F)
+mod(106516404:1C.@def, 105011790:10)
+aoj(200065370:07.@entry, 600000092:02.@topic)
+mod(104616916:0J, 301768724:0F)
+mod(106516404:1C.@def, 105011790:10)
+mod(106516404:1C.@def, 104616916:0J)
+obj(200065370:07.@entry, 106516404:1C.@def)
+obj(200065370:07.@entry, 106516404:1C.@def)
+mod(104616916:0J, 600000016:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3266]
+{org:en}
+In addition, the atmosphere includes ionosphere and ozonesphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200183879:0U.@entry, 400535244:02)
+and:01(115695783:1I.@entry, 108588916:13)
+man(200183879:0U.@entry, 400535244:02)
+and:01(115695783:1I.@entry, 108588916:13)
+obj(200183879:0U.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj(200183879:0U.@entry, 108499057:0J.@topic.@def)
+aoj(200183879:0U.@entry, 108499057:0J.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3267]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3268]
+{org:en}
+In its everyday life and activities the human society closely interacts with the atmosphere and climate and weather, which are intimately related to the state of the atmosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(202376958:1S.@entry, :01:01)
+obj(100024720:4B.@def, 108499057:4O.@def)
+obj(200953058:3W, :03)
+man(202376958:1S.@entry, 400160440:1K)
+mod(:01, 300970947:09)
+plc(202376958:1S.@entry, :01:01)
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+obj(200953058:3W, :03)
+man(202376958:1S.@entry, 400160440:1K)
+mod(:01, 300970947:09)
+gol(200953058:3W, 100024720:4B.@def)
+ptn(202376958:1S.@entry, 600000018:22)
+mod(:01, 600000016:05)
+and:02(114519366:2Q.@entry.@pl.@def, 108499057:2B.@pl.@def)
+agt(202376958:1S.@entry, 107966140:1C.@topic.@def)
+mod(107966140:1C.@topic.@def, 301258617:16)
+agt(202376958:1S.@entry, 107966140:1C.@topic.@def)
+mod(107966140:1C.@topic.@def, 301258617:16)
+and:03(111524662:32.@entry.@pl.@def, :02)
+obj(600000018:22, :03)
+and:01(100407535:0R.@entry.@pl, 100006269:0I.@pl)
+man(200953058:3W, 400535593:3L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3269]
+{org:en}
+Quite minor in its mass, as compared to that of the whole planet (it amounts to about one millionth of the latter only) the atmosphere is an absolutely indispensable environment for all the life forms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(301415219:08.@entry, 600000396:0R)
+gol:01(100033615:1Z.@entry, "1/1000000":2K)
+mod(600000030:16, 109394007:1O.@def)
+aoj(300849108:4A, 108567235:4O.@entry.@indef)
+mod(101042242:0L, 600000016:0H)
+aoj(108567235:4O.@entry.@indef, 108499057:3I.@topic.@def)
+man(301415219:08.@entry, 600000396:0R)
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+mod(600000030:16, 109394007:1O.@def)
+aoj(300849108:4A, 108567235:4O.@entry.@indef)
+mod(101042242:0L, 600000016:0H)
+aoj(108567235:4O.@entry.@indef, 108499057:3I.@topic.@def)
+obj:01(100033615:1Z.@entry, 600000016:1W.@topic)
+mod(103384535:5H.@def.@pl, 100006269:5C)
+man(301415219:08.@entry, 400018577:02)
+qua:01("1/1000000":2K, "1":2G)
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+mod(103384535:5H.@def.@pl, 300521584:54)
+plc(301415219:08.@entry, 101042242:0L)
+mod:01("1/1000000":2K, 600000200:31.@def)
+plc(301415219:08.@entry, 101042242:0L)
+mod:01("1/1000000":2K, 600000200:31.@def)
+mod(109394007:1O.@def, 300514884:1I)
+man(300849108:4A, 115693253:3Z)
+obj(600000396:0R, 600000030:16)
+pur(108567235:4O.@entry.@indef, 103384535:5H.@def.@pl)
+man:01(100033615:1Z.@entry, 400535197:38)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3270]
+{org:en}
+Without it the Earth would be a lifeless planet.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(109394007:17.@entry.@will.@past.@indef, 600000043:02)
+obj(600000043:02, 600000016:0A)
+man(109394007:17.@entry.@will.@past.@indef, 600000043:02)
+obj(600000043:02, 600000016:0A)
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+aoj(109394007:17.@entry.@will.@past.@indef, 108562067:0H.@topic.@def)
+aoj(109394007:17.@entry.@will.@past.@indef, 108562067:0H.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3271]
+{org:en}
+So, the atmosphere is one of the most important elements of the life support systems, those are subjects of the Encyclopedia of the Life Support Systems (EOLSS).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(104347225:2Q.@entry.@pl, 600000027:0O)
+mod(105868954:1E.@pl, 104377057:27.@def.@pl)
+mod(104377057:43.@def.@pl, 100971463:3V)
+mod(106427387:36.@def, 104377057:43.@def.@pl)
+mod(104377057:27.@def.@pl, 115669378:1U)
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+mod(104377057:43.@def.@pl, 100971463:3V)
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+aoj(301275562:14, 105868954:1E.@pl)
+aoj(104347225:2Q.@entry.@pl, 600000030:2G.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301275562:14, 105868954:1E.@pl)
+mod(100971463:3V, 100006269:3Q)
+equ(500323815:4C.@parenthesis, 104377057:43.@def.@pl)
+pof(600000027:0O, 105868954:1E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3272]
+{org:en}
+Weather affects the agricultural productivity in the extreme, it controls human needs in the production and consumption of all the forms of energy and is vital for aviation safety and the efficiency of ground transportation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300095094:4C.@entry, 200663160:1V)
+aoj(302790222:0M, 113824500:0Z.@def)
+obj(200663160:1V, 109367991:2A.@pl)
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+and:02(105644527:5A.@entry.@def, 100188620:4V.@def)
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+and:02(105644527:5A.@entry.@def, 100188620:4V.@def)
+and:01(100356367:32.@entry.@def, 100522736:2N.@def)
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+obj(200019448:0A, 113824500:0Z.@def)
+pur(300095094:4C.@entry, :02:02)
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+man(200019448:0A, 400536054:1C)
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+mod(109367991:2A.@pl, 301258617:24)
+aoj(300095094:4C.@entry, 600000016:1S.@topic)
+mod(109367991:2A.@pl, 301258617:24)
+mod:02(100188620:4V.@def, 105635188:4M)
+agt(200019448:0A, 111524662:02.@topic)
+mod:02(105644527:5A.@entry.@def, 100315986:5V)
+mod(104633197:3Y, 103384535:3P.@def.@pl)
+scn(200663160:1V, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3273]
+{org:en}
+Many aspects of human activities strongly depend on abrupt changes in weather and on the oscillations of climate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:18.@entry, 104733118:07.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(100191142:1P.@pl.@def, 111524662:20)
+and:01(107345166:2J.@entry.@def.@pl, 100191142:1P.@pl.@def)
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+and:01(107345166:2J.@entry.@def.@pl, 100191142:1P.@pl.@def)
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+obj(202663848:18.@entry, :01:01)
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+obj:01(107345166:2J.@entry.@def.@pl, 114519366:2Z)
+mod(100407535:0O.@pl, 301258617:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3274]
+{org:en}
+History knows many cases when severe winters, extensive summer droughts hitting large territories brought to grave ruin the economies of the whole countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200594337:0A.@entry, 600000033:0R)
+obj(200781903:22.@progress, 105999134:2G.@pl)
+agt(200781903:22.@progress, 114537054:1T.@pl)
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+The atmosphere is an air envelope of our planet, and is the study object of the science of meteorology, which considers the atmospheric processes in all their complexity, including the interaction of the atmosphere with the hydrosphere and the lithosphere (the Earth surface), and investigates the origin and causes of various atmospheric phenomena aiming at developing techniques t predict such phenomena.
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+{org:en}
+Basic physical elements characterizing the atmosphere state are atmospheric pressure, air temperature and humidity, cloudiness (its forms, heights and amount), wind speed and direction, forms and amount of precipitation (rain, snow, hail, etc.), and some others.
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+Among meteorological observations some are made by means of measurements, using special instruments (thermometer, barometer, psychrometer, etc.), while another ones are performed visually and in such cases skill of observers is of great importance.
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+To monitor weather and the atmosphere state over the globe special global network of different type of observational stations permanently and regularly operates actually in all countries thought the world.
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+The first meteorological observations were naturally conducted from the very surface of the planet.
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+However the atmospheric processes in their development, and the weather phenomena precipitated by them all depend on interaction between atmospheric layers at various heights, so it becomes quite important to be able to assess the state of the atmosphere throughout its whole vertical extent.
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+Studies of the atmosphere at various altitudes started simultaneously with the appearance of the first flying vehicles.
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+Following the rapid technological progress in the XX-th century meteorology went through a very quick developmental stage, so that by now it consists of a number of disciplines in their own right, and the scope of the physical processes and phenomena in the atmosphere and of various techniques used to study them is wide indeed.
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+One may name the physics of the atmosphere, synoptic meteorology, dynamic meteorology and climatology and some others as the principal branches of contemporary meteorology.
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+The available techniques of studying the state of the atmosphere have made it possible to determine its chemical composition and structure from the surface of the Earth up to, practically, its upper limit, where it gradually dwindles into outer cosmic space.
+{/org}
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+mod(106389553:72, 300948384:6P)
+mod(104362025:46.@def, 108562067:4L.@def)
+obj(200699815:2K, :01)
+obj(100024720:17.@def, 108499057:1K.@def)
+mod(105124057:5L, 301206318:5F)
+aoj(301821266:28, 200699815:2K)
+aoj(300183053:06, 105665146:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(200267681:6B, 105124057:5L)
+mod(:01, 302692624:2Y)
+man(200267681:6B, 400107987:61)
+obj(200012267:20.@entry.@complete, 600000016:25)
+mod(105665146:0G.@topic.@def.@pl, 200607114:0U.@progress)
+man(600000047:4R, 400053512:4Y)
+mod(:01, 600000016:2U)
+gol(200267681:6B, 106389553:72)
+gol(200012267:20.@entry.@complete, 301821266:28)
+mod(106389553:72, 301385663:6V)
+obj(600000047:4R, 105124057:5L)
+gol(200012267:20.@entry.@complete, 301821266:28)
+mod(106389553:72, 301385663:6V)
+obj(600000047:4R, 105124057:5L)
+frm(:01, 104362025:46.@def)
+obj(200267681:6B, 600000016:5Y)
+man(200699815:2K, 600000047:4R)
+obj(200607114:0U.@progress, 100024720:17.@def)
+mod(105124057:5L, 600000016:5B)
+and:01(104931965:3N.@entry, 103081660:37)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3285]
+{org:en}
+Up to about 100 km the atmosphere is rather homogeneous in its chemical composition.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(301199751:1A.@entry, 600000047:02)
+mod(103081660:22, 302692624:1T)
+man(301199751:1A.@entry, 600000114:13)
+man(301199751:1A.@entry, 600000047:02)
+mod(103081660:22, 302692624:1T)
+man(301199751:1A.@entry, 600000114:13)
+bas(400071165:08, "100":0E)
+plc(301199751:1A.@entry, 103081660:22)
+qua(115669024:0I, 400071165:08)
+aoj(301199751:1A.@entry, 108499057:0P.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301199751:1A.@entry, 108499057:0P.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000047:02, 115669024:0I)
+mod(103081660:22, 600000016:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3286]
+{org:en}
+Close to the surface dry air contains 78,08% nitrogen, 20,95% oxygen, 0,93% argon, 0,03% carbon dioxide, and a remaining 0,01% such gases as hydrogen, neon, helium, methane, and crypton.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202701210:0V.@entry, :02:02)
+and:02(114648100:1S.@indef.@pl, 114647235:1B.@indef.@pl)
+obj:02(600000117:3W, :01.@entry)
+and:02(114481080:3Q.@entry.@indef.@pl, 114796969:2J.@indef.@pl)
+and:02(114796969:2J.@indef.@pl, 114628920:26.@indef.@pl)
+mod(104727214:0R, 104362025:0F.@def)
+and:01(114639921:4I, 114646152:4C)
+obj(202701210:0V.@entry, :02:02)
+and:02(114648100:1S.@indef.@pl, 114647235:1B.@indef.@pl)
+obj:02(600000117:3W, :01.@entry)
+and:02(114481080:3Q.@entry.@indef.@pl, 114796969:2J.@indef.@pl)
+and:02(114796969:2J.@indef.@pl, 114628920:26.@indef.@pl)
+mod(104727214:0R, 104362025:0F.@def)
+and:01(114639921:4I, 114646152:4C)
+qua:02(114481080:3Q.@entry.@indef.@pl, "0.01%":3F)
+mod:02(114628920:26.@indef.@pl, "0.93%":20)
+obj(303161323:02, 104727214:0R)
+mod:02(114647235:1B.@indef.@pl, "78.08%":14)
+and:01(114951229:4Q, 114639921:4I)
+mod:02(114481080:3Q.@entry.@indef.@pl, 303162326:35)
+and:02(114628920:26.@indef.@pl, 114648100:1S.@indef.@pl)
+man(202701210:0V.@entry, 303161323:02)
+mod:02(114648100:1S.@indef.@pl, "20.95%":1L)
+and:01(115695004:53.@entry, 114951229:4Q)
+man(202701210:0V.@entry, 303161323:02)
+mod:02(114648100:1S.@indef.@pl, "20.95%":1L)
+and:01(115695004:53.@entry, 114951229:4Q)
+aoj:02(600000117:3W, 114481080:3Q.@entry.@indef.@pl)
+mod:02(114796969:2J.@indef.@pl, "0.03%":2D)
+aoj(300799953:0N, 104727214:0R)
+and:01(114646152:4C, 114640434:42)
+mod:02(114481080:3Q.@entry.@indef.@pl, 600001411:3L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3287]
+{org:en}
+It also contains xenon, ammonia, hydrogen peroxide, iodine, radon, and some others in even lesser amounts.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:0A.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+and:01(114641397:1I, 114980087:18)
+qua:01(600000063:26.@entry, 600000034:21)
+and:01(600000063:26.@entry, 114652104:1Q)
+and:01(114743582:0Q, 114661274:0J)
+aoj(202701210:0A.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+and:01(114641397:1I, 114980087:18)
+qua:01(600000063:26.@entry, 600000034:21)
+and:01(600000063:26.@entry, 114652104:1Q)
+and:01(114743582:0Q, 114661274:0J)
+man:01(301393681:2L, 400099341:3E)
+man(202701210:0A.@entry, 400047534:05)
+mod:01(114980087:18, 114640434:0Z)
+man:01(301393681:2L, 400017639:2G)
+obj(202701210:0A.@entry, :01:01)
+and:01(114980087:18, 114743582:0Q)
+obj(202701210:0A.@entry, :01:01)
+and:01(114980087:18, 114743582:0Q)
+mod:01(100033615:2S.@pl, 301393681:2L)
+plc:01(600000063:26.@entry, 100033615:2S.@pl)
+and:01(114652104:1Q, 114641397:1I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3288]
+{org:en}
+The mass of 1 liter of atmospheric air at 0 HTM1 and 1013 hPa and the standard gravity acceleration (at 45 deg latitude) is 1,29 g.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(106831819:3N.@entry, 104727214:11.@topic)
+mod:01(100330457:2H.@entry.@def, 300487525:20)
+qua(113624190:0G, 101042242:06.@def)
+mod:03(105127640:35.@entry, 115695044:31)
+qua(104727214:11.@topic, 113624190:0G)
+qua:02(HTM1:1A.@def, "0":18)
+aoj(106831819:3N.@entry, 104727214:11.@topic)
+mod:01(100330457:2H.@entry.@def, 300487525:20)
+qua(113624190:0G, 101042242:06.@def)
+mod:03(105127640:35.@entry, 115695044:31)
+qua(104727214:11.@topic, 113624190:0G)
+qua:02(HTM1:1A.@def, "0":18)
+and:02(:01.@entry, HTM1:1A.@def)
+plc(104727214:11.@topic, :02:02)
+qua:01(115669815:1O.@def, "1013":1J)
+aoj(:03.@parenthesis, :02)
+qua(106831819:3N.@entry, "1.29":3I)
+mod:01(100330457:2H.@entry.@def, 107512147:29)
+qua(106831819:3N.@entry, "1.29":3I)
+mod:01(100330457:2H.@entry.@def, 107512147:29)
+qua(113624190:0G, "1":0E)
+mod(104727214:11.@topic, 302831736:0P)
+mod:03(105127640:35.@entry, "45":2Y)
+and:01(100330457:2H.@entry.@def, 115669815:1O.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3289]
+{org:en}
+The total mass of the atmosphere is about 5,157 HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(HTM1:1E.@entry, 108499057:0O.@topic.@def)
+qua(108499057:0O.@topic.@def, 101042242:0C.@def)
+aoj(HTM1:1E.@entry, 108499057:0O.@topic.@def)
+qua(108499057:0O.@topic.@def, 101042242:0C.@def)
+bas(400071165:12, "5157":18)
+qua(HTM1:1E.@entry, 400071165:12)
+qua(HTM1:1E.@entry, 400071165:12)
+qua(101042242:0C.@def, 303160907:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3290]
+{org:en}
+Atmosphere also contains small amounts of water vapor and of tri-atomic oxygen - ozone, HTM1 (at about 0-3, and 0.000 001 %, respectively).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:0I.@entry, 108499057:02.@topic)
+man:02(:01.@parenthesis, 400137915:3H)
+mod(115055633:1E, 107935504:18)
+man(202701210:0I.@entry, 400047534:0D)
+aoj(303162367:1R, 114648100:22)
+aoj(202701210:0I.@entry, 108499057:02.@topic)
+man:02(:01.@parenthesis, 400137915:3H)
+mod(115055633:1E, 107935504:18)
+man(202701210:0I.@entry, 400047534:0D)
+aoj(303162367:1R, 114648100:22)
+and:02(HTM1:2I.@entry, 114972807:2B)
+obj(202701210:0I.@entry, 115055633:1E)
+qua:01("0-3":2X, 400071165:2R)
+mod(:02, 114648100:22)
+rsn(202701210:0I.@entry, :02:02)
+and:01("0.000001%":36.@entry, "0-3":2X)
+rsn(202701210:0I.@entry, :02:02)
+and:01("0.000001%":36.@entry, "0-3":2X)
+aoj(301391351:0R, 100033615:0X.@pl)
+qua(115055633:1E, 100033615:0X.@pl)
+aoj:02(:01.@parenthesis, HTM1:2I.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3291]
+{org:en}
+In contrast to other atmospheric components the amounts of water vapor and ozone in the atmosphere strongly vary diurnally, seasonally and geographically.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200436879:32.@entry, 600000585:02)
+obj(600000585:02, 103081021:0Z.@pl)
+and:02(400232172:3X.@entry, 400447397:3I)
+man(200436879:32.@entry, 400177289:2T)
+man(200436879:32.@entry, 600000585:02)
+obj(600000585:02, 103081021:0Z.@pl)
+and:02(400232172:3X.@entry, 400447397:3I)
+man(200436879:32.@entry, 400177289:2T)
+and:01(114972807:25.@entry.@topic, 115055633:1V.@topic)
+man(200436879:32.@entry, :03)
+mod(103081021:0Z.@pl, 302831736:0N)
+qua(:01, 100033615:1E.@def.@pl)
+obj(200436879:32.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(103081021:0Z.@pl, 600000031:0H)
+obj(200436879:32.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(103081021:0Z.@pl, 600000031:0H)
+plc(:01, 108499057:2I.@def)
+and:03(:02.@entry, 400535562:37)
+mod:01(115055633:1V.@topic, 107935504:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3292]
+{org:en}
+Despite the relatively small amounts of these gases in the atmosphere, as compared to its principal components, their role in atmospheric processes is quite significant.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300625055:4F.@entry, 600000083:02)
+obj(600000083:02, 114481080:1C.@pl)
+mod(100722061:3C.@topic, 600000020:36.@pl)
+man(301391351:0P, 400160834:0E)
+man(300625055:4F.@entry, 400018577:49)
+mod(114481080:1C.@pl, 600000017:16)
+man(300625055:4F.@entry, 600000083:02)
+obj(600000083:02, 114481080:1C.@pl)
+mod(100722061:3C.@topic, 600000020:36.@pl)
+man(301391351:0P, 400160834:0E)
+man(300625055:4F.@entry, 400018577:49)
+mod(114481080:1C.@pl, 600000017:16)
+mod(103081021:2U.@pl, 600000016:2G)
+aoj(300625055:4F.@entry, 100722061:3C.@topic)
+qua(114481080:1C.@pl, 100033615:0V.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000396:21, 103081021:2U.@pl)
+man(300625055:4F.@entry, 600000396:21)
+plc(114481080:1C.@pl, 108499057:1P.@def)
+man(300625055:4F.@entry, 600000396:21)
+plc(114481080:1C.@pl, 108499057:1P.@def)
+mod(100029677:3W.@pl, 302831736:3K)
+scn(100722061:3C.@topic, 100029677:3W.@pl)
+aoj(301391351:0P, 100033615:0V.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303161143:2K, 103081021:2U.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3293]
+{org:en}
+For example, together with carbon dioxide, both the water vapor and HTM1 strongly affect the thermal regime of the atmosphere, particularly at large heights.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000094:02.@entry, 200019448:28)
+and:01(HTM1:1U.@entry.@topic.@def, 115055633:1K.@topic.@def)
+man(200019448:28, 400177289:1Z)
+plc(200019448:28, 105137165:43.@pl)
+obj(600000094:02.@entry, 200019448:28)
+and:01(HTM1:1U.@entry.@topic.@def, 115055633:1K.@topic.@def)
+man(200019448:28, 400177289:1Z)
+plc(200019448:28, 105137165:43.@pl)
+man(105137165:43.@pl, 400084223:3H)
+agt(200019448:28, :01)
+obj(600000113:0F, 114796969:0T)
+mod(115669360:2R.@def, 301250565:2J)
+man(200019448:28, 600000113:0F)
+mod:01(115055633:1K.@topic.@def, 107935504:1E)
+man(200019448:28, 600000113:0F)
+mod:01(115055633:1K.@topic.@def, 107935504:1E)
+mod(115669360:2R.@def, 108499057:35.@def)
+obj(200019448:28, 115669360:2R.@def)
+aoj(300527870:3X, 105137165:43.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3294]
+{org:en}
+Ozone absorbs strong (strict) part of ultra-violet radiation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200395698:08.@entry, 114972807:02.@topic)
+mod(101252918:1I, 115693187:14)
+aoj(301068609:0G, 103892891:0W)
+agt(200395698:08.@entry, 114972807:02.@topic)
+mod(101252918:1I, 115693187:14)
+aoj(301068609:0G, 103892891:0W)
+mod(103892891:0W, 101252918:1I)
+obj(200395698:08.@entry, 103892891:0W)
+obj(200395698:08.@entry, 103892891:0W)
+aoj(303157096:1B, 101252918:1I)
+cnt(301068609:0G, 303161533:0O.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3295]
+{org:en}
+Water vapor is critical to the formation of clouds and precipitation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300647542:0H.@entry, 115055633:08.@topic)
+and:01(105061149:1L.@entry, 109247410:1A.@pl)
+aoj(300647542:0H.@entry, 115055633:08.@topic)
+and:01(105061149:1L.@entry, 109247410:1A.@pl)
+obj(100925207:0X.@def, :01:01)
+ben(300647542:0H.@entry, 100925207:0X.@def)
+ben(300647542:0H.@entry, 100925207:0X.@def)
+mod(115055633:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3296]
+{org:en}
+The atmosphere always contains certain amounts of fine solid and liquid particles of the so-called atmospheric aerosols.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:0O.@entry, 108499057:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(111422597:35.@def.@pl, 302831736:2T)
+aoj(:01, 106326406:22.@pl)
+aoj(111422597:35.@def.@pl, 106326406:22.@pl)
+aoj(202701210:0O.@entry, 108499057:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(111422597:35.@def.@pl, 302831736:2T)
+aoj(:01, 106326406:22.@pl)
+aoj(111422597:35.@def.@pl, 106326406:22.@pl)
+aoj(300309740:0X, 100033615:15.@pl)
+man(202701210:0O.@entry, 400019339:0H)
+and:01(300291181:1L, 300850183:1G)
+obj(202701210:0O.@entry, 106326406:22.@pl)
+obj(202701210:0O.@entry, 106326406:22.@pl)
+and:01(300432453:1V.@entry, 300291181:1L)
+qua(106326406:22.@pl, 100033615:15.@pl)
+mod(111422597:35.@def.@pl, 303161064:2J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3297]
+{org:en}
+Their concentration and other characteristics strongly vary time and place.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200436879:1L.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(104731497:0W.@entry.@pl.@topic, 600000031:0Q)
+and:02(100721431:1Z.@entry, 100028270:1Q)
+agt(200436879:1L.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(104731497:0W.@entry.@pl.@topic, 600000031:0Q)
+and:02(100721431:1Z.@entry, 100028270:1Q)
+man(200436879:1L.@entry, 400177289:1C)
+obj(200436879:1L.@entry, :02:02)
+obj(200436879:1L.@entry, :02:02)
+mod:01(100375071:08.@topic.@pl, 600000020:02.@pl)
+and:01(104731497:0W.@entry.@pl.@topic, 100375071:08.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3298]
+{org:en}
+Water droplets, ice crystals, and also dust, soot, and ash from forest and other fires, soil, cosmic and volcanic dust, and particles lifted (raised) by wind from the surface, such as plant pollen, are among the natural aerosols.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000064:69.@entry, :02)
+and:04(114839846:3I.@pl, 109335240:2S.@pl)
+mod:02(113771828:08.@pl.@topic, 107935504:02)
+man:02(:01.@entry, 400047534:10)
+mod:05(111675537:5T, 100017222:5N)
+obj:04(200178502:45, 106326406:3V.@entry.@pl)
+frm(:02, :06)
+and:04(109335240:2S.@pl, 100986938:2L.@pl)
+aoj:05(600000029:5F, :04.@entry)
+aoj(600000064:69.@entry, :02)
+and:04(114839846:3I.@pl, 109335240:2S.@pl)
+mod:02(113771828:08.@pl.@topic, 107935504:02)
+man:02(:01.@entry, 400047534:10)
+mod:05(111675537:5T, 100017222:5N)
+obj:04(200178502:45, 106326406:3V.@entry.@pl)
+frm(:02, :06)
+and:04(109335240:2S.@pl, 100986938:2L.@pl)
+aoj:05(600000029:5F, :04.@entry)
+and:02(103142679:0M.@pl.@topic, 113771828:08.@pl.@topic)
+frm:04(100345641:4O, 104362025:52.@def)
+mod(111422597:6R.@def.@pl, 301335708:6J)
+and:03(301355746:39.@entry, 301385663:2Y)
+mod:06(:05.@entry, 600000031:2C)
+and:01(115395468:1E.@topic, 114839846:18.@topic)
+cnt:04(200178502:45, 200158503:4D.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000064:69.@entry, 111422597:6R.@def.@pl)
+aoj:04(:03, 114839846:3I)
+and:06(:05.@entry, 108438533:21.@pl)
+obj(600000064:69.@entry, 111422597:6R.@def.@pl)
+aoj:04(:03, 114839846:3I)
+and:06(:05.@entry, 108438533:21.@pl)
+and:01(112303462:1O.@entry.@topic, 115395468:1E.@topic)
+agt:04(200178502:45, 100345641:4O)
+and:02(:01.@entry, 103142679:0M.@pl.@topic)
+obj:05(600000029:5F, 111675537:5T)
+and:04(106326406:3V.@entry.@pl, 114839846:3I.@pl)
+mod:02(103142679:0M.@pl.@topic, 107614198:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3299]
+{org:en}
+As a rule these are not toxic, and their concentration rarely becomes too high.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200149583:1S.@entry, 302449430:0Q.@not)
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+Brief history of atmospheric studies
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+Any practical activity of people requires explanation and prediction of weather and climate.
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+Studies of the atmosphere originated in times immemorial.
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+Even primitive and pristine people were able to observe atmospheric phenomena and to infer about the further events in the atmosphere.
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+No other field of knowledge has so many superstitions, prejudices, mistakes, and charlatanism as the weather forecasting.
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+Long-term experience of herds, tillers, and seamen was generalized as different distinctive marks, which sometimes allowed predicting of weather for tomorrow.
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+Literally, each philosopher of ancient times considered his primary obligation to find explanation to clouds, winds, precipitation, and to predict further development of atmospheric processes.
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+But gradually it became a science together with progress of human knowledge about the Nature.
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+In IV century A.D. Aristotel has written his 3-volume work gave correct explanation to many of phenomena occurring in the atmosphere.
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+But at that time he could not yet understand that the wind is a result of the air motions, but not an "Earth's emanation ".
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+Ancient Greeks built towers to observe wind and believed that the weather was made by wind, and the latter was created by gods.
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+Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) is credited with the first thermometer and that he formulated the equation of motion, which is fundamental to the study of the mechanical aspects of atmospheric flow.
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+His disciple Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647) formulated the basic principle of atmospheric pressure and made possible the development of the first barometer by Vincenzo Viviani (1622-1700), who also built the first cord hygrometer.
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+Galilei's disciple Benedetto Castelli (1579-1643) is credited with the first pluviometer and evaporimeter.
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+This was the beginning of meteorology (Greek word HTM1 meteora HTM2 means a sky phenomenon, and the HTM3 logos HTM4 is a word).
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+The instruments and observing methods developed by these eminent scientists made it possible for the Accademia del Cimento in Florence (Italy) to establish in 1654 the first international weather observing network in Europe.
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+Italian monks made valuable observations of the atmosphere state, but for several centuries they reported only surface data, but to understand the atmosphere people needed data of the free atmosphere, i.e. layers higher than just the surface layer (0-10 m above the surface).
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+In the course of human history scientists always used every available opportunity to study the free atmosphere, from climbing mountains with meteorological instruments in hand to launching artificial Earth satellites.
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+Studies of the free atmosphere began as early as the XVIII century.
+{/org}
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+For example, interesting observations of Aurora Borealis were made by M.V. Lomonosov, the famous Russian scientist of the XVIII century, and the data from such observations have not lost their importance even now.
+{/org}
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+In the year 1647, using a mercury barometer, which he took to the top of Mountain Pew-de-Dom, the French scientist and researcher Perriet discovered that atmospheric pressure dropped with height.
+{/org}
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+That was the first aerological (upper-air) measurement in history.
+{/org}
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+
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+Sometime later, during the second half of the XVIII century the Swiss physicist Sosseur conducted numerous meteorological measurements in the Alps.
+{/org}
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+
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+During 1820 A. Humboldt (Germany) carried out extensive meteorological observations in the South American Andes.
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+High altitude observatories for routine observations appeared somewhat later.
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+Measurements and observations in the mountains provided useful data
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+The history of aerological studies is closely related to progress in aviation.
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+Researches of free atmosphere started with the first flights of the people on board of gas balloons.
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+The first such flight in Russia was undertaken in 1731 by Kryakutny - a podyachiy from the town of Ryazan, who built and flew a balloon filled with hot air (Podyachiy - a minor provincial official in pre-Peter the Great Russia).
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+Further on, more or less systematic, flights of balloons started in France from 1783 after the Montgolfier brothers created their first balloon.
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+The first flight to be considered truly scientific was in 1784 by the American physician Joeffris, who together with the French aeronaut Blanchard flew over London.
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+Regretfully, the first meteorological observations from those flights were married by solar radiation - induced errors in the temperature data.
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+A flight by Academician Ya.D. Zakharov (Russia) on June 30, 1804, took place after sunset, so the temperature data were free from such errors.
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+Beside temperature, various other physical experiments were undertaken during that flight.
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+Balloons were used in many countries to study the atmosphere and to perform various physical experiments aloft.
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+During 1862-1866, systematic balloon flights were undertaken by Gleysher, the English scientist, who was the first to ventilate thermometers during his measurements.
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+In one flight he reached a height of 8700 m and almost perished in the attempt.
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+However, reliable balloon measurements of temperature only started after Richard Assman in Germany invented his aspiration psychrometer in 1887.
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+In Russia, flights began again in 1868, with such prominent scientists as M.A. Rykachov, M.M. Pomortsev taking part.
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+D.I. Mendeleev, S.I. Savinov, V.V. Kuznetsov, N.N. Kalitin, as well as many others also flew balloons and made accurate measurements.
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+Of particular value are results from their Berlin launches of 1888-1889.
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+Starting from 1940, free balloons (see Fig.1) were widely used at the USSR Central Aerological Observatory (CAO) for dedicated studies of the atmosphere.
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+During 1946-1952, a comprehensive program of observations of free atmosphere from balloons flying with scientists on board in long-duration drift was performed.
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+The longest and farthest of such flights reached from Dolgoprudny (Moscow region) to Novosibirsk (more than 2500,0 km) and took three days.
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+In some cases, such measurements were carried out from board balloons simultaneously flying at different flight levels and equipped with diverse meteorological and actinometric instrumentation.
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+V.A. Belinskiy (USSR) was the first to analyze and estimate the vertical, horizontal, and temporal variability of the direct, diffuse, reflected, and global solar radiation as well as the albedo of various surface types based on actinometric measurements from balloons.
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+Figure 1.
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+Free manned balloon (aerostat)
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+{org:en}
+Because of the decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen at high altitudes operators may only function there at great risk.
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+[S:3368]
+{org:en}
+D.I. Mendeleev was one of the first scientists to consider the possibility of reaching higher altitudes in a hermetically sealed gondola and O. Piccard pioneered such flights in 1931-1932 using a spherical, hermetically sealed gondola.
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+{org:en}
+Balloons reaching stratospheric flights are called stratostats (see Fig.2 ).
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+At the surface the balloon itself of such a stratostat is only filled to about 1/10 of its total volume.
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+{/unl}
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+While in flight the gas inside the balloon greatly expands, so that at the top level the balloon becomes spherical in shape.
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+
+[S:3372]
+{org:en}
+Pilots and observers (researchers) fly in a hermetically sealed gondola made of steel or aluminum alloys.
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+The gondola has several ports (usually round) closed with thick hard glass.
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+{org:en}
+Sensors are placed outside the gondola and the recording instrumentation inside it.
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+
+[S:3375]
+{org:en}
+Figure 2.
+{/org}
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+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "2":09)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:3376]
+{org:en}
+Stratospheric balloon (stratostat).
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+aoj(303162355:02, 102782093:0G.@entry)
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+[S:3377]
+{org:en}
+a shell
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+
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+{org:en}
+hermetically sealed car.
+{/org}
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+man(200698732:0F.@past, 400356515:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3380]
+{org:en}
+The first successful launch of a stratostat in the USSR took place on September 30, 1933, when the stratonauts G.A. Prokofyev, K.D. Godunov, and E.K. Birnbaum flew the "SSSR-1", with a balloon volume of 24300 HTM1.
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+
+[S:3381]
+{org:en}
+The crew reached 19000m and fulfilled a large complex of different atmospheric observations.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:3382]
+{org:en}
+On January 30,1934 the flight of another Soviet stratostat "Osoaviakhim-1", which reached 22000 m, ended in tragedy
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+during the descent the stratostat balloon burst, the gondola fell from high altitude, and its crew members P.E. Fedoseenko, A.V. Vasenko, and I.D. Usyskin perished.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3384]
+{org:en}
+In later years, manned flights of stratostats become quite rare because of considerable difficulties in their organization.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3385]
+{org:en}
+In the United States helium was used to fill the balloons of both the aerostats and stratostats.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3386]
+{org:en}
+In 1939, the Americans Stevens and Anderson climbed to 22066 m on board the "Explorer-2" stratostat.
+{/org}
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+The idea of conducting meteorological observations without the presence of man led to the development of pibal observations.
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+A pilot-balloon is a small balloon filled with hydrogen or helium and released into free flight.
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+The first pilot-balloons were launched in 1806 by Russian sailors on a round-the-world voyage captained by I.F. Kruzenstern.
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+Initially, the balloons for such observations were manufactured from animal tissues, oiled paper, rubbered silk, and other substances.
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+While in flight, the necks of a pilot-balloon were left open and leaked gas, which resulted in changes in their ascent rate.
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+It was only in 1901 that Richard Assman started to use rubber pilot-balloons with closed necks for aerological studies, and these had an almost constant rate of rise.
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+In 1890, Kremser measured wind parameters at various altitudes by tracking pilot-balloon with an optical instrument (a theodolite).
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+In 1903, Hergezel demonstrated that the vertical speed of a balloon depended only on the lifting force and the mass of the balloon itself, both of which could be determined prior to release.
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+This development had made it possible to determine balloon elevation as a function of time alone.
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+Special theodolites were constructed to track pilot-balloons from the ground.
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+In HTM1 V.V. Kuznetsov and P.A. Molchanov had suggested very simple instruments, quite handy in operation, which were then used for many years to track such balloons.
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+From the angular coordinates of a balloon position in flight and from its elevation, retrieved from its known vertical speed, wind speed and direction profiles could be calculated.
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+{org:en}
+Almost simultaneously the double theodolite technique (using two theodolites deployed at both ends of a ground baseline) was developed, which made it possible to retrieve the balloon elevation trigonometrically.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+gol(200012267:40.@entry.@past, 301821266:48)
+mod:01(100728065:2O.@pl, 108573140:35.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3404]
+{org:en}
+First experiments in launching instruments capable of automatically recording temperature and pressure (meteorographs) were undertaken in 1892 in Paris.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100639556:08.@topic.@pl, "1":02)
+man(200998399:1Y.@progress, 400005567:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3405]
+{org:en}
+The balloon lifting a self-recording instruments, or meteorograph, into the atmosphere was named the balloon-sonde.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200947439:2L.@entry.@past, :01:01)
+obj(200178502:0E.@progress, :01:01)
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+mod(:01, 102782093:06.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3406]
+{org:en}
+After the balloon burst, the meteorograph was sinked by parachute or a smaller secondary balloon.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj:01(301391351:21, 102782093:2J.@entry.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3407]
+{org:en}
+Meteorographs were found and returned to the observatory following the attached postal instructions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:01.@entry, 115689818:02.@topic.@pl)
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+obj:01(200150776:1N.@progress, 106584891:2H.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3408]
+{org:en}
+In 1902, the French scientist Teuceiran de Bord discovered the stratosphere using this technique.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200721437:1E.@entry.@past, "1902":05)
+mod(105665146:2H, 600000017:2C)
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+obj(201158572:26.@progress, 105665146:2H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3409]
+{org:en}
+In Russia the systematic launches of sondes were started in 1901 from Pavlovsk Observatory near St. Petersburg.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201075164:1F.@entry.@past, 500004285:05)
+mod(103839671:29, 115694182:20)
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+aoj(600000081:2L, 103839671:29)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3410]
+{org:en}
+Sonde meteorographs were remarkable for their low mass, inertia, and were well insulated from solar radiation and operated at altitudes up to 30-35 km, although the record flight level was about 36000 m.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:03.@entry, 600000038:4A)
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+man:01(200495038:29.@past, 400011093:24)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3411]
+{org:en}
+Meteorographs by V.V. Kuznetsov were used in USSR (see Fig. 3), and later - those by P.A. Molchanov.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:13.@entry.@past, 115689818:02.@topic.@pl)
+and(:30.@entry, :31)
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+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3412]
+{org:en}
+Figure 3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "3":09)
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "3":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3413]
+{org:en}
+The V.V. Kuznetsov's sonde meteorograph
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689818:0T.@entry.@def, 115689469:0N)
+mod(115689818:0T.@entry.@def, 115689469:0N)
+mod(115689469:0N, 500322997:06)
+mod(115689469:0N, 500322997:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3414]
+{org:en}
+clockwork
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+103047171:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+103047171:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3415]
+{org:en}
+pressure sensor
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115669323:0B.@entry, 100113113:02)
+mod(115669323:0B.@entry, 100113113:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3416]
+{org:en}
+bimetallic plate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303163010:02, 103959485:0D.@entry)
+aoj(303163010:02, 103959485:0D.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3417]
+{org:en}
+particularly successful series of sonde launches was conducted in 1921 by a group headed by V.I. Vitkevich.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(103647423:16.@topic.@pl, 115689469:10)
+agt(201590915:2C, 500323498:2M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3418]
+{org:en}
+They operated around Moscow, where the lack of large heavily forested areas of marshes, together with high population density, resulted in a meteorograph recovery rate of about 95%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+bas(400071165:4T, "95%":4Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3419]
+{org:en}
+Sometimes instruments were returned after lying in the woods for 2-3 years.
+{/org}
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+qua(115201505:1Z.@pl, "2-3":1V)
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+man(200879028:0T.@entry.@past, 400021878:02)
+plc(200834259:18.@progress, 104597066:1L.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3420]
+{org:en}
+Their records could be deciphered and yielded valuable results.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100047745:08.@topic.@pl, 600000020:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3421]
+{org:en}
+However, despite all its advantages, the sonde-balloon technique had certain weak points too.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105142863:0R.@pl, 300521584:0J)
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+mod(105142863:0R.@pl, 600000016:0N)
+man(200065370:1V.@entry.@past, 600000083:0B)
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+obj(200065370:1V.@entry.@past, 103974215:2C.@pl)
+obj(600000083:0B, 105142863:0R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3422]
+{org:en}
+It remained inapplicable in desert and polar regions, at sea, and in all areas of sparse population or those totally unpopulated.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:02(102735688:28.@pl, 101257969:2O)
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+and:01(105221895:1E.@entry.@pl, 108505573:0X.@pl)
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+or:02(600000030:39.@entry.@pl, 102735688:28.@pl)
+aoj:02(300542359:2H, 101257969:2O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3423]
+{org:en}
+Besides, results from processing meteorograms could only be used after the meteorograph itself was found and recovered, so that they were not operationally useful to the weather service.
+{/org}
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+Presently, sonde-balloons are only used for certain specialized studies, such as for cosmic rays, sampling air at heights, actinometric observations, etc.
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+That was why it was superseded by a more convenient system - that of radiosounding.
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+Meteorographs were not only launched by balloons.
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+By the end of the XIX century, they were used in several countries to study the atmospheric boundary layer.
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+Meteorographs were then lifted into the air by the specially constructed kites, tethered balloons, with an average ascent ceiling of 1,5-2 km.
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+Even altitudes of 3 km could be reached.
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+The highest that technique ever reached was 9740 m, as attained at the Lindenberg Aerological Observatory near Berlin with a specially constructed "train " of several kites.
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+The kite is a light construction of several supporting and stabilizing surfaces.
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+Forced by wind such a construction produces a certain pull.
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+The kite types most often used for aerological soundings featured triangle, semicircle, or rectangle cross-sections.
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+[S:3434]
+{org:en}
+Meteorographs launched by kites were of a somewhat different design than the sonde ones.
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+{org:en}
+Because of heavy vibration, the kite meteorograph had to be more sturdy.
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+[S:3436]
+{org:en}
+Besides air temperature, pressure, and humidity, it usually recorded wind speed as well.
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+Flying kites are weather dependent, since they require wind.
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+{org:en}
+Therefore, tethered balloon meteorographs, sometimes called kite meteorographs, seem to better fit the needs of boundary layer studies.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+A tethered balloon (see Fig. 4) is of a streamlined cigar shape.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+For stability and lift it has special fins.
+{/org}
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+Lift is achieved by buoyancy and the aerodynamic effect of the fins.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:3442]
+{org:en}
+Even now tethered balloons remain a handy means for studying the atmospheric boundary layer.
+{/org}
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+[S:3443]
+{org:en}
+Figure 4.
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+Tethered balloon.
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+{org:en}
+shell of the balloon
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+stabilizers
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+{org:en}
+After the advent of aviation aircrafts came to substitute both the sonde- and the tethered balloons.
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+On December 17, 1903 the Wright brothers in the US had for the first time successfully flown an engine-equipped plane.
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+cnt(115213774:05, "171903":0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3452]
+{org:en}
+However aircraft came to the scene of aerology only between 1918 and 1939.
+{/org}
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+man(600000010:1I, 400535197:1D)
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+[S:3453]
+{org:en}
+Various studies of the atmosphere were conducted from on board aircraft, so that technique calls for a more detailed description.
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+[S:3454]
+{org:en}
+Aircraft sounding has numerous advantages, compared to other techniques.
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+[S:3455]
+{org:en}
+Instrumental measurements from an aircraft are complemented by the aerologist's visual observations of clouds, fogs, visibility, and other physical phenomena at flight levels, which noticeably enrich the data.
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+{/unl}
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+[S:3456]
+{org:en}
+With aircraft, measurements in clouds (such as those of water content, icing rate, phase composition and microstructure of clouds) and turbulence etc. became be possible in free atmosphere.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Aircrafts were capable of reaching higher altitudes and were less dependent on weather conditions than tethered balloons and kites.
+{/org}
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+[S:3458]
+{org:en}
+On Assman's commission a meteorograph was first installed on board a plane in 1912.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+It happened in Frankfurt-am-Meine.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:3460]
+{org:en}
+In Russia, the first scientist to suggest aircraft soundings was the outstanding Russian physicist A.A. Fridman.
+{/org}
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+Several such flights were undertaken in 1916 in the vicinity of Kiev for temperature measurements.
+{/org}
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+Fridman was the first to raise the problem of organizing a special business which could manufacture aeronavigation and aerological instruments.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:3463]
+{org:en}
+He was the founder of the Soviet school of dynamic meteorology and the author of certain studies in cosmology of the highest importance.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:3464]
+{org:en}
+His input to aerology was also quite prominent.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3465]
+{org:en}
+Working at the Pavlovsk Aerological Observatory from 1913 to 1915 he produced Processing Manuals for processing meteorograms and the data from pilot-balloon measurements and paid much attention to aircraft observations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+During 1921-1922, an aircraft meteorograph was designed and built at the Pavlovsk Observatory.
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+Despite the difficulties of young Soviet State at that time the Soviet government dispatched a specialized aircraft team (regiment) to the Moscow Observatory for aerological studies.
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+In October 1924, at Moscow a record altitude of 8560 m was reached.
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+Aircraft sounding yielded the first accurate and more or less systematic data on air temperature and humidity distribution in the lower troposphere and, even more important, on the vertical extension, stratification, and other characteristics of cloud layers.
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+In-flight visual observations by airborne aerologists were also of large practical and scientific value.
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+In the US, the daily aircraft soundings started in 1922 in Washington, D.C., and from 1930 on, a network was organized there for routine and systematic aircraft soundings (note that kite launches by that time had completely stopped).
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+Starting in 1945, aircrafts were widely used for studying the vast polar areas, where no systematic balloon soundings could be organized.
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+From 1948 on, the flying aircraft laboratories of Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research Institute yielded comprehensive data on the state of the Arctic atmosphere and new insights into the structure of the troposphere.
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+An aircraft meteorological laboratory "Antarctida " had pursued the same tasks during the Soviet Antarctic expeditions of 1958-1962 in the Far South.
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+Up to 1960 about 30 aircraft sounding sites functioned in the Soviet Union, from which Li-2 ("Douglas") planes regularly flew up to 5-6 km into the atmosphere, and the data from such flights were processed operationally and then relayed through the service network.
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+Operating of that network contributed much to progress in the cloud physics.
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+All these problems are still on the agenda even now, so aircraft cannot compete in that respect with the radiosounding techniques.
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+Aircrafts are still in use, of course, but mostly as flying laboratories, and these carrying comprehensive sets of specialized diverse instrumentation for dedicated studies of the atmosphere.
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+They are not used for routine observations, but pursue complex specialized programs.
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+Aircrafts are also widely used for artificial weather modification and for experiments in cloud and precipitation seeding.
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+A radiosonde is an automatic physical instrument, which transmits by radio its atmospheric measurements results back to the surface during the ascent.
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+Meteorological quantities (the air temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.) are measured by highly sensitive elements or sensors.
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+Nowadays, wind speed and direction is found from the running coordinates of the radiosonde itself
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+these are retrieved from the theodolite or radiotheodolite or radar tracking of the balloon.
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+Both the radiosonde itself and the method of its use were suggested and developed by the outstanding Soviet aerologist Pavel Alexandrovich Molchanov who first to put forward the idea in 1923.
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+Then he suggested an instrument which would be similar to the balloon-sonde meteorograph,but equipped with a radiotransmitter, so that instead of recording the data it would immediately relay them while still in flight to the ground.
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+Thus, the data could be accumulated at the receiver end and become available regardless of fate of the instrument itself.
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+However it took about seven years to proceed from that idea to a prototype.
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+The last such signals, from which temperature could yet be retrieved were recorded 32 minutes after launch, from a flight level of 8900 m.
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+Upon deciphering the results of that sounding were immediately forwarded to the Leningrad Weather Forecast Bureau and to the Moscow Central Institute of Weather Forecasting.
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+Each such cogged plate with its contacts looked like a haircomb.
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+Initially, such "comb" sondes did not measure water vapor content in the atmosphere, and humidity sensor was introduced into it at a later stage.
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+The Bourdon tubes for pressure measuring used in the first models were later substituted by a set of two aneroid boxes.
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+From that time on, instruments of a different design were introduced.
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+The radiosonde techniques advanced to higher accuracy in measuring the atmospheric parameters and to combining the capabilities of the radiosounding and the radar techniques.
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+Figure 5.
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+A Molchanov's "comb" radiosonde.
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+During the 1930's, efforts in designing radiosondes were also under way in Germany and France.
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+On May 15 that year Duckert launched the first German radiosonde from Lindenberg.
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+Starting from these pioneering works the method of radiosounding the atmosphere found its widest recognition and application throughout the world.
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+In their turn systematic radiosounding measurements of parameters of the free atmosphere provided the basis for developing weather forecasting techniques and for serving the operations of aviation and the needs of various branches of national economies.
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+The radiosonde was actually the first telemetry line in history and its basic principle is now realized in transmitting the data from meteorological, geophysical, and other space satellites and probes.
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+From the very start, radiosondes were employed under quite variable conditions and in different regions of the globe.
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+As early as January, 1931 nine "comb" sondes were released in the region of Murmansk, in the Arctic.
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+In summer that year P.A. Molchanov, who was one of the participants of the research flight on board the "Count Zeppelin " dirigible to the Arctic, launched sondes while in flight.
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+He was able to demonstrate during that flight that the radiosonde could not only be launches up into the atmosphere by balloons, but be dropped down by parachute.
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+Nowadays dropsondes are chuted from aircraft bringing additional data on the state of the atmosphere.
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+Before the advent of radar sounding measurements of wind speed and direction were conducted by pilot-balloons, which had a serious inherent limitation
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+they could only be tracked within the range of direct visibility.
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+That was how the wind parameters were measured during the first radiosonde launches too.
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+In spring of 1943 a team of researchers in the USSR pioneered radar wind measurements at high altitudes.
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+It became possible to collect complete sets of data from temperature-wind soundings, independent of the actual weather situation.
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+In the first in history intercomparison of radiosondes (Paiern, Switzerland, 1950) six types of sondes were intercompared.
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+Second intercomparison of 1956 in Switzerland again collected 14 different types of radiosondes already.
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+In 1945-1946, V.V. Kostarev (USSR) first demonstrated that radar techniques were to be efficient means for mapping and tracking cells of the heavy precipitation.
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+Weather radar data on heavy precipitation and thunderstorms are successfully used for short-term weather forecasts, especially for nowcasting.
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+Specialized networks of weather radar stations are deployed in many countries, which, beside issuing severe weather warnings for airports, produce important scientific data for atmospheric studies.
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+Radar techniques have been developed for detecting turbulence zones in clouds and precipitation, estimating the threat of hail, and measuring precipitation over large territories.
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+Weather radar instrumentation is also deployed on aircraft.
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+The development of rocket and space techniques opened possibilities for extending aerological studies to the upper atmosphere.
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+In the USSR, the rocket studies of higher atmospheric layers were started in 1947 by S.N. Vernov and his colleagues, who launched the first rocket to study cosmic rays at higher altitudes.
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+{org:en}
+From then on, rocket studies developed in two principal directions.
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+
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+{org:en}
+First, properties of the upper atmosphere were studied, including its composition, and cosmic rays were detected using powerful geophysical rockets reaching 100-150 km.
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+{org:en}
+Secondly, the atmosphere was studied using the so-called meteorological rockets, which reached 85-100 km.
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+[S:3548]
+{org:en}
+The rocket and its instrument payload were recoverable, which allowed more and more frequent launches.
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+{org:en}
+The rocket was capable of measuring temperature by resistance thermometer, pressure by a manometer, and wind by tracking the parachute drift.
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+[S:3550]
+{org:en}
+Launches of meteorological rockets provided the first data on air temperature, density, and winds up to 50 km.
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+
+[S:3551]
+{org:en}
+Certainly launches of rockets are not very frequent (mainly, once a week) and total number of stations in the world does not exceed 20-25 ones, but this international network allows systematic monitoring of upper atmosphere.
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+[S:3552]
+{org:en}
+In the 1960's artificial Earth satellites were first used to study the atmosphere.
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+The launch of the first Soviet Sputnik opened the road to outer space for the whole of mankind, and the new promising possibilities for studying the Earth and its atmosphere appeared.
+{/org}
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+Presently, such satellites are widely used as sources of information on the atmosphere, cloud cover, and land and the sea surface temperatures on a global scale.
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+{org:en}
+The first successful Soviet experiments in remote sensing of the atmosphere from satellites of the "Meteor" series date back to 1971 and a constantly operating space-based meteorological satellite system "Meteor" is now in place.
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+{org:en}
+Meteorological satellites found their widest development in the United States of America.
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+{org:en}
+From 1978 on, the third generation of meteorological satellites of the "Tiros" series has been in operation.
+{/org}
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+The "Nimbus" series is dedicated to specialized experimental studies.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+During recent years various techniques have been developed for recovering temperature profiles in free atmosphere, the absolute heights of isobaric surfaces, and the speed of geostrophic wind from satellite data.
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+Such data as the ozone and aerosol concentrations, cloud parameters and surface temperature may also be retrieved from satellite measurements.
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+[S:3562]
+{org:en}
+To study clouds, fogs, atmospheric hazes, temperature inversions, and various other phenomena in the atmosphere, spectral optical systems may be used.
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+The systems most promising in that respect are lidars (laser and radar), their principal components being a quantum generator of radiation (a laser).
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+
+[S:3564]
+{org:en}
+Such systems are in principle capable of producing instant atmospheric profiles, so that quick changes in the parameters studied may be traced and monitored, in particular - the optical characteristics of the atmospheric aerosol, the atmospheric humidity and others.
+{/org}
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+[S:3565]
+{org:en}
+Such outstanding features of lidar systems resulted in a new branch of atmospheric science quickly developing from mid-1960's - lidar sensing.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:3566]
+{org:en}
+Meteorological elements and units of measurement
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:3567]
+{org:en}
+The atmosphere state is described by basic physical quantities and presence of certain phenomena.
+{/org}
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+[S:3568]
+{org:en}
+Weather is the state of the atmosphere, mainly with respect to its effect upon life and human activities.
+{/org}
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+[S:3569]
+{org:en}
+As distinguished from climate, weather consists of the short-term (minutes to months) variations of the atmosphere state.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Popularly, weather is thought of in terms of temperature, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, brightness, visibility, and wind.
+{/org}
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+[S:3571]
+{org:en}
+Meteorological quantities or elements are temperature and humidity of air, atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, visibility, amount and height of clouds, and other characteristics of the atmosphere state which can be expressed in one or another unit of measurements.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:3572]
+{org:en}
+Meteorological phenomena are fog, glaze, drifting snow, dust and sand storms, thunderstorm, flaw, flurry and other qualitative characteristics of processes running in the atmosphere.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+They are visually observed and their intensity is expressed by definition terms like such words as "weak", "moderate ", "strong ", etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200940384:1G.@entry, 200732552:0K)
+and:01(301068609:43.@single_quote, 301509367:3H.@single_quote)
+obj(600000058:2A, 106286395:2K.@pl)
+aoj(600000058:2A, 105855904:24.@pl)
+obj(200732552:0K, 600000020:02.@topic)
+and(200940384:1G.@entry, 200732552:0K)
+and:01(301068609:43.@single_quote, 301509367:3H.@single_quote)
+obj(600000058:2A, 106286395:2K.@pl)
+aoj(600000058:2A, 105855904:24.@pl)
+obj(200732552:0K, 600000020:02.@topic)
+obj(600000117:2Q, :01)
+agt(200940384:1G.@entry, 105855904:24.@pl)
+mod(105036394:13.@topic, 600000020:0X.@pl)
+mod(106286395:2K.@pl, 600001411:2F)
+obj(200940384:1G.@entry, 105036394:13.@topic)
+and:01(301509367:3H.@single_quote, 300441523:2Z.@single_quote)
+obj(200940384:1G.@entry, 105036394:13.@topic)
+and:01(301509367:3H.@single_quote, 300441523:2Z.@single_quote)
+aoj(600000117:2Q, 106286395:2K.@pl)
+mod(105855904:24.@pl, 104702957:1T)
+man(200732552:0K, 400133140:0B)
+and:01(115689145:4H.@entry, 301068609:43.@single_quote)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3574]
+{org:en}
+The quantities or parameters and the units used in meteorology (the SI system) are as follows
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:29.@entry, :02)
+plc(201158572:19, 106118563:1H)
+or:02(:01.@entry, 105108740:06.@def.@pl.@topic)
+aoj(202603699:29.@entry, :02)
+plc(201158572:19, 106118563:1H)
+or:02(:01.@entry, 105108740:06.@def.@pl.@topic)
+obj(201158572:19, :02)
+mod:03(104377057:21.@entry.@def, 115669237:1Y)
+man(202603699:29.@entry, 600000181:2D)
+man(202603699:29.@entry, 600000181:2D)
+cnt(106118563:1H, :03.@parenthesis)
+and:01(105869857:13.@entry.@def.@pl, 105859071:0K.@pl.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3575]
+{org:en}
+atmospheric pressure in hectopascals (hPa)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(100113113:0E.@entry, 115693831:0Q.@pl)
+plc(100113113:0E.@entry, 115693831:0Q.@pl)
+cnt(115693831:0Q.@pl, 115669815:14.@parenthesis)
+mod(100113113:0E.@entry, 302831736:02)
+mod(100113113:0E.@entry, 302831736:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3576]
+{org:en}
+air and surface temperatures in degrees Celsius ( HTM1 )
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(105011790:0I.@entry.@pl, 105094565:0Y.@pl)
+aoj(303162449:16, 105094565:0Y.@pl)
+plc(105011790:0I.@entry.@pl, 105094565:0Y.@pl)
+aoj(303162449:16, 105094565:0Y.@pl)
+and:01(104362025:0A.@entry, 104727214:02)
+mod(105011790:0I.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod(105011790:0I.@entry.@pl, :01)
+cnt(303162449:16, HTM1:1G.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3577]
+{org:en}
+wind speed, in both surface and upper-air observations, in meters per second (m/s) or sometimes in knots
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100330160:07.@entry, 100879759:18.@pl)
+obj:02(600000025:1W, 107180372:20)
+mod:01(104362025:0M, 600000323:0H)
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+mod(100330160:07.@entry, 100879759:18.@pl)
+obj:02(600000025:1W, 107180372:20)
+mod:01(104362025:0M, 600000323:0H)
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+man:02(102028900:2T.@entry.@pl, 400021878:2G)
+mod(100330160:07.@entry, 100345641:02)
+or:02(102028900:2T.@entry.@pl, 103753077:1P.@pl)
+plc(100330160:07.@entry, :01:01)
+cnt:02(107180372:20, 115690699:28.@parenthesis)
+plc(100330160:07.@entry, :01:01)
+cnt:02(107180372:20, 115690699:28.@parenthesis)
+plc(100879759:18.@pl, :02:02)
+mod:01(104727214:14.@entry, 301206318:0Y)
+aoj:02(600000025:1W, 103753077:1P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3578]
+{org:en}
+wind direction in degrees from North or on the scale 0-36 where 36 is the wind from the North and 09 is the wind from the East
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000051:0H, 106197215:07.@entry)
+aoj:01(100345641:35.@entry.@def, :09:2V.@topic)
+or(600000036:16.@entry, 600000051:0H)
+obj(600000051:0H, 105094565:0K.@pl)
+frm:01(100345641:27.@def, 108561081:2L.@def)
+aoj(600000051:0H, 106197215:07.@entry)
+aoj:01(100345641:35.@entry.@def, :09:2V.@topic)
+or(600000036:16.@entry, 600000051:0H)
+obj(600000051:0H, 105094565:0K.@pl)
+frm:01(100345641:27.@def, 108561081:2L.@def)
+plc(:01.@entry, "0-36":1J)
+mod(106197215:07.@entry, 100345641:02)
+aoj:01(100345641:27.@def, "36":1X.@topic)
+mod(101902877:1D.@def, "0-36":1J)
+aoj(600000036:16, 106197215:07.@entry)
+frm:01(100345641:35.@entry.@def, 108561351:3J.@def)
+aoj(600000036:16, 106197215:07.@entry)
+frm:01(100345641:35.@entry.@def, 108561351:3J.@def)
+obj(600000036:16.@entry, 101902877:1D.@def)
+aoj(600000577:0S, 105094565:0K.@pl)
+obj:02(600000577:0S, 108561081:0X)
+and:01(100345641:35.@entry.@def, 100345641:27.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3579]
+{org:en}
+relative humidity in per cents (%)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(114535643:0B.@entry, 115689109:0N.@pl)
+plc(114535643:0B.@entry, 115689109:0N.@pl)
+cnt(115689109:0N.@pl, "%":0X.@parenthesis)
+aoj(300006032:02, 114535643:0B.@entry)
+aoj(300006032:02, 114535643:0B.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3580]
+{org:en}
+precipitation in millimeters of the liquid layer (mm)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(105061149:02.@entry, 101463259:19.@def)
+aoj(300432453:12, 101463259:19.@def)
+plc(105061149:02.@entry, 101463259:19.@def)
+aoj(300432453:12, 101463259:19.@def)
+equ(115698866:1G.@parenthesis, 113658657:0J.@pl)
+qua(101463259:19.@def, 113658657:0J.@pl)
+qua(101463259:19.@def, 113658657:0J.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3581]
+{org:en}
+evaporation in millimeters (mm)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(113572436:02.@entry, 113658657:0H.@pl)
+plc(113572436:02.@entry, 113658657:0H.@pl)
+equ(115698866:0U.@parenthesis, 113658657:0H.@pl)
+equ(115698866:0U.@parenthesis, 113658657:0H.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3582]
+{org:en}
+horizontal visibility in meters and kilometers (m, km)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(104702545:0D.@entry, :01:01)
+and:01(113659760:12.@entry.@pl, 103753077:0R.@pl)
+plc(104702545:0D.@entry, :01:01)
+and:01(113659760:12.@entry.@pl, 103753077:0R.@pl)
+equ(:02.@parenthesis, :01)
+aoj(301232635:02, 104702545:0D.@entry)
+aoj(301232635:02, 104702545:0D.@entry)
+mod:02(106832464:1E.@entry, 115669024:1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3583]
+{org:en}
+irradiance in watts per HTM1 ( HTM2 ) and radiant exposure in joules per HTM3 ( HTM4 )
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(115669644:02.@entry, 113644522:0G.@pl)
+mod:01(100157463:1G.@entry, 303162778:18)
+and:01(100157463:1G.@entry, HTM1:0Q)
+plc(115669644:02.@entry, 113644522:0G.@pl)
+mod:01(100157463:1G.@entry, 303162778:18)
+and:01(100157463:1G.@entry, HTM1:0Q)
+cnt:01(HTM3:23, HTM4:2A.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000025:0M, :01)
+obj:01(600000025:1Z, HTM3:23)
+aoj(600000025:0M, 113644522:0G.@pl)
+aoj(600000025:0M, 113644522:0G.@pl)
+aoj:01(600000025:1Z, 113726074:1S.@pl)
+plc:01(100157463:1G.@entry, 113726074:1S.@pl)
+cnt:01(HTM1:0Q, HTM2:0X.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3584]
+{org:en}
+duration of sunshine in hours (h)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105051249:02.@entry, 115693131:0E)
+mod(105051249:02.@entry, 115693131:0E)
+tim(115693131:0E, 105131023:0Q.@pl)
+tim(115693131:0E, 106831926:0X.@parenthesis)
+tim(115693131:0E, 106831926:0X.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3585]
+{org:en}
+cloud height in meters or kilometers (m, km)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(105137165:08.@entry, :01:01)
+or:01(113659760:0S.@entry.@pl, 103753077:0I.@pl)
+plc(105137165:08.@entry, :01:01)
+or:01(113659760:0S.@entry.@pl, 103753077:0I.@pl)
+equ(:02.@parenthesis, :01)
+mod(105137165:08.@entry, 109247410:02)
+mod(105137165:08.@entry, 109247410:02)
+mod:02(106832464:14.@entry, 115669024:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3586]
+{org:en}
+cloud amount in oktas or tenths
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(100033615:08.@entry, :01:01)
+plc(100033615:08.@entry, :01:01)
+or:01("1/10":0R.@entry.@pl, 115695766:0I.@pl)
+mod(100033615:08.@entry, 109247410:02)
+mod(100033615:08.@entry, 109247410:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3587]
+{org:en}
+geopotential, used in upper-air observations, in standard geopotential meters (m').
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201158572:0J.@past, 115669277:02.@entry)
+obj(600000051:1J, 103753077:28.@pl)
+mod(104727214:0X, 301206318:0R)
+agt(201158572:0J.@past, 115669277:02.@entry)
+obj(600000051:1J, 103753077:28.@pl)
+mod(104727214:0X, 301206318:0R)
+mod(103753077:28.@pl, 115669277:1V)
+mod(100879759:11.@pl, 104727214:0X)
+mod(103753077:28.@pl, 300487525:1M)
+scn(201158572:0J.@past, 100879759:11.@pl)
+scn(201158572:0J.@past, 100879759:11.@pl)
+equ(115695583:2G.@parenthesis, 103753077:28.@pl)
+aoj(600000051:1J, 115669277:02.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3588]
+{org:en}
+Composition of atmospheric air
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103081660:02.@entry, 104727214:0T)
+mod(103081660:02.@entry, 104727214:0T)
+mod(104727214:0T, 302831736:0H)
+mod(104727214:0T, 302831736:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3589]
+{org:en}
+It is well know now that the air is a mixture of many discrete gases.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303162119:08.@entry, 114481080:1X.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302110778:1O, 114481080:1X.@topic.@pl)
+mod(114481080:1X.@topic.@pl, 100380083:18.@indef)
+aoj(303162119:08.@entry, 114481080:1X.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302110778:1O, 114481080:1X.@topic.@pl)
+mod(114481080:1X.@topic.@pl, 100380083:18.@indef)
+aoj(114481080:1X.@topic.@pl, 104727214:0Z.@topic.@def)
+man(303162119:08.@entry, 400049102:0J)
+man(303162119:08.@entry, 400049102:0J)
+qua(114481080:1X.@topic.@pl, 600000028:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3590]
+{org:en}
+Near the Earth's surface the atmosphere air is humid as a rule that means that along with other gases its composition includes water vapor, i.e. the gaseous phase of water HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(302549393:1G.@entry, 600000139:05)
+aoj(115689159:48, 115055633:41)
+aoj(200708840:25.@entry, 600000030:20.@topic)
+mod(HTM1:54, 107935504:4Y)
+mod(104727214:19.@topic.@def, 108499057:0Y)
+cnt(104676540:4P.@def, HTM1:54)
+man(302549393:1G.@entry, 600000139:05)
+aoj(115689159:48, 115055633:41)
+aoj(200708840:25.@entry, 600000030:20.@topic)
+mod(HTM1:54, 107935504:4Y)
+mod(104727214:19.@topic.@def, 108499057:0Y)
+cnt(104676540:4P.@def, HTM1:54)
+aoj(200183879:3M, 103081660:3A.@topic)
+mod(114481080:30.@pl, 600000031:2U)
+man(302549393:1G.@entry, 600000808:1M)
+obj(115689159:48, 104676540:4P.@def)
+man(200183879:3M, 600000115:2J)
+obj(600000115:2J, 114481080:30.@pl)
+aoj(302549393:1G.@entry, 104727214:19.@topic.@def)
+mod(115055633:41, 107935504:3V)
+aoj(302549393:1G.@entry, 104727214:19.@topic.@def)
+mod(115055633:41, 107935504:3V)
+obj(200708840:25.@entry, 200183879:3M)
+mod(103081660:3A.@topic, 600000016:36)
+obj(600000139:05, 115690588:0E.@def)
+aoj(302262542:4H, 104676540:4P.@def)
+obj(200183879:3M, 115055633:41)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3591]
+{org:en}
+Unlike other constituents of the air the water vapor content varies within significant limits
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200436879:1R.@entry, 106312966:0F.@pl)
+mod(105809192:1J.@topic.@def, 115055633:1D)
+obj(600000042:1Y, 105124057:2H.@pl)
+man(200436879:1R.@entry, 106312966:0F.@pl)
+mod(105809192:1J.@topic.@def, 115055633:1D)
+obj(600000042:1Y, 105124057:2H.@pl)
+mod(106312966:0F.@pl, 600000031:09)
+man(200436879:1R.@entry, 600000042:1Y)
+mod(106312966:0F.@pl, 104727214:0Z.@def)
+obj(200436879:1R.@entry, 105809192:1J.@topic.@def)
+obj(200436879:1R.@entry, 105809192:1J.@topic.@def)
+mod(115055633:1D, 107935504:17)
+aoj(300625055:25, 105124057:2H.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3592]
+{org:en}
+near the surface it fluctuates between hundredth of a percent and several percents.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200270699:0M.@entry, 600000139:02)
+qua:01(115689109:2E.@entry.@pl, 600000059:26)
+obj(600000010:0X, :01.@entry)
+man(200270699:0M.@entry, 600000139:02)
+qua:01(115689109:2E.@entry.@pl, 600000059:26)
+obj(600000010:0X, :01.@entry)
+man(200270699:0M.@entry, 600000010:0X)
+obj(600000139:02, 104362025:0B.@def)
+obj(200270699:0M.@entry, 600000016:0J.@topic)
+obj(200270699:0M.@entry, 600000016:0J.@topic)
+qua:01(115689109:1Q.@indef.@pl, "100":1B)
+and:01(115689109:2E.@entry.@pl, 115689109:1Q.@indef.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3593]
+{org:en}
+The reason is that under real temperatures and pressures water vapor can transform into liquid (water) and solid (ice) states, and vice versa it can enter the atmosphere again due to evaporation from the surface.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:03.@entry, 105651680:06.@def)
+aoj:01(300013662:0U, 105011790:0Z.@pl)
+obj:03(200381601:26.@ability, 115055633:1W.@topic)
+man:03(201082606:4O.@entry.@ability, 400040365:59)
+cnt:02(107119643:2O, 107935504:2W.@parenthesis)
+obj:03(201082606:4O.@entry.@ability, 600000016:4H.@topic)
+and:02(113860793:3A.@entry, 107119643:2O)
+aoj(:03.@entry, 105651680:06.@def)
+aoj:01(300013662:0U, 105011790:0Z.@pl)
+obj:03(200381601:26.@ability, 115055633:1W.@topic)
+man:03(201082606:4O.@entry.@ability, 400040365:59)
+cnt:02(107119643:2O, 107935504:2W.@parenthesis)
+obj:03(201082606:4O.@entry.@ability, 600000016:4H.@topic)
+and:02(113860793:3A.@entry, 107119643:2O)
+frm:03(113572436:5M, 104362025:67.@def)
+and:01(100113113:1G.@entry.@pl, 105011790:0Z.@pl)
+man:03(201082606:4O.@entry.@ability, 600000329:46)
+mod:03(100024720:3U.@pl, :02.@entry)
+obj:03(600000001:5F, 113572436:5M)
+obj:03(600000003:0O, :01)
+and:03(201082606:4O.@entry.@ability, 200381601:26.@ability)
+gol:03(200381601:26.@ability, 100024720:3U.@pl)
+and:03(201082606:4O.@entry.@ability, 200381601:26.@ability)
+gol:03(200381601:26.@ability, 100024720:3U.@pl)
+gol:03(201082606:4O.@entry.@ability, 108499057:4Y.@def)
+mod:03(115055633:1W.@topic, 107935504:1Q)
+rsn:03(201082606:4O.@entry.@ability, 600000001:5F)
+cnt:02(113860793:3A.@entry, 107614198:3H.@parenthesis)
+man:03(200381601:26.@ability, 600000003:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3594]
+{org:en}
+Because of this, firstly the dry air is considered separately from water vapor, only the humid air.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200691312:16.@entry, 600000012:02)
+obj(600000012:02, 600000022:0D)
+obj(600000722:1H, 115055633:23)
+gol(200691312:16.@entry, 104727214:2P.@def)
+man(200691312:16.@entry, 600000012:02)
+obj(600000012:02, 600000022:0D)
+obj(600000722:1H, 115055633:23)
+gol(200691312:16.@entry, 104727214:2P.@def)
+aoj(302549393:2J, 104727214:2P.@def)
+obj(200691312:16.@entry, 104727214:0Z.@topic.@def)
+man(104727214:2P.@def, 400535197:2A)
+man(200691312:16.@entry, 400535373:0J)
+man(200691312:16.@entry, 400535373:0J)
+mod(115055633:23, 107935504:1X)
+man(200691312:16.@entry, 600000722:1H)
+aoj(300799953:0V, 104727214:0Z.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3595]
+{org:en}
+Besides the water vapor content of carbon dioxide and ozone in the air is also significantly changes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200109660:2K.@entry, 105809192:0Q.@def)
+mod(105809192:0Q.@def, 115055633:0K)
+mod(105809192:0Q.@def, :01)
+man(200109660:2K.@entry, 105809192:0Q.@def)
+mod(105809192:0Q.@def, 115055633:0K)
+mod(105809192:0Q.@def, :01)
+man(400006259:26, 400047534:21)
+and:01(114972807:1K.@entry, 114796969:11)
+man(200109660:2K.@entry, 400006259:26)
+man(200109660:2K.@entry, 400006259:26)
+plc(:01, 104727214:1X.@def)
+mod(105809192:0Q.@def, 107935504:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3596]
+{org:en}
+The air without water vapor is called the dry air.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200107231:0X.@entry, 104727214:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(115055633:0O, 107935504:0I)
+aoj(600000060:0A, 104727214:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(200107231:0X.@entry, 104727214:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(115055633:0O, 107935504:0I)
+aoj(600000060:0A, 104727214:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300799953:18, 104727214:1C.@def)
+gol(200107231:0X.@entry, 104727214:1C.@def)
+gol(200107231:0X.@entry, 104727214:1C.@def)
+obj(600000060:0A, 115055633:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3597]
+{org:en}
+Near the Earth's surface dry air contains by volume 78% (76% by mass) of nitrogen and 21% (23% by mass) of oxygen, i.e. the dry air consists in 99% of two-atom molecules of nitrogen HTM1 and oxygen HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202701210:0Z.@entry, 115689159:39)
+aoj(202775914:3Q, 104727214:3M.@topic.@def)
+aoj:01(600000035:6Y, :6X.@entry)
+aoj(300799953:3I, 104727214:3M.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300799953:0R, 104727214:0V)
+mod(114682133:4I.@pl, 114585519:4D)
+qua:03(:7I.@entry, "23%":2L)
+obj(600000139:02, 104727214:0V)
+qua(:8V, "99%":42)
+qua(:03.@parenthesis, :02:02)
+man(202701210:0Z.@entry, 115689159:39)
+aoj(202775914:3Q, 104727214:3M.@topic.@def)
+aoj:01(600000035:6Y, :6X.@entry)
+aoj(300799953:3I, 104727214:3M.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300799953:0R, 104727214:0V)
+mod(114682133:4I.@pl, 114585519:4D)
+qua:03(:7I.@entry, "23%":2L)
+obj(600000139:02, 104727214:0V)
+qua(:8V, "99%":42)
+qua(:03.@parenthesis, :02:02)
+cnt(104990220:1B, :01.@parenthesis)
+and:04(114648100:5D.@entry, HTM1:54)
+obj(115689159:39, 202775914:3Q)
+man(202701210:0Z.@entry, 600000139:02)
+mod(:8V, 114682133:4I.@pl)
+obj:01(600000035:6Y, 101042242:1U)
+cnt(104990220:1B, :03.@parenthesis)
+mod(HTM2:5K, :04)
+and:02("21%":2G.@entry, 114647235:23)
+met(202701210:0Z.@entry, 104990220:1B)
+obj(202775914:3Q, :8V)
+qua:01(:6X.@entry, "76%":1N)
+met(202701210:0Z.@entry, 104990220:1B)
+obj(202775914:3Q, :8V)
+qua:01(:6X.@entry, "76%":1N)
+mod(104990220:1B, 114648100:31)
+qua(114585519:4D, "2":49)
+obj:03(600000035:7J, 101042242:2S)
+mod(104727214:0V, 115690588:0B.@def)
+mod(114682133:4I.@pl, HTM2:5K)
+aoj:03(600000035:7J, :7I.@entry)
+qua(:01.@parenthesis, "78%":1I)
+mod:04(HTM1:54, 114647235:4V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3598]
+{org:en}
+Only 0.03% is the carbon dioxide ( HTM1 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(114796969:0K.@entry.@def, "0.03%":07.@topic)
+aoj(114796969:0K.@entry.@def, "0.03%":07.@topic)
+aoj(303161004:02, "0.03%":07.@topic)
+cnt(114796969:0K.@entry.@def, HTM1:11.@parenthesis)
+cnt(114796969:0K.@entry.@def, HTM1:11.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3599]
+{org:en}
+Content of numerous other gases, entering the surface air composition, amounts to thousands, millionth, and milliardth parts of percent.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202664992:28.@entry, 105809192:02.@topic)
+gol(201082606:12.@progress, 103081660:1R.@def)
+and:01("1/1000000":2Y, "1/1000":2M)
+qua(103892891:3S.@pl, :01:01.@entry)
+obj(202664992:28.@entry, 105809192:02.@topic)
+gol(201082606:12.@progress, 103081660:1R.@def)
+and:01("1/1000000":2Y, "1/1000":2M)
+qua(103892891:3S.@pl, :01:01.@entry)
+mod(114481080:0V.@pl, 600000031:0M)
+mod(103892891:3S.@pl, 115689109:41)
+mod(103081660:1R.@def, 104727214:1N)
+qua(114481080:0V.@pl, 600000210:0D)
+gol(202664992:28.@entry, 103892891:3S.@pl)
+mod(103081660:1R.@def, 104362025:1F)
+gol(202664992:28.@entry, 103892891:3S.@pl)
+mod(103081660:1R.@def, 104362025:1F)
+mod(105809192:02.@topic, 114481080:0V.@pl)
+and:01("1/1000000000":3D.@entry, "1/1000000":2Y)
+obj(201082606:12.@progress, 114481080:0V.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3600]
+{org:en}
+Those are neon Ne, helium He, methane HTM1 , krypton Kr, hydrogen H, nitrogen monoxide HTM2 , xenon Xe, ozone HTM3 , nitrogen dioxide HTM4 , sulfur dioxide HTM5 , ammonia HTM6 , carbon monoxide CO, iodine HTM7 , radon Rn, and others.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 600000030:02.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(500323758:2N, HTM2:2A)
+mod:01(HTM6:4M, 114743582:4E)
+and:01(106837146:0S, 500323877:0H)
+mod:01(HTM7:5K, 114641397:5D)
+and:01(106831926:1P, 500323713:1C)
+mod:01(HTM4:3L, 114836127:3D)
+mod:01(500323732:5X, 114652104:5R)
+mod:01(HTM2:2A, 114954601:21)
+mod:01(114836127:3Z, 114656219:3S)
+aoj(:01.@entry, 600000030:02.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(500323758:2N, HTM2:2A)
+mod:01(HTM6:4M, 114743582:4E)
+and:01(106837146:0S, 500323877:0H)
+mod:01(HTM7:5K, 114641397:5D)
+and:01(106831926:1P, 500323713:1C)
+mod:01(HTM4:3L, 114836127:3D)
+mod:01(500323732:5X, 114652104:5R)
+mod:01(HTM2:2A, 114954601:21)
+mod:01(114836127:3Z, 114656219:3S)
+mod:01(114954601:50, 102961851:4T)
+mod:01(500323713:1C, 114642916:14)
+mod:01(HTM3:2X, 114972807:2R)
+and:01(500323732:5X, HTM7:5K)
+and:01(HTM2:2A, 106831926:1P)
+mod:01(HTM5:47, 114836127:3Z)
+mod:01(500323877:0H, 114646152:0C)
+mod:01(500323559:59, 114954601:50)
+and:01(500323713:1C, HTM1:0X)
+and:01(HTM3:2X, 500323758:2N)
+and:01(600000063:65.@entry, 500323732:5X)
+mod:01(500323758:2N, 114661274:2H)
+and:01(HTM5:47, HTM4:3L)
+mod:01(106837146:0S, 114639921:0L)
+and:01(600000063:65.@entry, 500323732:5X)
+mod:01(500323758:2N, 114661274:2H)
+and:01(HTM5:47, HTM4:3L)
+mod:01(106837146:0S, 114639921:0L)
+and:01(500323559:59, HTM6:4M)
+mod:01(106831926:1P, 114640434:1G)
+mod:01(114836127:3D, 114647235:34)
+and:01(HTM7:5K, 500323559:59)
+mod:01(114954601:21, 114647235:1S)
+and:01(HTM4:3L, HTM3:2X)
+and:01(HTM6:4M, HTM5:47)
+and:01(HTM1:0X, 106837146:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3601]
+{org:en}
+All the above constituents of the dry air are always in the gaseous state at the atmospheric temperatures and pressures not only near the ground but also in the upper layers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(100024720:1Y.@entry.@def, 101463259:4P.@def.@pl)
+mod(106312966:0G.@topic.@def.@pl, 300521584:02)
+and:01(100113113:34.@entry.@pl, 115694783:2B.@def.@pl)
+plc(100024720:1Y.@entry.@def, :01:01)
+mod(101463259:4P.@def.@pl, 600000132:43)
+man(100024720:1Y.@entry.@def, 101463259:4P.@def.@pl)
+mod(106312966:0G.@topic.@def.@pl, 300521584:02)
+and:01(100113113:34.@entry.@pl, 115694783:2B.@def.@pl)
+plc(100024720:1Y.@entry.@def, :01:01)
+mod(101463259:4P.@def.@pl, 600000132:43)
+obj:01(600000081:3N, 103462594:3W.@def)
+man(100024720:1Y.@entry.@def, 400019339:1C)
+aoj(300799953:10, 104727214:14.@def)
+man:01(600000081:3N, 400535232:3E)
+aoj(100024720:1Y.@entry.@def, 106312966:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(106312966:0G.@topic.@def.@pl, 300125993:0A)
+aoj(100024720:1Y.@entry.@def, 106312966:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(106312966:0G.@topic.@def.@pl, 300125993:0A)
+aoj:01(600000081:3N, 100113113:34.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(302262542:1Q, 100024720:1Y.@entry.@def)
+mod(101463259:4P.@def.@pl, 301206318:4J)
+mod(106312966:0G.@topic.@def.@pl, 104727214:14.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3602]
+{org:en}
+Table 1
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "1":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "1":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3603]
+{org:en}
+Composition of dry air near the Earth's surface, %.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and("%":1F.@entry, 103081660:02)
+aoj(300799953:0H, 104727214:0L)
+and("%":1F.@entry, 103081660:02)
+aoj(300799953:0H, 104727214:0L)
+aoj(600000081:0P, 104727214:0L)
+mod(103081660:02, 104727214:0L)
+mod(103081660:02, 104727214:0L)
+obj(600000081:0P, 115690588:0Y.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3604]
+{org:en}
+The percentage composition of the dry air near the surface is very constant.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300583239:1X.@entry, 103081660:0H.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300799953:10, 104727214:14.@def)
+mod(103081660:0H.@topic.@def, 113817526:06)
+aoj(300583239:1X.@entry, 103081660:0H.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300799953:10, 104727214:14.@def)
+mod(103081660:0H.@topic.@def, 113817526:06)
+mod(103081660:0H.@topic.@def, 104727214:14.@def)
+man(300583239:1X.@entry, 400031899:1S)
+man(300583239:1X.@entry, 400031899:1S)
+obj(600000081:18, 104362025:1H.@def)
+aoj(600000081:18, 104727214:14.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3605]
+{org:en}
+However, at present time, a large amount of gases comes into the atmosphere, and earlier these gases were never a part of the air.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(103892891:38.@entry.@past.@indef, 200341917:1G)
+qua(114481080:1A.@topic.@indef.@pl, 400535946:0U)
+man(200341917:1G, 400100082:2B)
+man(103892891:38.@entry.@past.@indef, 400535294:30)
+and(103892891:38.@entry.@past.@indef, 200341917:1G)
+qua(114481080:1A.@topic.@indef.@pl, 400535946:0U)
+man(200341917:1G, 400100082:2B)
+man(103892891:38.@entry.@past.@indef, 400535294:30)
+obj(200341917:1G, 114481080:1A.@topic.@indef.@pl)
+mod(103892891:38.@entry.@past.@indef, 104727214:3K.@def)
+man(400100082:2B, 400099341:4X)
+tim(200341917:1G, 100028270:0M)
+aoj(103892891:38.@entry.@past.@indef, 114481080:2P.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100028270:0M, 301731351:0E)
+aoj(103892891:38.@entry.@past.@indef, 114481080:2P.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100028270:0M, 301731351:0E)
+man(200341917:1G, 400027384:02)
+mod(114481080:2P.@topic.@pl, 600000017:2J)
+gol(200341917:1G, 108499057:1V.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3606]
+{org:en}
+Such gases are some types of chloro-fluorine hydride and freons.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 114481080:07.@topic.@pl)
+qua:01(104504486:0M.@pl, 600000034:0H)
+mod:01(114910748:1B.@pl, 114637507:12)
+aoj(:01.@entry, 114481080:07.@topic.@pl)
+qua:01(104504486:0M.@pl, 600000034:0H)
+mod:01(114910748:1B.@pl, 114637507:12)
+mod:01(114910748:1B.@pl, 104504486:0M.@pl)
+and:01(114874731:1N.@entry.@pl, 114910748:1B.@pl)
+and:01(114874731:1N.@entry.@pl, 114910748:1B.@pl)
+mod(114481080:07.@topic.@pl, 600001411:02)
+mod:01(114637507:12, 303163048:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3607]
+{org:en}
+Of special importance are contents of the carbon dioxide and ozone.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105168261:0D.@topic, 105809192:0S.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301678729:05, 105168261:0D.@topic)
+aoj(105168261:0D.@topic, 105809192:0S.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301678729:05, 105168261:0D.@topic)
+and:01(114972807:1R.@entry.@def, 114796969:18.@def)
+mod(105809192:0S.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod(105809192:0S.@entry.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3608]
+{org:en}
+Burning of huge amounts of fossil organic fuel resulted in systematic growth of the HTM1 concentration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774178:1D.@entry.@past, 200196364:02.@topic.@progress)
+obj(200196364:02.@topic.@progress, 114875077:18)
+aoj(302382934:1P, 108438067:20)
+aoj(202774178:1D.@entry.@past, 200196364:02.@topic.@progress)
+obj(200196364:02.@topic.@progress, 114875077:18)
+aoj(302382934:1P, 108438067:20)
+qua(109284589:0T, 100033615:0I.@pl)
+obj(108438067:20, 100375071:2J.@def)
+man(301093142:10, 109284589:0T)
+obj(202774178:1D.@entry.@past, 108438067:20)
+obj(202774178:1D.@entry.@past, 108438067:20)
+aoj(301093142:10, 114875077:18)
+mod(100375071:2J.@def, HTM1:2E)
+aoj(303161154:0D, 100033615:0I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3609]
+{org:en}
+In addition to such background growth, the HTM1 content is often still larger in industrial centers, big cities with their transport, and in closed non-ventilated rooms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300527870:21.@entry, 600000099:02)
+aoj:01(600000019:3G, 108226335:39.@pl)
+man(400031304:1V, 400059547:1P)
+mod(105809192:1E.@topic.@def, HTM1:19)
+man(300527870:21.@entry, 400031304:1V)
+mod:01(113570236:3R, 600000020:3L.@pl)
+man(300527870:21.@entry, 600000099:02)
+aoj:01(600000019:3G, 108226335:39.@pl)
+man(400031304:1V, 400059547:1P)
+mod(105809192:1E.@topic.@def, HTM1:19)
+man(300527870:21.@entry, 400031304:1V)
+mod:01(113570236:3R, 600000020:3L.@pl)
+aoj:01(302508766:4P.@not, 104105893:50.@entry.@pl)
+mod(108438067:0X, 303162995:0M)
+plc(300527870:21.@entry, :01:01)
+obj:01(600000019:3G, 113570236:3R)
+aoj:01(301653538:4E, 104105893:50.@entry.@pl)
+mod(108438067:0X, 600001411:0H)
+aoj(300527870:21.@entry, 105809192:1E.@topic.@def)
+aoj:01(300173391:35, 108226335:39.@pl)
+aoj(300527870:21.@entry, 105809192:1E.@topic.@def)
+aoj:01(300173391:35, 108226335:39.@pl)
+and:01(104105893:50.@entry.@pl, 108226335:39.@pl)
+obj(600000099:02, 108438067:0X)
+man(300527870:21.@entry, 400099341:64)
+aoj:01(301188648:2E, 100725506:2P.@pl)
+and:01(108226335:39.@pl, 100725506:2P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3610]
+{org:en}
+Certainly, in connection with this the percentage content of nitrogen and oxygen reduces, but it is rather negligible.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(301496462:31.@entry, 200045817:2B)
+obj(200045817:2B, 105809192:1G.@topic.@def)
+man(200045817:2B, 400535340:02)
+and(301496462:31.@entry, 200045817:2B)
+obj(200045817:2B, 105809192:1G.@topic.@def)
+man(200045817:2B, 400535340:02)
+and:01(114648100:24.@entry, 114647235:1R)
+man(301496462:31.@entry, 600000114:2U)
+mod(105809192:1G.@topic.@def, 113817526:15)
+aoj(301496462:31.@entry, 600000016:2O.@topic)
+aoj(301496462:31.@entry, 600000016:2O.@topic)
+mod(105809192:1G.@topic.@def, :01)
+man(200045817:2B, 400159040:0D)
+obj(400159040:0D, 600000022:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3611]
+{org:en}
+Special constituent of the atmospheric air is water vapor.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115055633:1I.@entry, 106312966:0A.@topic)
+aoj(301678729:02, 106312966:0A.@topic)
+aoj(115055633:1I.@entry, 106312966:0A.@topic)
+aoj(301678729:02, 106312966:0A.@topic)
+mod(106312966:0A.@topic, 104727214:15.@def)
+mod(115055633:1I.@entry, 107935504:1C)
+mod(115055633:1I.@entry, 107935504:1C)
+mod(104727214:15.@def, 302831736:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3612]
+{org:en}
+Near the surface, the water vapor content in a humid air varies on average from 0.2% in polar latitudes up to 2.5% near the equator, and sometimes it fluctuates from almost zero up to 4%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200270699:48.@entry, 200436879:1N)
+mod(115055633:0U, 107935504:0O)
+man(200436879:1N, 600000047:2Y)
+man(104614505:4V, 400073033:4O)
+obj(600000047:2Y, "2.5%":34)
+man(200270699:48.@entry, 600000047:50)
+plc("0.2%":2A, 105127640:2O)
+and(200270699:48.@entry, 200436879:1N)
+mod(115055633:0U, 107935504:0O)
+man(200436879:1N, 600000047:2Y)
+man(104614505:4V, 400073033:4O)
+obj(600000047:2Y, "2.5%":34)
+man(200270699:48.@entry, 600000047:50)
+plc("0.2%":2A, 105127640:2O)
+obj(200436879:1N, 105809192:10.@topic.@def)
+mod(105809192:10.@topic.@def, 115055633:0U)
+obj(200270699:48.@entry, 600000016:45.@topic)
+obj(600000139:02, 104362025:0B.@def)
+man(200436879:1N, 600000360:1U)
+man(200436879:1N, 600000139:02)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3613]
+{org:en}
+In this connection, in the humid air the percentage relationship of other gases is variable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(301028796:2D.@entry, 100145218:0A)
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+mod(113780719:1I.@topic.@def, 113817526:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3614]
+{org:en}
+The larger is a part of water vapor, the smaller is a part of volume of other gases at the same pressure and temperature.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(114481080:27.@pl, 600000031:21)
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+plc(114481080:27.@pl, :01:01)
+aoj(103892891:0I.@indef, :5A.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3615]
+{org:en}
+Water vapor comes into the atmosphere continuously by means of evaporation from surfaces of water bodies and wet soil as well as by the plant transpiration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774761:0E.@entry, 115055633:08.@topic)
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+mod(115055633:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+aoj:01(301159405:39, 109335240:3D.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3616]
+{org:en}
+Certainly, in different places and at different time and conditions quantities of the vapor vary.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200436879:2M.@entry, 400535340:02)
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+and:02(:01.@entry, 100721431:0Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3617]
+{org:en}
+From the low layers in the atmosphere the water vapor rises upward and in the middle troposphere mainly it is transported from some regions to another ones.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201449974:34.@entry, 200155143:1K)
+man(200155143:1K, 400535871:1Q)
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+mod(109462600:2F.@def, 300815941:28)
+obj(200155143:1K, 115055633:1E.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3618]
+{org:en}
+Amount of water vapor in some given volume of the atmosphere cannot increase endlessly.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:1Y.@entry.@ability.@not, 115055633:0I.@topic)
+qua(108499057:1G.@def, 104990220:12)
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+qua(104990220:12, 600000034:0R)
+mod(115055633:0I.@topic, 107935504:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3619]
+{org:en}
+There is a certain maximum-possible amount of water vapor for each value of the air temperature.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, 115055633:1I)
+mod(100033615:12.@indef, 303161017:0L)
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+aoj(300309740:0D, 100033615:12.@indef)
+mod(105011790:2E.@def, 104727214:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3620]
+{org:en}
+When such state is achieved, then the water vapor is called the saturating (or saturated), and respectively the air is saturated.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200456357:2Z.@entry, 200107231:1J)
+or(300393508:29.@parenthesis, 200456357:1U.@def.@progress)
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+man(200456357:2Z.@entry, 400137915:2B)
+man(200107231:1J, 200456357:1U.@def.@progress)
+man(200107231:1J, 400117620:0V)
+mod(100024720:0C, 600001411:07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3621]
+{org:en}
+Usually, a state of saturation is achieved when the air temperature drops.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(202526085:10.@entry, 200057764:1Y)
+mod(105011790:1M.@def, 104727214:1I)
+obj(100024720:0D.@topic.@indef, 100402671:0M)
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+man(202526085:10.@entry, 400535718:02)
+obj(200057764:1Y, 105011790:1M.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3622]
+{org:en}
+If after that the temperature continues to drop, a part of water vapor becomes excessive and is condensed, i.e. transforms into liquid or solid state.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200364868:2Q.@entry.@state, 200149583:21)
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+gol(200149583:21, 301533974:29)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3623]
+{org:en}
+Water droplets or ice crystals of clouds and fogs arise in the air.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200339738:1G.@entry, 103142679:0O.@topic.@pl)
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+or:01(107614198:0K.@entry, 113771828:08.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3624]
+{org:en}
+Sometimes the clouds evaporate again, but in other cases droplets and crystals grow and can precipitate onto the Earth's surface in a form of rain or snow.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(200366858:0N, 400021878:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3625]
+{org:en}
+The most important processes of weather as well as some features of climate are related to the water vapor in the air and its phase transitions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(301275562:0B, 400536271:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3626]
+{org:en}
+The water vapor content is important for heat conditions of the atmosphere and the ground as it strongly absorbs the long-wave infrared radiation, which is emitted by the Earth's surface.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(302517999:3L, 101252918:3U.@def)
+agt(200395698:2Z, 600000016:2N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3627]
+{org:en}
+In its turn, the water vapor itself emits the infrared radiation, larger part of that again goes to the surface.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200105333:12.@entry, 100292599:09)
+mod(115055633:0P.@topic.@emphasis.@def, 107935504:0J)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3628]
+{org:en}
+This decreases the night cooling of the ground and lower layers of the atmosphere.
+{/org}
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+mod(101463259:1N.@pl, 108499057:21.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3629]
+{org:en}
+Water vapor evaporation requires certain amount of heat, while under the condensation this heat is returned to the air.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(202774169:0Q.@entry, 200879028:2T.@past)
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+dur(202774169:0Q.@entry, 200879028:2T.@past)
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+qua(105725527:1H, 100033615:17)
+obj(200879028:2T.@past, 105725527:2L.@topic)
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+obj(600000003:1T, 106246700:23.@def)
+agt(202774169:0Q.@entry, 113572436:0E.@topic)
+obj(600000003:1T, 106246700:23.@def)
+mod(115055633:08, 107935504:02)
+aoj(300309740:0Z, 100033615:17)
+gol(200879028:2T.@past, 104727214:39.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3630]
+{org:en}
+Clouds, resulting from the condensation, reflect and absorb solar radiation in its way to the surface.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(:01.@entry, 109247410:05.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100172710:2K, 600000016:2G)
+plc(111510067:1X, 100172710:2K)
+agt(:01.@entry, 109247410:05.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100172710:2K, 600000016:2G)
+plc(111510067:1X, 100172710:2K)
+and:01(200395698:1Q.@entry, 200821580:1E)
+src(200340704:0D.@progress, 106246700:0W.@def)
+obj(:01.@entry, 111510067:1X)
+obj(:01.@entry, 111510067:1X)
+obj(200340704:0D.@progress, 109247410:05.@topic.@pl)
+to(100172710:2K, 104362025:2V.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3631]
+{org:en}
+Precipitation and clouds are the most important elements of weather and climate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105868954:1E.@entry.@pl, :01)
+and:01(109247410:0K.@entry.@pl.@topic, 105061149:02.@topic.@pl)
+man(301275562:14, 400536271:0Z)
+aoj(105868954:1E.@entry.@pl, :01)
+and:01(109247410:0K.@entry.@pl.@topic, 105061149:02.@topic.@pl)
+man(301275562:14, 400536271:0Z)
+aoj(301275562:14, 105868954:1E.@entry.@pl)
+mod(105868954:1E.@entry.@pl, :02)
+mod(105868954:1E.@entry.@pl, :02)
+and:02(114519366:22.@entry, 111524662:1Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3632]
+{org:en}
+Water vapor content in the air is called the air humidity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200107231:10.@entry, 105809192:0E.@topic)
+mod(115055633:08, 107935504:02)
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+mod(114535643:1F.@def, 104727214:1B)
+gol(200107231:10.@entry, 114535643:1F.@def)
+gol(200107231:10.@entry, 114535643:1F.@def)
+mod(105809192:0E.@topic, 115055633:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3633]
+{org:en}
+This term is generally used to describe the amount of water vapor in the air.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:0P.@entry, 105855904:07.@topic)
+qua(115055633:1Q, 100033615:1A.@def)
+obj(200987071:0X, 115055633:1Q)
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+mod(105855904:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+pur(201158572:0P.@entry, 200987071:0X)
+pur(201158572:0P.@entry, 200987071:0X)
+mod(115055633:1Q, 107935504:1K)
+plc(115055633:1Q, 104727214:23.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3634]
+{org:en}
+A measure of humidity is a partial pressure of water vapor (usually the water vapor pressure) and relative humidity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100113113:11.@entry.@indef, 100174412:04.@topic.@indef)
+mod(100174412:04.@topic.@indef, 114535643:0F)
+cnt:02(115055633:1J, :01.@parenthesis)
+and:02(114535643:31.@entry, 115055633:1J)
+aoj(100113113:11.@entry.@indef, 100174412:04.@topic.@indef)
+mod(100174412:04.@topic.@indef, 114535643:0F)
+cnt:02(115055633:1J, :01.@parenthesis)
+and:02(114535643:31.@entry, 115055633:1J)
+mod:01(100113113:2E.@entry.@def, 115055633:28)
+aoj(300524693:0T, 100113113:11.@entry.@indef)
+man:01(100113113:2E.@entry.@def, 400535718:1Q)
+mod(100113113:11.@entry.@indef, :02)
+mod(100113113:11.@entry.@indef, :02)
+mod:02(115055633:1J, 107935504:1D)
+aoj:02(300006032:2S, 114535643:31.@entry)
+mod:01(115055633:28, 107935504:22)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3635]
+{org:en}
+Another characteristics are absolute humidity, mixing ratio, specific humidity, and dew point.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 104731497:0A.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(113819207:1R, 114535643:16)
+and:01(114535643:2A, 113819207:1R)
+aoj(:01.@entry, 104731497:0A.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(113819207:1R, 114535643:16)
+and:01(114535643:2A, 113819207:1R)
+mod(104731497:0A.@topic.@pl, 600000066:02)
+mod:01(103974215:2W.@entry, 114834132:2S)
+aoj:01(300005205:0X, 114535643:16)
+and:01(103974215:2W.@entry, 114535643:2A)
+and:01(103974215:2W.@entry, 114535643:2A)
+mod:01(113819207:1R, 115689918:1K)
+aoj:01(301099951:21, 114535643:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3636]
+{org:en}
+One more important constituent of the atmospheric air is ozone, which is nearly colorless gaseous form of oxygen.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(114972807:1N.@entry, 106312966:0L.@topic)
+mod(104727214:1G.@def, 302831736:14)
+man(300404202:2A, 400535354:23)
+aoj(300404202:2A, 103384535:2S)
+aoj(114972807:1N.@entry, 106312966:0L.@topic)
+mod(104727214:1G.@def, 302831736:14)
+man(300404202:2A, 400535354:23)
+aoj(300404202:2A, 103384535:2S)
+aoj(301275562:0B, 106312966:0L.@topic)
+mod(114648100:30, 103384535:2S)
+qua(106312966:0L.@topic, "1":02)
+aoj(114648100:30, 114972807:1N.@entry)
+aoj(114648100:30, 114972807:1N.@entry)
+qua(104727214:1G.@def, 106312966:0L.@topic)
+aoj(302262542:2K, 103384535:2S)
+man(301275562:0B, 400099341:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3637]
+{org:en}
+It is triatomic form ( HTM1 ) of oxygen.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103384535:0I.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj(303162367:08, 103384535:0I.@entry)
+aoj(103384535:0I.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj(303162367:08, 103384535:0I.@entry)
+cnt(103384535:0I.@entry, HTM1:0P.@parenthesis)
+mod(103384535:0I.@entry, 114648100:0Z)
+mod(103384535:0I.@entry, 114648100:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3638]
+{org:en}
+It is formed in layers from 15 up to 70 km and absorbs ultraviolet radiation with the wavelengths from 0.15 to 0.29 micrometers ( HTM1 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200395698:1D.@entry, 200144850:08)
+obj(200144850:08, 600000016:02.@topic)
+obj(600000019:27, 105086269:2G.@def.@pl)
+qua(115669024:16, "70":13)
+aoj(600000019:27, 101252918:1X)
+frm(101463259:0I.@pl, "15":0U)
+and(200395698:1D.@entry, 200144850:08)
+obj(200144850:08, 600000016:02.@topic)
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+qua(103759661:3A.@pl, :01:01)
+obj(200395698:1D.@entry, 101252918:1X)
+aoj(600000086:0X, 101463259:0I.@pl)
+cnt(103759661:3A.@pl, HTM1:3O.@parenthesis)
+agt(200395698:1D.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+plc(200144850:08, 101463259:0I.@pl)
+agt(200395698:1D.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+plc(200144850:08, 101463259:0I.@pl)
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+aoj(302518601:1L, 101252918:1X)
+obj(600000086:0X, 115669024:16)
+fmt:01("0.29":35.@entry, "0.115":2X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3639]
+{org:en}
+Absorbing one quantum of the ultraviolet radiation, a part of two-atomic molecules of oxygen dissociates into atoms, and some of them join the remaining oxygen molecules and, thus, form triatomic molecules of ozone.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(:01.@entry, 200209598:2N)
+obj(200395698:02.@progress, 105855517:0G)
+mod:01(114682133:4I.@def.@pl, 114648100:4B)
+mod:01(114682133:5I.@pl, 114972807:5V)
+mod(103892891:1K.@topic.@indef, 114682133:23.@pl)
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+aoj(302518601:0V, 101252918:17.@def)
+obj(200209598:2N, 103892891:1K.@topic.@indef)
+and(:01.@entry, 200209598:2N)
+obj(200395698:02.@progress, 105855517:0G)
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+mod:01(114682133:5I.@pl, 114972807:5V)
+mod(103892891:1K.@topic.@indef, 114682133:23.@pl)
+obj:01(200144850:53.@entry, 114682133:5I.@pl)
+aoj(302518601:0V, 101252918:17.@def)
+obj(200209598:2N, 103892891:1K.@topic.@indef)
+obj:01(201291069:3S, 114682133:4I.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301392071:1W, 114682133:23.@pl)
+aoj:01(200144850:53.@entry, 600000020:3N.@topic)
+qua(105855517:0G, "1":0C)
+man(200209598:2N, 200395698:02.@progress)
+agt:01(201291069:3S, 600000020:3N.@topic)
+qua(114682133:23.@pl, "2":1S)
+and:01(200144850:53.@entry, 201291069:3S)
+qua(101252918:17.@def, 105855517:0G)
+qua:01(600000020:3N.@topic, 600000195:3F)
+and:01(200144850:53.@entry, 201291069:3S)
+qua(101252918:17.@def, 105855517:0G)
+qua:01(600000020:3N.@topic, 600000195:3F)
+aoj:01(303162367:58, 114682133:5I.@pl)
+qua(114648100:2G, 114682133:23.@pl)
+man:01(200144850:53.@entry, 400121135:4X)
+gol(200209598:2N, 114585519:34.@pl)
+mod:01(114682133:4I.@def.@pl, 303162326:41)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3640]
+{org:en}
+These are actually photochemical processes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100029677:0Z.@entry.@pl, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(100029677:0Z.@entry.@pl, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302692815:0L, 100029677:0Z.@entry.@pl)
+man(100029677:0Z.@entry.@pl, 400149138:0C)
+man(100029677:0Z.@entry.@pl, 400149138:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3641]
+{org:en}
+Simultaneously, a reversing process, i.e. conversion of the ozone into oxygen, takes place.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774213:2T.@entry, 400120095:02)
+gol(100094788:1E, 114648100:2B)
+aoj(303163687:0N, 100029677:0X.@topic.@indef)
+man(202774213:2T.@entry, 400120095:02)
+gol(100094788:1E, 114648100:2B)
+aoj(303163687:0N, 100029677:0X.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(115689159:16, 100029677:0X.@topic.@indef)
+obj(202774213:2T.@entry, 100029677:0X.@topic.@indef)
+obj(202774213:2T.@entry, 100029677:0X.@topic.@indef)
+obj(100094788:1E, 114972807:1W.@def)
+obj(115689159:16, 100094788:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3642]
+{org:en}
+In the lower atmosphere, ozone is commonly formed as a product of electrical discharges through the air, and recently due to the air pollution with certain active gases.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200144850:19.@entry, 114972807:0R.@topic)
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+obj:01(600000001:3C.@entry, 114516743:3R.@def)
+obj:01(600000045:2I, 104727214:2U.@def)
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+obj:01(600000001:3C.@entry, 114516743:3R.@def)
+obj:01(600000045:2I, 104727214:2U.@def)
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+obj:01(600000019:41, 114481080:4L.@pl)
+man(301206474:09, 400099341:4S)
+man(200144850:19.@entry, 400516615:10)
+mod:01(103748886:1L.@indef, 100123234:27.@pl)
+mod:01(114516743:3R.@def, 104727214:3N)
+aoj(301206474:09, 108499057:0F.@def)
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+rsn(200144850:19.@entry, :01:01)
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+man:01(600000001:3C.@entry, 400107416:33)
+mod:01(100123234:27.@pl, 302826701:1W)
+aoj:01(300309740:46, 114481080:4L.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3643]
+{org:en}
+In the clean atmosphere near the Earth's surface, ozone content is negligible.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301496462:1X.@entry, 105809192:1M.@topic)
+obj(600000081:0Q, 115690588:0Z.@def)
+aoj(600000081:0Q, 108499057:0F.@def)
+aoj(301496462:1X.@entry, 105809192:1M.@topic)
+obj(600000081:0Q, 115690588:0Z.@def)
+aoj(600000081:0Q, 108499057:0F.@def)
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+plc(105809192:1M.@topic, 108499057:0F.@def)
+aoj(300047653:09, 108499057:0F.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3644]
+{org:en}
+But its content grows with height, and not only in the percent sense, but also in its absolute values.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200094460:0I.@entry, 105809192:0A)
+aoj(300005205:2G, 104979425:2P.@pl)
+obj(600000093:3O, 105651971:1T.@def)
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+man(200094460:0I.@entry, 600000093:3O)
+mod(105651971:1T.@def, 115689109:1L)
+plc(200094460:0I.@entry, 104979425:2P.@pl)
+mod(105809192:0A, 600000016:06)
+plc(200094460:0I.@entry, 104979425:2P.@pl)
+mod(105809192:0A, 600000016:06)
+man(105651971:1T.@def, 400535232:15)
+obj(600000018:0O, 105137165:0T)
+mod(104979425:2P.@pl, 600000016:2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3645]
+{org:en}
+Its maximal content is observed in polar latitudes at altitudes 15-20 km, in middle latitudes - 20-25 km, in tropical and subtropical ones - 25-30 km.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200732552:0P.@entry, 105809192:0E.@topic)
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+qua:01(115669024:26, "15-20":20)
+aoj:01(115669024:4S, 600000027:4F.@entry.@pl)
+plc:01(105127640:1D.@pl, 105131647:1Q.@pl)
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+plc:01(105127640:1D.@pl, 105131647:1Q.@pl)
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+and:01(600000027:4F.@entry.@pl, 105127640:2R.@pl)
+mod:01(105127640:1D.@pl, 115669024:26)
+qua:01(115669024:4S, "25-30":4M)
+mod(105809192:0E.@topic, 301495725:06)
+plc(200732552:0P.@entry, :01:01.@entry)
+qua:01(115669024:39, "20-25":33)
+plc(200732552:0P.@entry, :01:01.@entry)
+qua:01(115669024:39, "20-25":33)
+man:02(301250835:46.@entry, 600000388:43)
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+aoj:01(:02, 600000027:4F.@entry.@pl)
+mod:01(105127640:1D.@pl, 300358820:17)
+aoj:01(115669024:39, 105127640:2R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3646]
+{org:en}
+At higher levels, ozone content decreases and at levels of about 70 km it is again negligible.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(301496462:2D.@entry, 200151689:0Y)
+qua(115669024:1Y, 400071165:1P)
+obj(200151689:0Y, 105809192:0Q.@topic)
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+obj(200151689:0Y, 105809192:0Q.@topic)
+plc(200151689:0Y, 105093890:1F.@pl)
+man(300705498:05, 400099341:2M)
+man(301496462:2D.@entry, 400040365:27)
+aoj(300705498:05, 105093890:0C.@pl)
+aoj(301496462:2D.@entry, 600000016:21.@topic)
+bas(400071165:1P, "70":1V)
+aoj(301496462:2D.@entry, 600000016:21.@topic)
+bas(400071165:1P, "70":1V)
+mod(105809192:0Q.@topic, 114972807:0K)
+plc(200151689:0Y, 105093890:0C.@pl)
+mod(105093890:1F.@pl, 115669024:1Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3647]
+{org:en}
+It so strongly absorbs radiation near ultraviolet (2000-3000 angstroms) that the greatest heating effect occur nearer to 50 km.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200395698:0H.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+man(200723349:32.@entry, 600000350:38)
+obj(400535953:0Z, 111521940:14)
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+qua(115669024:3L, "50":3I)
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+obj(200395698:0H.@entry, 101252918:0P)
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+mod(104809642:2V.@topic.@def, 113491876:2N)
+gol(200723349:32.@entry, 115669024:3L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3648]
+{org:en}
+So, ozone raises the air temperature at these altitudes and the air here is rather warm.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300445308:2D.@entry, 200158503:0C)
+agt(200158503:0C, 114972807:06.@topic)
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+man(200158503:0C, 600000071:02)
+mod(105131647:1C.@pl, 600000017:16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3649]
+{org:en}
+If all of the normal content of atmospheric ozone were compressed to the sea level pressure, it would form a layer only two or three centimeters thick.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua(113658828:3R.@pl, :01:01)
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+aoj(301593649:0G, 105809192:0N.@def)
+gol(201387786:1L.@past, 100113113:2D.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3650]
+{org:en}
+Ozone has several radiation absorption bands, which are of importance in the radiative balance of the upper atmosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:08.@entry, 114972807:02.@topic)
+mod(113423922:0U, 101252918:0K)
+qua(102784218:15.@pl, 600000059:0C)
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+aoj(105168261:1P, 102784218:15.@pl)
+obj(102777100:2H.@def, 108499057:32.@def)
+obj(200065370:08.@entry, 102784218:15.@pl)
+obj(200065370:08.@entry, 102784218:15.@pl)
+scn(105168261:1P, 102777100:2H.@def)
+mod(102784218:15.@pl, 113423922:0U)
+mod(108499057:32.@def, 301206318:2W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3651]
+{org:en}
+They are
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:07.@entry, 600000020:02)
+aoj(:07.@entry, 600000020:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3652]
+{org:en}
+the Hartley bands between 2000 and 3000 angstroms in the ultraviolet, with a very intense maximum absorption at 2550 angstroms
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000019:27, 102784218:0E.@entry.@def.@pl)
+mod(113423922:2Z.@indef, 303161017:2R)
+qua(113658027:19.@pl, :01:01)
+obj(600000024:0K, 113658027:19.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:27, 102784218:0E.@entry.@def.@pl)
+mod(113423922:2Z.@indef, 303161017:2R)
+qua(113658027:19.@pl, :01:01)
+obj(600000024:0K, 113658027:19.@pl)
+plc(113423922:2Z.@indef, 113658027:3I.@pl)
+mod(102784218:0E.@entry.@def.@pl, 500007708:06)
+qua(113658027:3I.@pl, "2550":3D)
+obj(600000019:27, 113423922:2Z.@indef)
+aoj(600000024:0K, 102784218:0E.@entry.@def.@pl)
+man(300393683:2J, 400031899:2E)
+aoj(600000024:0K, 102784218:0E.@entry.@def.@pl)
+man(300393683:2J, 400031899:2E)
+and:01("3000":14.@entry, "2000":0V)
+plc(113658027:19.@pl, 111521940:1U.@def)
+aoj(300393683:2J, 113423922:2Z.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3653]
+{org:en}
+the Huggins bands, weak absorption between 3200 and 3600 angstroms
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(102784218:0E.@entry.@def.@pl, 113423922:0Q)
+obj(600000024:11, :01)
+aoj(600000024:11, 113423922:0Q)
+mod(102784218:0E.@entry.@def.@pl, 113423922:0Q)
+obj(600000024:11, :01)
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+man(113423922:0Q, 113658027:1N.@pl)
+mod(102784218:0E.@entry.@def.@pl, 500007881:06)
+mod(102784218:0E.@entry.@def.@pl, 500007881:06)
+and:01("3600":1I.@entry, "3200":19)
+aoj(300441523:0L, 113423922:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3654]
+{org:en}
+the Chappuis bands, a weak diffuse system between 4500 and 6500 angstroms in the visible
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(102784218:0F.@entry.@def.@pl, 104377057:11.@indef)
+obj(600000024:18, 113658027:1X.@pl)
+aoj(300441523:0O, 104377057:11.@indef)
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+obj(600000024:18, 113658027:1X.@pl)
+aoj(300441523:0O, 104377057:11.@indef)
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+aoj(600000024:18, 104377057:11.@indef)
+qua(113658027:1X.@pl, :01:01)
+mod(102784218:0F.@entry.@def.@pl, 500323240:06)
+mod(102784218:0F.@entry.@def.@pl, 500323240:06)
+plc(113658027:1X.@pl, :4J.@def)
+aoj(300540487:0T, 104377057:11.@indef)
+aoj(300184792:2I, :4J.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3655]
+{org:en}
+and
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(:02.@entry, :01)
+and(:02.@entry, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3656]
+{org:en}
+the infrared bands centered at 4.7, 9.6, and 14.1 microns, the latter being the most intense.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000200:1T.@def, 102784218:0F.@entry.@def.@pl)
+and:01("14.1":1B.@entry, "9.6":12)
+plc(201852701:0L, 113658496:1G.@pl)
+aoj(600000200:1T.@def, 102784218:0F.@entry.@def.@pl)
+and:01("14.1":1B.@entry, "9.6":12)
+plc(201852701:0L, 113658496:1G.@pl)
+man(300393683:2F.@state, 400536271:2A)
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+aoj(300393683:2F.@state, 600000200:1T.@def)
+obj(201852701:0L, 102784218:0F.@entry.@def.@pl)
+obj(201852701:0L, 102784218:0F.@entry.@def.@pl)
+and:01("9.6":12, "4.7":0X)
+qua(113658496:1G.@pl, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3657]
+{org:en}
+Important property of ozone is that it completely absorbs very dangerous and destructive part of the ultraviolet (0.15-0.29 micrometers).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3658]
+{org:en}
+That is why ozone layers is often called as a protective layer for the life on the Earth. In recent years the ozone problem had arisen because of growing air pollution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000985:02.@entry, 200107231:10)
+obj(200339738:3M.@entry.@past.@complete, 105687338:3A.@topic.@def)
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+mod(114516743:4G, 104727214:4C)
+man(200339738:3M.@entry.@past.@complete, 600001335:2K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3659]
+{org:en}
+So called "ozone holes " were revealed in upper layers of the polar stratosphere, and, on the other hand, it is often observed now that sometimes ozone content in low layers near the surface due to photochemical reactions at the air pollution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(109448090:27.@def, 300358820:21)
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+aoj(301206474:4X, 101463259:51.@pl)
+obj(600000001:5P, 113536523:5W.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3660]
+{org:en}
+In this connection instrumentation for the ozone measurements and a network of ozone-measuring stations became very important.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200149583:3C.@entry.@past, 104306080:33.@topic.@pl)
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+mod:01(100097348:0O.@indef, 100145218:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3661]
+{org:en}
+In addition to the above atmospheric gases another admixtures can penetrate the atmosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200728954:1W.@entry.@ability, 600000099:02)
+mod(114481080:13.@def.@pl, 300125993:0L)
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+agt(200728954:1W.@entry.@ability, 102681084:1H.@topic.@pl)
+mod(114481080:13.@def.@pl, 302831736:0R)
+obj(600000099:02, 114481080:13.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3662]
+{org:en}
+Those are
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:08.@entry, 600000030:02.@pl)
+aoj(:08.@entry, 600000030:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3663]
+{org:en}
+other gases, especially combinations, arising at forest fires, volcano eruptions, burning of fuel, and as a result of other human activity (oxides of sulfur, carbon, phosphorous, hydrocarbons of exhaust gases, etc.)
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(200339738:14.@progress, :03:03)
+mod:02(114971519:3Y.@entry.@pl, :01)
+obj:03(200196364:2C.@progress, 114875077:2N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3664]
+{org:en}
+liquid
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+300432453:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+300432453:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3665]
+{org:en}
+and
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3666]
+{org:en}
+solid particles
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300291181:02, 106326406:08.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300291181:02, 106326406:08.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3667]
+{org:en}
+suspended in the atmospheric air.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(302351692:02.@entry, 104727214:0V.@def)
+plc(302351692:02.@entry, 104727214:0V.@def)
+mod(104727214:0V.@def, 302831736:0J)
+mod(104727214:0V.@def, 302831736:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3668]
+{org:en}
+Water droplets and ice crystals, arising in the atmosphere at the water vapor condensation, form clouds and fogs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200144850:37.@entry, :02:02)
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+and:01(103142679:12.@entry.@pl, 113771828:0E.@pl)
+mod:02(106246700:2P.@def, 107935504:2D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3669]
+{org:en}
+Solid and liquid particles of very different composition and origin are called aerosols.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200107231:1X.@entry, 106326406:0E.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(104923743:1M.@entry, 103081660:16)
+aoj(300432453:07, 106326406:0E.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200107231:1X.@entry, 106326406:0E.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(104923743:1M.@entry, 103081660:16)
+aoj(300432453:07, 106326406:0E.@topic.@pl)
+mod(106326406:0E.@topic.@pl, :01)
+gol(200107231:1X.@entry, 111422597:24.@pl)
+gol(200107231:1X.@entry, 111422597:24.@pl)
+man(300490413:0W, 400031899:0R)
+aoj(300490413:0W, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3670]
+{org:en}
+They can be both of natural and anthropogenic origin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000220:0E.@entry.@ability, 600000020:02.@topic)
+and:01(303161088:0Y.@entry, 301335708:0M)
+aoj(600000220:0E.@entry.@ability, 600000020:02.@topic)
+and:01(303161088:0Y.@entry, 301335708:0M)
+mod(104923743:1C, :01)
+mod(600000220:0E.@entry.@ability, 104923743:1C)
+mod(600000220:0E.@entry.@ability, 104923743:1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3671]
+{org:en}
+Solid aerosols of natural origin are
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:0Z.@entry, 111422597:08.@pl)
+mod(104923743:0S, 301335708:0K)
+aoj(:0Z.@entry, 111422597:08.@pl)
+mod(104923743:0S, 301335708:0K)
+aoj(300291181:02, 111422597:08.@pl)
+mod(111422597:08.@pl, 104923743:0S)
+mod(111422597:08.@pl, 104923743:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3672]
+{org:en}
+volcanic dust and thin ashes, particles of smoke, particles of soil dust, cosmic dust.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(114839846:2B.@entry, :02)
+and:02(106326406:0W.@pl, :01)
+mod:02(106326406:1G.@entry.@pl, 114839846:1Y)
+and(114839846:2B.@entry, :02)
+and:02(106326406:0W.@pl, :01)
+mod:02(106326406:1G.@entry.@pl, 114839846:1Y)
+aoj:01(300988232:0K, 112303462:0P.@entry.@pl)
+and:02(106326406:1G.@entry.@pl, 106326406:0W.@pl)
+and:01(112303462:0P.@entry.@pl, 114839846:0B.@pl)
+aoj(301385663:24, 114839846:2B.@entry)
+aoj(301385663:24, 114839846:2B.@entry)
+mod:02(106326406:0W.@pl, 104761960:19)
+mod:02(114839846:1Y, 109335240:1T)
+aoj:01(301355746:02, 114839846:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3673]
+{org:en}
+Natural liquid aerosols are drops of sea salt, bacteriums, pollen, and spores.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100327366:0U.@entry.@pl, 111422597:0H.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(105717342:17.@pl, 109426788:13)
+and:01(111675537:1P.@pl, 115689384:1D.@pl)
+aoj(100327366:0U.@entry.@pl, 111422597:0H.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(105717342:17.@pl, 109426788:13)
+and:01(111675537:1P.@pl, 115689384:1D.@pl)
+and:01(111547855:21.@entry.@pl, 111675537:1P.@pl)
+aoj(300432453:0A, 111422597:0H.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100327366:0U.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod(100327366:0U.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod(111422597:0H.@topic.@pl, 301335708:02)
+and:01(115689384:1D.@pl, 105717342:17.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3674]
+{org:en}
+Aerosols of the anthropogenic origin are particles of smoke, soot, ash, coming into the atmosphere at burning of fuel, work of industry, and results of other human activity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(106326406:17.@entry.@pl, 111422597:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100407535:4M, 301258617:4G)
+gol:02(200341917:22.@progress, 108499057:2I.@def)
+mod(104923743:0W.@def, 303161088:0I)
+and:02(112303462:1X.@entry, 115395468:1R)
+obj:01(100575741:3D.@pl, 100923444:3L)
+aoj(106326406:17.@entry.@pl, 111422597:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100407535:4M, 301258617:4G)
+gol:02(200341917:22.@progress, 108499057:2I.@def)
+mod(104923743:0W.@def, 303161088:0I)
+and:02(112303462:1X.@entry, 115395468:1R)
+obj:01(100575741:3D.@pl, 100923444:3L)
+mod(100407535:4M, :01)
+mod(106326406:17.@entry.@pl, :02)
+and:01(100575741:3D.@pl, 114875077:37.@pl)
+obj(200196364:2W.@progress, 100407535:4M)
+plc(106326406:17.@entry.@pl, 200196364:2W.@progress)
+and:01(115698567:3Z.@entry.@pl, 100575741:3D.@pl)
+plc(106326406:17.@entry.@pl, 200196364:2W.@progress)
+and:01(115698567:3Z.@entry.@pl, 100575741:3D.@pl)
+and:02(115395468:1R, 104761960:1K)
+obj:02(200341917:22.@progress, 112303462:1X.@entry)
+mod(111422597:02.@topic.@pl, 104923743:0W.@def)
+mod(100407535:4M, 600000031:4A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3675]
+{org:en}
+Significant part of aerosols is a product of transformation from gaseous admixtures, coming into the atmosphere by one or another way.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103748886:13.@entry.@indef, 103892891:0E.@topic)
+aoj(300625055:02, 103892891:0E.@topic)
+met(202774761:2I.@progress, 100172710:3R)
+frm(100398704:1E, 102681084:26.@pl)
+aoj(103748886:13.@entry.@indef, 103892891:0E.@topic)
+aoj(300625055:02, 103892891:0E.@topic)
+met(202774761:2I.@progress, 100172710:3R)
+frm(100398704:1E, 102681084:26.@pl)
+or:01(600000066:3J.@entry, 600000089:3C)
+mod(103748886:13.@entry.@indef, 100398704:1E)
+mod(100172710:3R, :01)
+obj(202774761:2I.@progress, 103748886:13.@entry.@indef)
+obj(202774761:2I.@progress, 103748886:13.@entry.@indef)
+gol(202774761:2I.@progress, 108499057:2Y.@def)
+aoj(302262542:1Y, 102681084:26.@pl)
+mod(103892891:0E.@topic, 111422597:0M.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3676]
+{org:en}
+Small part of these admixtures are big particles with radii larger 5 micrometers, for example it is dust.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(106326406:15.@entry.@pl, 103892891:08.@topic)
+qua(103759661:1Z.@pl, "5":1X)
+man(300527870:1Q, 400099341:3W)
+obj(600000019:1F, 105102101:1K.@pl)
+aoj(106326406:15.@entry.@pl, 103892891:08.@topic)
+qua(103759661:1Z.@pl, "5":1X)
+man(300527870:1Q, 400099341:3W)
+obj(600000019:1F, 105102101:1K.@pl)
+aoj(301391351:02, 103892891:08.@topic)
+aoj(300173391:11, 106326406:15.@entry.@pl)
+mod(103892891:08.@topic, 102681084:0M.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:1F, 106326406:15.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:1F, 106326406:15.@entry.@pl)
+man(300527870:1Q, 103759661:1Z.@pl)
+aoj(300527870:1Q, 105102101:1K.@pl)
+mod(102681084:0M.@pl, 600000017:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3677]
+{org:en}
+Almost 95% of the particles have radii smaller 5 micrometers, therefore they can be suspended in the atmosphere for a long time.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0U.@entry, 106326406:0K.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302351692:2E.@ability, 600000020:22.@topic)
+man(301391351:15, 103759661:1F.@pl)
+aoj(301391351:15, 105102101:0Z.@pl)
+aoj(200065370:0U.@entry, 106326406:0K.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302351692:2E.@ability, 600000020:22.@topic)
+man(301391351:15, 103759661:1F.@pl)
+aoj(301391351:15, 105102101:0Z.@pl)
+qua(103759661:1F.@pl, "5":1D)
+man(200065370:0U.@entry, 600000169:1S)
+plc(302351692:2E.@ability, 108499057:2V.@def)
+bas(400073033:02, "95%":09)
+obj(200065370:0U.@entry, 105102101:0Z.@pl)
+man(302351692:2E.@ability, 600000610:36)
+obj(200065370:0U.@entry, 105102101:0Z.@pl)
+man(302351692:2E.@ability, 600000610:36)
+qua(106326406:0K.@topic.@def.@pl, 400073033:02)
+man(301391351:15, 400099341:3S)
+obj(600000169:1S, 302351692:2E.@ability)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3678]
+{org:en}
+Main components of the gaseous pollution of the atmosphere are
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:1P.@entry, 103081021:07.@pl)
+obj(114516743:0X.@def, 108499057:1E.@def)
+aoj(:1P.@entry, 103081021:07.@pl)
+obj(114516743:0X.@def, 108499057:1E.@def)
+mod(103081021:07.@pl, 301512527:02)
+mod(103081021:07.@pl, 114516743:0X.@def)
+mod(103081021:07.@pl, 114516743:0X.@def)
+aoj(302262542:0P, 114516743:0X.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3679]
+{org:en}
+sulfur dioxide HTM1 , oxide of carbon CO, carbon dioxide HTM2 , nitrates HTM3 , hydrogen sulphide HTM4 , hydrocarbons of automobile exhaust gases, ammonium HTM5 , radioactive wastes of nuclear power stations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(HTM1:0H.@entry, 114971519:0O)
+and:02(HTM2:1N.@pl, 500323559:14.@pl)
+and:01(HTM5:4E, 114481080:3Y.@pl)
+mod:02(114911057:2Z.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod:02(HTM4:2S.@pl, 115694492:2J)
+mod(114971519:0O, :02)
+aoj:01(303162555:3Q, 114481080:3Y.@pl)
+mod(HTM1:0H.@entry, 114971519:0O)
+and:02(HTM2:1N.@pl, 500323559:14.@pl)
+and:01(HTM5:4E, 114481080:3Y.@pl)
+mod:02(114911057:2Z.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod:02(HTM4:2S.@pl, 115694492:2J)
+mod(114971519:0O, :02)
+aoj:01(303162555:3Q, 114481080:3Y.@pl)
+aoj:01(300426907:4L, 115689751:4X.@entry)
+mod:02(HTM3:23.@pl, 115015501:1U.@pl)
+aoj(303163785:02, 114836127:09)
+mod:02(500323559:14.@pl, 102961851:0X)
+mod:01(114481080:3Y.@pl, 115693344:3F)
+mod:01(115689751:4X.@entry, 104306080:5L.@pl)
+and:02(HTM3:23.@pl, HTM2:1N.@pl)
+mod(HTM1:0H.@entry, 114836127:09)
+mod:02(HTM2:1N.@pl, 114796969:18)
+mod:01(HTM5:4E, 114744120:45)
+mod(HTM1:0H.@entry, 114836127:09)
+mod:02(HTM2:1N.@pl, 114796969:18)
+mod:01(HTM5:4E, 114744120:45)
+and:01(115689751:4X.@entry, HTM5:4E)
+mod:02(115694492:2J, 114640434:2A)
+and:02(114911057:2Z.@entry.@pl, HTM4:2S.@pl)
+and:02(HTM4:2S.@pl, HTM3:23.@pl)
+mod:01(104306080:5L.@pl, 115668751:57)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3680]
+{org:en}
+Like clouds, aerosols are easily transported with air flows over large distances, and this make them dangerous in the global scale.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200012267:2L.@entry, 201449974:0Z.@past)
+aoj(600000049:1Q, 100329227:1K.@pl)
+man(201449974:0Z.@past, 600000176:02)
+gol(200012267:2L.@entry, 300651039:2W)
+aoj(300527870:1V, 105084201:21.@pl)
+and(200012267:2L.@entry, 201449974:0Z.@past)
+aoj(600000049:1Q, 100329227:1K.@pl)
+man(201449974:0Z.@past, 600000176:02)
+gol(200012267:2L.@entry, 300651039:2W)
+aoj(300527870:1V, 105084201:21.@pl)
+man(201449974:0Z.@past, 400054435:0S)
+plc(200012267:2L.@entry, 115693792:3D.@def)
+obj(600000049:1Q, 105084201:21.@pl)
+man(201449974:0Z.@past, 600000018:1B)
+aoj(200012267:2L.@entry, 600000022:2G.@topic)
+mod(100329227:1K.@pl, 104727214:1G)
+aoj(200012267:2L.@entry, 600000022:2G.@topic)
+mod(100329227:1K.@pl, 104727214:1G)
+obj(201449974:0Z.@past, 111422597:0F.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200012267:2L.@entry, 600000020:2R)
+obj(600000176:02, 109247410:07.@pl)
+obj(600000018:1B, 100329227:1K.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3681]
+{org:en}
+Structure of the Atmosphere
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104931965:02.@entry, 108499057:0J.@def)
+mod(104931965:02.@entry, 108499057:0J.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3682]
+{org:en}
+Despite the high variability of atmospheric parameters with altitude, we may envisage the atmosphere as consisting of several layers, the characteristics of each being rather stable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202775659:2A.@entry.@may, 600000083:02)
+aoj(600000019:1L, 105859071:1A.@pl)
+obj(202774237:31.@progress, 101463259:3N.@pl)
+man(300894551:54.@state, 600000114:4X)
+obj(202775659:2A.@entry.@may, 108499057:2N.@def)
+mod(104731497:43.@entry.@def.@pl, 600000092:4M)
+man(202775659:2A.@entry.@may, 600000083:02)
+aoj(600000019:1L, 105859071:1A.@pl)
+obj(202774237:31.@progress, 101463259:3N.@pl)
+man(300894551:54.@state, 600000114:4X)
+obj(202775659:2A.@entry.@may, 108499057:2N.@def)
+mod(104731497:43.@entry.@def.@pl, 600000092:4M)
+mod(104735233:0J.@def, 105859071:1A.@pl)
+man(202775659:2A.@entry.@may, 600000275:2Y)
+obj(600000019:1L, 105131647:1Q)
+obj(600000083:02, 104735233:0J.@def)
+agt(202775659:2A.@entry.@may, 600000005:23.@topic)
+mod(105859071:1A.@pl, 302831736:0Y)
+agt(202775659:2A.@entry.@may, 600000005:23.@topic)
+mod(105859071:1A.@pl, 302831736:0Y)
+qua(101463259:3N.@pl, 600000059:3F)
+obj(600000275:2Y, 202774237:31.@progress)
+aoj(300894551:54.@state, 600000092:4M)
+aoj(300705498:0E, 104735233:0J.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3683]
+{org:en}
+Such a division enables one to present a generalized structural scheme of the atmosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200512877:0I.@entry, 100385791:09.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(302278513:17, 105905348:1U.@indef)
+obj(200772967:0X, 105905348:1U.@indef)
+agt(200512877:0I.@entry, 100385791:09.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(302278513:17, 105905348:1U.@indef)
+obj(200772967:0X, 105905348:1U.@indef)
+obj(200512877:0I.@entry, 600000109:0Q)
+mod(100385791:09.@topic.@indef, 600001411:02)
+gol(200512877:0I.@entry, 200772967:0X)
+gol(200512877:0I.@entry, 200772967:0X)
+aoj(300586060:1J, 105905348:1U.@indef)
+mod(105905348:1U.@indef, 108499057:28.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3684]
+{org:en}
+One may stratify the atmosphere into layers in several ways, depending on the particular properties one considers as the basis of such stratification.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200052845:0A.@entry, 600000109:02)
+obj(200691312:2Y.@entry, 104012260:2J.@def.@pl)
+qua(100172710:1L.@pl, 600000059:1D)
+met(200052845:0A.@entry, 100172710:1L.@pl)
+agt(200052845:0A.@entry, 600000109:02)
+obj(200691312:2Y.@entry, 104012260:2J.@def.@pl)
+qua(100172710:1L.@pl, 600000059:1D)
+met(200052845:0A.@entry, 100172710:1L.@pl)
+aoj(300311044:28, 104012260:2J.@def.@pl)
+gol(200052845:0A.@entry, 101463259:13.@pl)
+mod(105793554:3F.@def, 100919877:3T)
+obj(202663848:1R.@progress, 104012260:2J.@def.@pl)
+obj(200052845:0A.@entry, 108499057:0N.@def)
+gol(200691312:2Y.@entry, 105793554:3F.@def)
+obj(200052845:0A.@entry, 108499057:0N.@def)
+gol(200691312:2Y.@entry, 105793554:3F.@def)
+aoj(202663848:1R.@progress, 100172710:1L.@pl)
+man(200052845:0A.@entry, 100172710:1L.@pl)
+agt(200691312:2Y.@entry, 600000109:2U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3685]
+{org:en}
+These may include its thermal state, dynamics, electrical properties, the content of either its constant or variable components, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0C.@entry.@may, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod:02(104012260:1Y.@pl, 302826701:1N)
+mod:02(103081021:3S.@pl, 600000016:33)
+and:02(103081021:3S.@pl, 104012260:1Y.@pl)
+mod:02(100024720:0Z, 301250565:0R)
+aoj(200183879:0C.@entry.@may, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod:02(104012260:1Y.@pl, 302826701:1N)
+mod:02(103081021:3S.@pl, 600000016:33)
+and:02(103081021:3S.@pl, 104012260:1Y.@pl)
+mod:02(100024720:0Z, 301250565:0R)
+aoj:02(600001327:2W, 105809192:2L.@def)
+and:02(115689145:48.@entry, 103081021:3S.@pl)
+mod:02(100024720:0Z, 600000016:0N)
+or:01(301028796:3J.@entry, 300583239:37)
+obj(200183879:0C.@entry.@may, :02:02)
+and:02(106113597:1A, 100024720:0Z)
+obj(200183879:0C.@entry.@may, :02:02)
+and:02(106113597:1A, 100024720:0Z)
+aoj:02(:01, 103081021:3S.@pl)
+mod:02(103081021:3S.@pl, 105809192:2L.@def)
+and:02(104012260:1Y.@pl, 106113597:1A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3686]
+{org:en}
+We shall consider such a general scheme of the atmospheric structure, based on the vertical temperature profile.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200691312:0B.@entry.@obligation, 600000005:02.@topic)
+aoj(300487198:0R, 105905348:0Z.@indef)
+mod(105905348:0Z.@indef, 104931965:1P.@def)
+agt(200691312:0B.@entry.@obligation, 600000005:02.@topic)
+aoj(300487198:0R, 105905348:0Z.@indef)
+mod(105905348:0Z.@indef, 104931965:1P.@def)
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+Note that the particularities of that profile differ from region to region, and strongly vary with time.
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+Changes in air temperature may be caused by variations in the thermal budget of the atmosphere and of the Earth surface.
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+They are related to regular oscillations in the amount of solar radiation reaching the atmosphere and the surface (e.g., when day is followed by night, or winter by summer, etc., the so-called daily and seasonal temperature cycles), and also to numerous processes in the atmosphere associated with air movements.
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+[S:3690]
+{org:en}
+Figure 6.
+{/org}
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+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "6":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:3691]
+{org:en}
+Structure of the atmosphere and methods of investigations.
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+[S:3692]
+{org:en}
+Fig. 6 presents the average vertical temperature profile of the atmosphere, depicting basic layers.
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+The average altitudes at which the temperature profile has sharp breaks are taken for boundaries between them.
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+The principal features of temperature distribution with height remain stable within each of those layers.
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+The lowest atmospheric layer characterized by a decrease of temperature by about 6 HTM1 per 1 kilometer, is called the troposphere (from Greek HTM2 - changing).
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+[S:3696]
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+The stratosphere ( from Greek HTM1 - stratified) lies above it, that layer generally characterized by increasing temperature with height.
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+The boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere is called the tropopause.
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+As for the lower stratosphere, temperature only slowly varies there up to about 20 km (that is the so-called isothermal range)
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+it is not rare to find the temperature still slowly decreasing wit height there.
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+Above it temperature starts steadily to increase, first slowly, and from 34-36 km up that growth becomes rather quick.
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+The upper boundary of the stratosphere - the stratopause -is stratified at the level of temperature maximum (260-270 K, or about 0 HTM1 ).
+{/org}
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+The layer above the startopause, in which the temperature drops off with height again, is called the mesosphere ( HTM1 means middle), and the temperature at its upper boundary - the mesopause - may reach as low as 170-200 K ( HTM2 ).
+{/org}
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+The layer found above the mesopause is the thermosphere ( HTM1 means warm), characterized by a rapid temperature increase with height.
+{/org}
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+obj(202697950:26.@past.@entry, 109457367:19.@entry.@def)
+obj(200715239:0C, 101463259:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100363260:37.@indef, 105011790:2V)
+obj(200715239:0C, 101463259:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100363260:37.@indef, 105011790:2V)
+obj:01(200708840:1T, 300445308:1Z)
+mod(109457367:19.@entry.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj(600000019:3G, 100363260:37.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3704]
+{org:en}
+The corpuscular and X-ray emissions from the Sun are absorbed there, meteors brake and burn in thin air, so that it is a "protective " layer for the Earth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:02.@entry, 600000084:2Z)
+mod:02(101253060:0S.@topic.@pl, :01)
+and:02(201863593:27, 200395698:1J)
+pur(101463259:42.@indef, 108562067:4G.@def)
+plc:02(200196364:2H.@entry, 104727214:2U)
+obj(600000084:2Z, 101463259:42.@indef)
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+and:02(201863593:27, 200395698:1J)
+pur(101463259:42.@indef, 108562067:4G.@def)
+plc:02(200196364:2H.@entry, 104727214:2U)
+obj(600000084:2Z, 101463259:42.@indef)
+man:02(200395698:1J, 400109151:1S)
+obj:02(200196364:2H.@entry, 109353109:1Z.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(:4S.@def, 302984998:06)
+obj:02(200395698:1J, 101253060:0S.@topic.@pl)
+and:02(200196364:2H.@entry, 201863593:27)
+and:01(500323966:0M.@entry, :4S.@def)
+and:02(200196364:2H.@entry, 201863593:27)
+and:01(500323966:0M.@entry, :4S.@def)
+obj:02(201863593:27, 109353109:1Z.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300311187:3L.@single_quote, 101463259:42.@indef)
+aoj:02(300988232:2P, 104727214:2U)
+aoj(101463259:42.@indef, 600000016:37.@topic)
+frm:02(101253060:0S.@topic.@pl, 109450454:1B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3705]
+{org:en}
+The height, at which the boundaries between the layers are found, and also their thickness suffer significant variations both in time and space.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200065070:2L.@entry, 105137165:06.@def)
+obj(200715239:1P, 108512259:0R.@def.@pl)
+man(100194969:34.@pl, 600000074:3F)
+obj(200065070:2L.@entry, 100194969:34.@pl)
+and(200065070:2L.@entry, 105137165:06.@def)
+obj(200715239:1P, 108512259:0R.@def.@pl)
+man(100194969:34.@pl, 600000074:3F)
+obj(200065070:2L.@entry, 100194969:34.@pl)
+mod(104936403:2B.@topic, 600000020:25.@pl)
+agt(200065070:2L.@entry, 104936403:2B.@topic)
+obj(600000024:12, 101463259:1E.@def.@pl)
+and:01(106389553:3W.@entry, 100028270:3N)
+man(200065070:2L.@entry, 400047534:20)
+aoj(600000024:12, 108512259:0R.@def.@pl)
+man(200065070:2L.@entry, 400047534:20)
+aoj(600000024:12, 108512259:0R.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300625055:2S, 100194969:34.@pl)
+obj(100194969:34.@pl, :01:01)
+plc(200715239:1P, 105137165:06.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3706]
+{org:en}
+E.g. the tropopause is found at the altitudes from 8 to 17 km (its average height at the equator is 16-18 km, and 8-10 km - at the poles), the stratopause - from 45 to 55 km, and the mesopause - from 80 to 90 km.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115668938:55.@entry.@def, :9O)
+mod(105137165:25.@topic, 600000016:1T)
+frm(105131647:12.@def.@pl, 115669024:1P)
+aoj(115699356:02, :9O)
+plc:02(115669024:3D.@entry, 103976657:3P.@def.@pl)
+fmt:04("90":5S.@entry, "80":5M)
+qua(115669024:4T, :03:03)
+aoj(:02.@parenthesis, 105137165:25.@topic)
+and(115668938:55.@entry.@def, :9O)
+mod(105137165:25.@topic, 600000016:1T)
+frm(105131647:12.@def.@pl, 115669024:1P)
+aoj(115699356:02, :9O)
+plc:02(115669024:3D.@entry, 103976657:3P.@def.@pl)
+fmt:04("90":5S.@entry, "80":5M)
+qua(115669024:4T, :03:03)
+aoj(:02.@parenthesis, 105137165:25.@topic)
+obj(200715239:0P, 109462452:0B.@topic.@def)
+plc(105137165:25.@topic, 108568719:2J.@def)
+qua(115669024:5V, :04:04)
+aoj(115669024:4T, 115694474:41.@def)
+fmt:01("17":1M.@entry, "8":1H)
+man(200715239:0P, :02.@parenthesis)
+qua:02(115669024:30, "16-18":2U)
+frm(115668938:55.@entry.@def, 115669024:5V)
+aoj(300486290:1X, 105137165:25.@topic)
+qua(115669024:1P, :01:01)
+frm(115668938:55.@entry.@def, 115669024:5V)
+aoj(300486290:1X, 105137165:25.@topic)
+qua(115669024:1P, :01:01)
+obj(115699356:02, 200715239:0P)
+qua:02(115669024:3D.@entry, "8-10":38)
+frm(:9O, 115669024:4T)
+fmt:03("55":4Q.@entry, "45":4K)
+and:02(115669024:3D.@entry, 115669024:30)
+plc(200715239:0P, 105131647:12.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3707]
+{org:en}
+Beside the character of the vertical profile of temperature, the atmospheric layers are often identified according to the typical physical properties of air at these altitudes which we are interested in.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200618451:2O.@entry.@past, 106516404:13.@def)
+mod(105131647:4O.@pl, 600000017:4I)
+mod(104012260:3X.@def.@pl, 104727214:4B)
+aoj(301204142:0U, 106516404:13.@def)
+man(200618451:2O.@entry.@past, 400059547:2I)
+mod(106516404:13.@def, 105011790:1E)
+man(200618451:2O.@entry.@past, 106516404:13.@def)
+mod(105131647:4O.@pl, 600000017:4I)
+mod(104012260:3X.@def.@pl, 104727214:4B)
+aoj(301204142:0U, 106516404:13.@def)
+man(200618451:2O.@entry.@past, 400059547:2I)
+mod(106516404:13.@def, 105011790:1E)
+plc(104727214:4B, 105131647:4O.@pl)
+man(200618451:2O.@entry.@past, 600000046:2Z)
+mod(101463259:27.@topic.@def.@pl, 302831736:1V)
+aoj(300627004:3O, 104012260:3X.@def.@pl)
+obj(200618451:2O.@entry.@past, 101463259:27.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301342237:5B, 600000005:54.@topic)
+obj(200618451:2O.@entry.@past, 101463259:27.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301342237:5B, 600000005:54.@topic)
+aoj(301595440:3G, 104012260:3X.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000046:2Z, 104012260:3X.@def.@pl)
+mod(106516404:13.@def, 104616916:0D.@def)
+obj(301342237:5B, 105131647:4O.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3708]
+{org:en}
+Such layers are, in particular, the ozonosphere the ionosphere, and the exosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 115692289:12.@topic.@def)
+man(115692289:12.@topic.@def, 400535321:0J)
+aoj(:01.@entry, 115692289:12.@topic.@def)
+man(115692289:12.@topic.@def, 400535321:0J)
+mod(115692289:12.@topic.@def, 101463259:07.@pl)
+and:01(109277432:22.@entry.@def, 108588916:1I.@def)
+and:01(109277432:22.@entry.@def, 108588916:1I.@def)
+mod(101463259:07.@pl, 600001411:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3709]
+{org:en}
+The ozonosphere is that layer, from 10 to 50 km, in which the principal mass of atmospheric ozone is concentrated.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(101463259:0T.@entry, 115692289:06.@topic.@def)
+fmt:01("50":1B.@entry, "10":15)
+mod(101463259:0T.@entry, 600000050:0O)
+aoj(101463259:0T.@entry, 115692289:06.@topic.@def)
+fmt:01("50":1B.@entry, "10":15)
+mod(101463259:0T.@entry, 600000050:0O)
+aoj(303161143:1Z, 101042242:29.@def)
+qua(101463259:0T.@entry, 115669024:1E)
+mod(101042242:29.@def, 114972807:2T)
+plc(200237511:32, 101463259:0T.@entry)
+plc(200237511:32, 101463259:0T.@entry)
+obj(200237511:32, 101042242:29.@def)
+qua(115669024:1E, :01:01)
+mod(114972807:2T, 302831736:2H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3710]
+{org:en}
+The ionosphere, above 70 km, i.e. in the thermosphere contains strongly ionized air.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:1K.@entry, 108588916:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000072:0I, 108588916:06.@topic.@def)
+man(200266798:22.@past, 400177289:1T)
+aoj(202701210:1K.@entry, 108588916:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000072:0I, 108588916:06.@topic.@def)
+man(200266798:22.@past, 400177289:1T)
+obj(115689159:0V, 109457367:17.@def)
+obj(200266798:22.@past, 104727214:2A)
+qua(115669024:0R, "70":0O)
+obj(202701210:1K.@entry, 104727214:2A)
+obj(202701210:1K.@entry, 104727214:2A)
+obj(600000072:0I, 115669024:0R)
+aoj(115689159:0V, 108588916:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3711]
+{org:en}
+The exosphere ( HTM1 means outer) is the outer range of the (the sphere from which the atmospheric gases "escape " into cosmic space).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104053218:1D.@entry.@def, 109277432:06.@def)
+obj:02(200708840:0N, 300948384:0T)
+gol:01(200530017:35.@single_quote, 106389553:3U)
+src:01(200530017:35.@single_quote, 104274530:1V.@entry.@def)
+aoj(104053218:1D.@entry.@def, 109277432:06.@def)
+obj:02(200708840:0N, 300948384:0T)
+gol:01(200530017:35.@single_quote, 106389553:3U)
+src:01(200530017:35.@single_quote, 104274530:1V.@entry.@def)
+mod(:02, 109277432:06.@def)
+mod(104053218:1D.@entry.@def, 300948384:17)
+mod:01(114481080:2T.@def.@pl, 302831736:2H)
+mod(104053218:1D.@entry.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod(104053218:1D.@entry.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj:01(301385663:3N, 106389553:3U)
+obj:01(200530017:35.@single_quote, 114481080:2T.@def.@pl)
+aoj:02(200708840:0N, HTM1:0I.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3712]
+{org:en}
+The lower boundary of the exosphere is found at 600-800 km.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200715239:15.@entry, 108512259:0C.@topic.@def)
+man(301206474:06, 400099341:1N)
+mod(108512259:0C.@topic.@def, 109277432:0S.@def)
+obj(200715239:15.@entry, 108512259:0C.@topic.@def)
+man(301206474:06, 400099341:1N)
+mod(108512259:0C.@topic.@def, 109277432:0S.@def)
+qua(115669024:1M, "600-800":1E)
+plc(200715239:15.@entry, 115669024:1M)
+plc(200715239:15.@entry, 115669024:1M)
+aoj(301206474:06, 108512259:0C.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3713]
+{org:en}
+Sometimes that layer is called the "dissipation " layer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200107231:0Q.@entry, 400021878:02)
+mod(101463259:1P.@def, 107332148:17.@single_quote)
+man(200107231:0Q.@entry, 400021878:02)
+mod(101463259:1P.@def, 107332148:17.@single_quote)
+gol(200107231:0Q.@entry, 101463259:1P.@def)
+obj(200107231:0Q.@entry, 101463259:0H.@topic)
+obj(200107231:0Q.@entry, 101463259:0H.@topic)
+mod(101463259:0H.@topic, 600000050:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3714]
+{org:en}
+Based on its chemical composition, the atmosphere is separated into the "homosphere " and the "heterosphere ".
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201458973:1J.@entry.@past, 600000136:02)
+mod(103081660:0O, 600000016:0B)
+and:01(115691481:33.@entry.@def.@single_quote, 115691784:28.@def.@single_quote)
+man(201458973:1J.@entry.@past, 600000136:02)
+mod(103081660:0O, 600000016:0B)
+and:01(115691481:33.@entry.@def.@single_quote, 115691784:28.@def.@single_quote)
+gol(201458973:1J.@entry.@past, :01.@single_quote)
+obj(201458973:1J.@entry.@past, 108499057:15.@topic.@def)
+obj(201458973:1J.@entry.@past, 108499057:15.@topic.@def)
+mod(103081660:0O, 302692624:0F)
+obj(600000136:02, 103081660:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3715]
+{org:en}
+The homosphere is characterized by the constancy of the relative content of its principal gases (nitrogen, oxygen, argon).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202697950:0I, 115691784:06.@entry.@def)
+mod(114481080:2I.@pl, 600000016:24)
+cnt(114481080:2I.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj(202697950:0I, 115691784:06.@entry.@def)
+mod(114481080:2I.@pl, 600000016:24)
+cnt(114481080:2I.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+and:01(114628920:37.@entry, 114648100:2Z)
+mod(104738641:13.@def, 114481080:2I.@pl)
+mod(105809192:1T.@def, 300006032:1K)
+agt(202697950:0I, 104738641:13.@def)
+agt(202697950:0I, 104738641:13.@def)
+mod(114481080:2I.@pl, 303161143:28)
+mod(114481080:2I.@pl, 105809192:1T.@def)
+and:01(114648100:2Z, 114647235:2P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3716]
+{org:en}
+It reaches from the Earth surface to the turbopause (up to 100-110 km).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200743344:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+obj:01(600000047:1J.@entry, 115669024:1X)
+src(200743344:05.@entry, 104362025:0S.@def)
+obj(200743344:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+obj:01(600000047:1J.@entry, 115669024:1X)
+src(200743344:05.@entry, 104362025:0S.@def)
+gol(200743344:05.@entry, 115696234:17.@def)
+man(200743344:05.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+man(200743344:05.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+qua:01(115669024:1X, "100-110":1P)
+mod(104362025:0S.@def, 108562067:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3717]
+{org:en}
+Above it lies the heterosphere, in which the composition of the atmospheric air noticeably changes
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200834259:0B.@entry, 115691481:0K.@def)
+man(200109660:2L, 400535516:2A)
+plc(200109660:2L, 115691481:0K.@def)
+obj(200834259:0B.@entry, 115691481:0K.@def)
+man(200109660:2L, 400535516:2A)
+plc(200109660:2L, 115691481:0K.@def)
+obj(600000073:02, 600000016:08)
+mod(104727214:26.@def, 302831736:1U)
+man(200834259:0B.@entry, 600000073:02)
+man(200834259:0B.@entry, 600000073:02)
+mod(103081660:1B.@def, 104727214:26.@def)
+obj(200109660:2L, 103081660:1B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3718]
+{org:en}
+atomic oxygen is first generated in it, with nitrogen to follow at higher altitudes, then both the carbon dioxide and water vapor vanish, and air ionization becomes stronger.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200149583:4F.@entry, 200153061:3O)
+man(300705498:1X, 400099341:5M)
+and:01(107935504:3C.@entry, 114796969:2T)
+and(200153061:3O, 201627355:0P)
+obj(600000018:16, 114647235:1B)
+man(301068609:4N, 400099341:6M)
+plc(201627355:0P, 600000016:12)
+and(200149583:4F.@entry, 200153061:3O)
+man(300705498:1X, 400099341:5M)
+and:01(107935504:3C.@entry, 114796969:2T)
+and(200153061:3O, 201627355:0P)
+obj(600000018:16, 114647235:1B)
+man(301068609:4N, 400099341:6M)
+plc(201627355:0P, 600000016:12)
+mod(115055633:3I.@topic.@def, 600000323:2K)
+aoj(300705498:1X, 105131647:24.@pl)
+gol(200149583:4F.@entry, 301068609:4N)
+man(201627355:0P, 600000018:16)
+man(115055633:3I.@topic.@def, 400117620:2F)
+plc(200150776:1N, 105131647:24.@pl)
+obj(200149583:4F.@entry, 113502909:44)
+aoj(301392071:02, 114648100:09.@topic)
+obj(201627355:0P, 114648100:09.@topic)
+obj(200149583:4F.@entry, 113502909:44)
+aoj(301392071:02, 114648100:09.@topic)
+obj(201627355:0P, 114648100:09.@topic)
+obj(200153061:3O, 115055633:3I.@topic.@def)
+obj(200150776:1N, 114647235:1B)
+mod(113502909:44, 104727214:40)
+man(201627355:0P, 600000153:0J)
+mod(115055633:3I.@topic.@def, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3719]
+{org:en}
+The molecular mass of air drops too.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200057764:0S.@entry, 104727214:0O.@topic)
+mod(101042242:0G.@def, 301542252:06)
+obj(200057764:0S.@entry, 104727214:0O.@topic)
+mod(101042242:0G.@def, 301542252:06)
+qua(104727214:0O.@topic, 101042242:0G.@def)
+man(200057764:0S.@entry, 400047534:0Y)
+man(200057764:0S.@entry, 400047534:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3720]
+{org:en}
+As for the character of interaction between the atmosphere and the underlying surface, two principal layers are identified
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200618451:36.@entry, 600000241:02)
+aoj(600000024:12, 100039021:0Q)
+aoj(303161143:2L, 101463259:2V.@topic.@pl)
+man(200618451:36.@entry, 600000241:02)
+aoj(600000024:12, 100039021:0Q)
+aoj(303161143:2L, 101463259:2V.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(104362025:28.@entry.@def, 108499057:1E.@def)
+qua(101463259:2V.@topic.@pl, "2":2H)
+obj(600000024:12, :01)
+obj(200618451:36.@entry, 101463259:2V.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200618451:36.@entry, 101463259:2V.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100039021:0Q, 104616916:0D.@def)
+obj(600000241:02, 100039021:0Q)
+aoj:01(302349604:1X, 104362025:28.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3721]
+{org:en}
+the boundary layer and the free atmosphere (see Section 1.1).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(108499057:0Y.@entry.@def, 101463259:0F.@def)
+mod:02(104164989:1E, "1.1":1M)
+and(108499057:0Y.@entry.@def, 101463259:0F.@def)
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+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3722]
+{org:en}
+Another surface layer is identified within the boundary layer, covering the lowest several tens of meters, this layer being in direct contact with the surface.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3723]
+{org:en}
+Lately, the term "the near-Earth cosmic space " has entered circulation in the context of orbital flights of artificial Earth satellites and manned space stations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3724]
+{org:en}
+The range of that "space " starts from 150-200 km up.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3725]
+{org:en}
+Note that above 200 km both the temperature and density of air suffer strong changes in both space and time
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3726]
+{org:en}
+it is as if the atmosphere pulses at those heights, periodically shrinking and expanding.
+{/org}
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+mod(107400906:0T.@def.@pl, 108499057:0I)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:3727]
+{org:en}
+The atmosphere is a medium in which occur the very life and all the activities of the human society, so that it naturally affects such activities quite strongly.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:3728]
+{org:en}
+These effects should be accounted for when planning new settlements, constructing industrial enterprises, developing new territories, etc., designing buildings, new transportation means, flying airborne vehicles and so on.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3729]
+{org:en}
+Despite the high variability of the atmosphere in both time and space, the information on its state accumulated during many years of studies has made it possible to calculate certain average values of the atmospheric parameters.
+{/org}
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+mod(105859071:63.@def.@pl, 302831736:5R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3730]
+{org:en}
+The so-called "International Standard Atmosphere " (ISA) has been developed on the basis of those data.
+{/org}
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+equ(115668685:1R.@parenthesis, :01.@single_quote)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3731]
+{org:en}
+It is essentially a set of tables and graphs, which contain the vertical profiles of temperature, pressure, and air density for the average latitude of 45 deg 32' 33".
+{/org}
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+pur:02(104941453:3A.@entry, 105127640:3Y.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3732]
+{org:en}
+These data approximately hold also for the average global conditions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3733]
+{org:en}
+The Standard Atmosphere consists of several layers, the temperature trend described (approximated) by a linear function of height in each of them.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300658259:2Y, 100720565:35.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3734]
+{org:en}
+On the average, temperature decreases with height at a rate of 6,5 km-1 below 11 km (i.e. in the troposphere).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3735]
+{org:en}
+Above that height the value of and sign of the vertical gradient of temperature change from layer to layer.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3736]
+{org:en}
+"The Standard Atmosphere " is a periodically updated standard, basically needed to provide for compatibility of test results for various airborne vehicles and aircraft instrumentation, and also for certain geophysical calculations.
+{/org}
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+mod:03(104712735:2Y.@pl, 115698567:3K.@pl)
+obj(202774323:2M, :03)
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+and:02(100097348:4Z.@entry, 104524313:4D.@pl)
+aoj:03(300309740:5T, 100868910:6D.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3737]
+{org:en}
+With the scope of applications for ISA gradually expanding, and also so as to cover a wider range of heights, new parameters are added to it, such as the speed of sound, the acceleration of free fall, the molar mass of air, its viscosity, the mean free path of molecules, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200182406:48.@entry.@past, :01.@entry)
+aoj(300024996:3P, 105859071:3T.@topic.@pl)
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+mod:02(104935003:72, 600000016:6Y)
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+and:02(104935003:72, 104727214:6T)
+man:01(200257269:1S.@progress, 400107987:1I)
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+obj(200182406:48.@entry.@past, 105859071:3T.@topic.@pl)
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+aoj:01(300024241:2X, 104053218:33.@indef)
+aoj:02(301542071:6F, 101042242:6L.@def)
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+obj:01(200257269:1S.@progress, 115669762:0K.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3738]
+{org:en}
+International standardization of the parameters of atmosphere is the responsibility of the "Standard Atmosphere " Sub-Committee of the International Organization for Standardization (IOS).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105859071:16.@def.@pl, 108499057:1K)
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+aoj(104669247:22.@entry.@def, 101158690:0J.@topic)
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+obj(101158690:0J.@topic, 105859071:16.@def.@pl)
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+mod(108325686:3S.@entry, 303161200:3O)
+obj(104669247:22.@entry.@def, :01:01.@single_quote)
+obj(104669247:22.@entry.@def, :01:01.@single_quote)
+mod(108325686:3S.@entry, 500323600:49.@def)
+aoj(301568375:05, 101158690:0J.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3739]
+{org:en}
+With the new data gradually accumulating such standards are revised and updated.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:01.@entry, 600000018:02)
+mod(104301140:1C.@pl, 600001411:17)
+mod(104301140:1C.@pl, 108462320:0F.@def)
+man(:01.@entry, 600000018:02)
+mod(104301140:1C.@pl, 600001411:17)
+mod(104301140:1C.@pl, 108462320:0F.@def)
+obj(600000018:02, 104301140:1C.@pl)
+aoj(300024996:0B, 108462320:0F.@def)
+and:01(200170695:22.@entry, 200996102:1Q)
+and:01(200170695:22.@entry, 200996102:1Q)
+man(200158804:0U.@progress, 400107987:0K)
+obj(200158804:0U.@progress, 104301140:1C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3740]
+{org:en}
+The standard atmospheres used in various countries practically coincide with each other.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202775896:1T.@entry, 108499057:0F.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(201158572:0R, 108168978:17.@pl)
+obj(201158572:0R, 108499057:0F.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(202775896:1T.@entry, 108499057:0F.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(201158572:0R, 108168978:17.@pl)
+obj(201158572:0R, 108499057:0F.@topic.@def.@pl)
+man(202775896:1T.@entry, 400053512:1H)
+obj(202775896:1T.@entry, 600000227:27)
+obj(202775896:1T.@entry, 600000227:27)
+aoj(303160904:0Z, 108168978:17.@pl)
+aoj(300487525:06, 108499057:0F.@topic.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3741]
+{org:en}
+We cite below some selected data on temperature distribution from that Standard Atmosphere
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202775887:05.@entry, 600000005:02.@topic)
+obj(202774500:0L.@past, 108462320:0U)
+plc(108462320:0U, 101083077:1E)
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+obj(202774500:0L.@past, 108462320:0U)
+plc(108462320:0U, 101083077:1E)
+mod(108499057:2A, 600000050:1W)
+man(202775887:05.@entry, 400079866:0A)
+mod(101083077:1E, 105011790:12)
+obj(202775887:05.@entry, 108462320:0U)
+obj(202775887:05.@entry, 108462320:0U)
+frm(101083077:1E, 108499057:2A)
+qua(108462320:0U, 600000034:0G)
+aoj(300487525:21, 108499057:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3742]
+{org:en}
+Absol. height, km
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105137165:09.@entry, 115669024:0H)
+mod(105137165:09.@entry, 115669024:0H)
+aoj(300005205:02, 105137165:09.@entry)
+aoj(300005205:02, 105137165:09.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3743]
+{org:en}
+Gradient
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105068461:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+105068461:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3744]
+{org:en}
+So-called reference atmospheres are also used along with the standard ones
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:17.@entry, 108499057:0M.@topic.@pl)
+mod(108499057:0M.@topic.@pl, 303161064:02)
+obj(600000115:1C, 600000027:20.@def)
+obj(201158572:17.@entry, 108499057:0M.@topic.@pl)
+mod(108499057:0M.@topic.@pl, 303161064:02)
+obj(600000115:1C, 600000027:20.@def)
+man(201158572:17.@entry, 400047534:12)
+man(201158572:17.@entry, 600000115:1C)
+man(201158572:17.@entry, 600000115:1C)
+mod(108499057:0M.@topic.@pl, 101264050:0C)
+aoj(300487525:1R, 600000027:20.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3745]
+{org:en}
+those are essentially the condensed vertical distributions of the atmospheric parameters, approximately representative for certain geographical conditions and given seasons.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(101083077:1B.@entry.@def.@pl, 600000030:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(115236475:4N.@entry.@pl, 300028280:4H)
+aoj(300716562:2Y, 105859071:28.@def.@pl)
+obj(200364868:0S.@past, 101083077:1B.@entry.@def.@pl)
+aoj(101083077:1B.@entry.@def.@pl, 600000030:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(115236475:4N.@entry.@pl, 300028280:4H)
+aoj(300716562:2Y, 105859071:28.@def.@pl)
+obj(200364868:0S.@past, 101083077:1B.@entry.@def.@pl)
+man(300716562:2Y, 400007015:2K)
+man(101083077:1B.@entry.@def.@pl, 400535347:0C)
+aoj:01(303161278:3P, 105798863:42.@pl)
+obj(300716562:2Y, :01)
+obj(101083077:1B.@entry.@def.@pl, 105859071:28.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(300309740:3H, 105798863:42.@pl)
+obj(101083077:1B.@entry.@def.@pl, 105859071:28.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(300309740:3H, 105798863:42.@pl)
+mod(105859071:28.@def.@pl, 302831736:1W)
+aoj(301204142:12, 101083077:1B.@entry.@def.@pl)
+and:01(115236475:4N.@entry.@pl, 105798863:42.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3746]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3747]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3748]
+{org:en}
+Atmosphere
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+108499057:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+108499057:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3749]
+{org:en}
+Air envelope of the planet.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103291741:06.@entry, 109394007:0M.@def)
+mod(103291741:06.@entry, 109394007:0M.@def)
+mod(103291741:06.@entry, 104727214:02)
+mod(103291741:06.@entry, 104727214:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3750]
+{org:en}
+Air is a mixture of different gases.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(114481080:0W.@entry.@pl, 104727214:02.@topic)
+aoj(114481080:0W.@entry.@pl, 104727214:02.@topic)
+aoj(300490413:0M, 114481080:0W.@entry.@pl)
+mod(114481080:0W.@entry.@pl, 100380083:0B.@indef)
+mod(114481080:0W.@entry.@pl, 100380083:0B.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3751]
+{org:en}
+Earth's atmosphere is vital to life.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300095094:0O.@entry, 108499057:0A.@topic)
+aoj(300095094:0O.@entry, 108499057:0A.@topic)
+mod(108499057:0A.@topic, 108562067:02)
+ben(300095094:0O.@entry, 100006269:0X)
+ben(300095094:0O.@entry, 100006269:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3752]
+{org:en}
+Air (atmospheric) pressure
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100113113:0K.@entry, 104727214:02)
+mod(100113113:0K.@entry, 104727214:02)
+aoj(302831736:07.@parenthesis, 104727214:02)
+aoj(302831736:07.@parenthesis, 104727214:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3753]
+{org:en}
+The weight of the "column " of atmospheric air, i.e. the pressure exerted by the atmosphere on a unit area of the Earth surface due to gravitational attraction.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104571088:06.@entry.@def, 103073977:0Q.@def.@single_quote)
+mod(102735688:35.@indef, 105869857:30)
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+obj(115689159:1N, 100113113:1W.@def)
+mod(102735688:35.@indef, 104362025:3N.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3754]
+{org:en}
+Anticyclone
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+114521021:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+114521021:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3755]
+{org:en}
+An element of atmospheric circulation characterized by high atmospheric pressure in its center.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105868954:05.@entry.@indef, 100368302:0S)
+aoj(300705498:1L, 100113113:22)
+agt(202697950:14, 100113113:22)
+mod(105868954:05.@entry.@indef, 100368302:0S)
+aoj(300705498:1L, 100113113:22)
+agt(202697950:14, 100113113:22)
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+mod(100725506:2I, 600000016:2E)
+obj(202697950:14, 100368302:0S)
+obj(202697950:14, 100368302:0S)
+mod(100113113:22, 302831736:1Q)
+plc(100113113:22, 100725506:2I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3756]
+{org:en}
+Circulation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100368302:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100368302:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3757]
+{org:en}
+A system of motions in the atmosphere or a water medium.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+or(106254475:1F.@entry.@indef, 107163593:0E.@pl)
+mod(107163593:0E.@pl, 104377057:04.@indef)
+or(106254475:1F.@entry.@indef, 107163593:0E.@pl)
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+plc(107163593:0E.@pl, 108499057:0T.@def)
+mod(106254475:1F.@entry.@indef, 107935504:19)
+mod(106254475:1F.@entry.@indef, 107935504:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3758]
+{org:en}
+Cloud
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+109247410:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+109247410:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3759]
+{org:en}
+A hydrometeor consisting of a visible aggregation of tiny water and/or ice particles in the atmosphere above the Earth's surface.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774237:0G.@progress, 109353109:09.@entry.@indef)
+plc(106326406:25.@pl, 108499057:2M.@def)
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+mod(109353109:09.@entry.@indef, 303160971:04)
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+aoj(300184792:0W, 115669048:14.@indef)
+obj(600000072:2X, 115690588:37.@def)
+a/o:01(107614198:21.@entry, 107935504:1O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3760]
+{org:en}
+Any collection of a particulate matter in the atmosphere dense enough to be perceptible to the eye.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101014066:06.@entry, 100020827:0Y.@indef)
+man(300440579:1N, 600000248:1T)
+aoj(301724368:0M, 100020827:0Y.@indef)
+mod(101014066:06.@entry, 100020827:0Y.@indef)
+man(300440579:1N, 600000248:1T)
+aoj(301724368:0M, 100020827:0Y.@indef)
+plc(100020827:0Y.@indef, 108499057:1C.@def)
+gol(301717471:26, 103308297:2P.@def)
+mod(101014066:06.@entry, 600000052:02)
+mod(101014066:06.@entry, 600000052:02)
+pur(600000248:1T, 301717471:26)
+aoj(300440579:1N, 108499057:1C.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3761]
+{org:en}
+Coriolis effect
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104809642:0B.@entry, 500323084:02)
+mod(104809642:0B.@entry, 500323084:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3762]
+{org:en}
+The deflective effect of the Earth's rotation on all free-moving objects, including the atmosphere, oceans and rivers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(104809642:0H.@entry.@def, 100342028:13.@def)
+and:01(109376198:2U.@pl, 108499057:2I.@def.@pl)
+mod(100002684:1V.@pl, 300521584:1F)
+mod(100342028:13.@def, 108562067:0V)
+obj(104809642:0H.@entry.@def, 100342028:13.@def)
+and:01(109376198:2U.@pl, 108499057:2I.@def.@pl)
+mod(100002684:1V.@pl, 300521584:1F)
+mod(100342028:13.@def, 108562067:0V)
+obj(600000007:24, :01)
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+man(200124442:1O.@progress, 400536037:1J)
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+aoj(302312918:06, 104809642:0H.@entry.@def)
+obj(200124442:1O.@progress, 100002684:1V.@pl)
+aoj(600000007:24, 100002684:1V.@pl)
+and:01(109411430:35.@entry.@pl, 109376198:2U.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3763]
+{org:en}
+This deflection is to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+to(105011277:07.@topic, :01:01.@entry)
+mod(105011277:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+aoj:01(301605081:2A, :3P.@def)
+to(105011277:07.@topic, :01:01.@entry)
+mod(105011277:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+aoj:01(301605081:2A, :3P.@def)
+plc:01(100351168:1Y.@entry.@def, :3P.@def)
+and:01(100351168:1Y.@entry.@def, 100351000:0R.@def)
+and:01(100351168:1Y.@entry.@def, 100351000:0R.@def)
+plc:01(100351000:0R.@def, 108611662:13.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3764]
+{org:en}
+Cyclone
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+111443721:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+111443721:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3765]
+{org:en}
+An element of the atmospheric circulation characterized by low atmospheric pressure in its center.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105868954:05.@entry.@indef, 100368302:0W.@def)
+aoj(301206474:1P, 100113113:25)
+agt(202697950:18, 100113113:25)
+mod(105868954:05.@entry.@indef, 100368302:0W.@def)
+aoj(301206474:1P, 100113113:25)
+agt(202697950:18, 100113113:25)
+mod(100368302:0W.@def, 302831736:0K)
+mod(100725506:2L, 600000016:2H)
+obj(202697950:18, 100368302:0W.@def)
+obj(202697950:18, 100368302:0W.@def)
+mod(100113113:25, 302831736:1T)
+plc(100113113:25, 100725506:2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3766]
+{org:en}
+Geostrophic wind
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303162583:02, 100345641:0E.@entry)
+aoj(303162583:02, 100345641:0E.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3767]
+{org:en}
+A wind in the free atmosphere that blows parallel to the isobars.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(100345641:04.@entry.@indef, 108499057:0L.@def)
+man(200007012:11, 400535971:17)
+plc(100345641:04.@entry.@indef, 108499057:0L.@def)
+man(200007012:11, 400535971:17)
+aoj(300916199:0G, 108499057:0L.@def)
+obj(200007012:11, 108499057:0L.@def)
+obj(200007012:11, 108499057:0L.@def)
+obj(400535971:17, 108589351:1N.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3768]
+{org:en}
+Gradient wind
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100345641:0B.@entry, 105068461:02)
+mod(100345641:0B.@entry, 105068461:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3769]
+{org:en}
+A curved airflow (wind) in the atmosphere around an atmospheric pressure center resulting from a budget between pressure-gradient force, Coriolis force, and centrifugal force.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(107406601:0B.@entry.@indef, 108499057:0X.@def)
+obj(600000024:2Y, :01)
+obj(200340704:2A.@progress, 100725506:23.@indef)
+mod:01(105035353:3O, 105068461:3F)
+plc(108499057:0X.@def, 600000077:18)
+and:01(105035353:44, 105035353:3O)
+plc(107406601:0B.@entry.@indef, 108499057:0X.@def)
+obj(600000024:2Y, :01)
+obj(200340704:2A.@progress, 100725506:23.@indef)
+mod:01(105035353:3O, 105068461:3F)
+plc(108499057:0X.@def, 600000077:18)
+and:01(105035353:44, 105035353:3O)
+src(200340704:2A.@progress, 113421462:2R.@indef)
+aoj(302315002:04, 107406601:0B.@entry.@indef)
+aoj:01(300332375:4F, 105035353:4R.@entry)
+mod(100725506:23.@indef, 100113113:1U)
+cnt(107406601:0B.@entry.@indef, 100345641:0K.@parenthesis)
+and:01(105035353:4R.@entry, 105035353:44)
+cnt(107406601:0B.@entry.@indef, 100345641:0K.@parenthesis)
+and:01(105035353:4R.@entry, 105035353:44)
+mod(100725506:23.@indef, 302831736:1I)
+mod:01(105068461:3F, 100113113:36)
+obj(600000077:18, 100725506:23.@indef)
+mod:01(105035353:44, 500323084:3V)
+aoj(600000024:2Y, 113421462:2R.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3770]
+{org:en}
+Greenhouse effect
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104809642:0D.@entry, 303070101:02)
+mod(104809642:0D.@entry, 303070101:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3771]
+{org:en}
+The heating effect of the atmosphere upon the Earth caused by the fact that the atmosphere transmits short-wave solar radiation to the land surface and then absorbs infrared (terrestrial) radiation emitted by the surface, thus warming the atmosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(104809642:0E.@entry.@def, 108499057:0S.@def)
+gol:01(201435380:2O, 104362025:41.@def)
+obj:01(200395698:4I.@entry, 101252918:5D)
+obj(201645601:1I, 108562067:1C.@def)
+agt:01(200105333:5N, 104362025:62.@def)
+obj(600000239:13, 108562067:1C.@def)
+mod:01(111510067:39, 100346095:34)
+aoj:01(302517999:4Q, 101252918:5D)
+obj(104809642:0E.@entry.@def, 108499057:0S.@def)
+gol:01(201435380:2O, 104362025:41.@def)
+obj:01(200395698:4I.@entry, 101252918:5D)
+obj(201645601:1I, 108562067:1C.@def)
+agt:01(200105333:5N, 104362025:62.@def)
+obj(600000239:13, 108562067:1C.@def)
+mod:01(111510067:39, 100346095:34)
+aoj:01(302517999:4Q, 101252918:5D)
+agt:01(200395698:4I.@entry, 108499057:2D.@topic.@def)
+agt:01(201435380:2O, 108499057:2D.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000239:13, 108499057:0S.@def)
+aoj:01(300709021:2Y, 111510067:39)
+obj:01(200105333:5N, 101252918:5D)
+and:01(200395698:4I.@entry, 201435380:2O)
+man:01(200372958:6G.@progress, 400121135:6B)
+mod(104809642:0E.@entry.@def, 113491876:06)
+obj:01(201435380:2O, 111510067:39)
+man:01(200395698:4I.@entry, 400117620:4D)
+mod(104809642:0E.@entry.@def, 113491876:06)
+obj:01(201435380:2O, 111510067:39)
+man:01(200395698:4I.@entry, 400117620:4D)
+agt(201645601:1I, 105817396:1W.@def)
+obj:01(200372958:6G.@progress, 108499057:6S.@def)
+cnt(108562067:1C.@def, :01.@entry)
+mod:01(104362025:41.@def, 109334396:3W)
+cnt:01(302517999:4Q, 300124918:50.@parenthesis)
+man:01(200395698:4I.@entry, 200372958:6G.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3772]
+{org:en}
+Heat radiation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101252918:07.@entry, 105725527:02)
+mod(101252918:07.@entry, 105725527:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3773]
+{org:en}
+Long-wave or terrestrial radiation emitted by bodies with temperatures within the range of terrestrial values, i.e. roughly from plus 50-60 to minus 70-80 HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200105333:11, :01.@entry)
+mod(104979425:2X.@pl, 104053218:2C.@def)
+aoj(600000019:1J, 102861886:1C.@pl)
+fmt:02("70-80":47.@entry, "50-60":3S)
+aoj:01(300015589:02, 100346095:07)
+man(HTM1:4D, 400353916:3A)
+obj(200105333:11, :01.@entry)
+mod(104979425:2X.@pl, 104053218:2C.@def)
+aoj(600000019:1J, 102861886:1C.@pl)
+fmt:02("70-80":47.@entry, "50-60":3S)
+aoj:01(300015589:02, 100346095:07)
+man(HTM1:4D, 400353916:3A)
+obj(600000006:21, 104979425:2X.@pl)
+aoj:01(300124918:0F, 101252918:0R.@entry)
+obj(115689159:35, HTM1:4D)
+aoj(600000006:21, 105011790:1O.@pl)
+aoj:02(300065064:3N, "50-60":3S)
+or:01(101252918:0R.@entry, 100346095:07)
+aoj(300124918:2L, 104979425:2X.@pl)
+or:01(101252918:0R.@entry, 100346095:07)
+aoj(300124918:2L, 104979425:2X.@pl)
+obj(600000019:1J, 105011790:1O.@pl)
+aoj:02(300065667:41, "70-80":47.@entry)
+agt(200105333:11, 102861886:1C.@pl)
+mod(HTM1:4D, :02)
+aoj(115689159:35, 104979425:2X.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3774]
+{org:en}
+Heterosphere
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115691481:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115691481:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3775]
+{org:en}
+The upper portion of the atmosphere (starting from 80 to 100 km above the Earth)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115699459:0C.@entry.@def, 108499057:0R.@def)
+fmt:01("100":1N.@entry, "80":1H)
+man:02(201075164:13.@entry.@progress, 115669024:1R)
+mod(115699459:0C.@entry.@def, 108499057:0R.@def)
+fmt:01("100":1N.@entry, "80":1H)
+man:02(201075164:13.@entry.@progress, 115669024:1R)
+obj(:02.@parenthesis, 108499057:0R.@def)
+obj:02(600000072:1U, 108562067:24.@def)
+mod(115699459:0C.@entry.@def, 301206318:06)
+mod(115699459:0C.@entry.@def, 301206318:06)
+aoj:02(600000072:1U, 115669024:1R)
+man:02(201075164:13.@entry.@progress, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3776]
+{org:en}
+its composition is not homogeneous and lighter gases prevail.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200777793:1J.@entry.@should, 301199751:0P.@not)
+mod(103081660:06.@topic, 600000016:02)
+man(300269989:15, 400099341:1S)
+and(200777793:1J.@entry.@should, 301199751:0P.@not)
+mod(103081660:06.@topic, 600000016:02)
+man(300269989:15, 400099341:1S)
+aoj(300269989:15, 114481080:1D.@pl)
+obj(200777793:1J.@entry.@should, 114481080:1D.@pl)
+obj(200777793:1J.@entry.@should, 114481080:1D.@pl)
+aoj(301199751:0P.@not, 103081660:06.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3777]
+{org:en}
+Homosphere
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115691784:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115691784:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3778]
+{org:en}
+Lower part of the atmosphere (from surface up to 80-100 km) that is uniform in terms of the proportions of its component gases.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103892891:08.@entry, 108499057:0K.@def)
+mod(105076827:2M.@def.@pl, 114481080:3F.@pl)
+obj:01(600000086:19, 115669024:1M)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 108499057:0K.@def)
+mod(103892891:08.@entry, 108499057:0K.@def)
+mod(105076827:2M.@def.@pl, 114481080:3F.@pl)
+obj:01(600000086:19, 115669024:1M)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 108499057:0K.@def)
+man(301960310:1Y, 600000087:26)
+man(301206474:02, 400099341:3J)
+mod(114481080:3F.@pl, 303160422:35)
+obj(600000189:1Q.@entry, 301960310:1Y)
+aoj(301206474:02, 103892891:08.@entry)
+mod(114481080:3F.@pl, 600000016:31)
+aoj(301206474:02, 103892891:08.@entry)
+mod(114481080:3F.@pl, 600000016:31)
+qua:01(115669024:1M, "80-100":1F)
+aoj:01(600000086:19, 104362025:11.@entry)
+obj(600000087:26, 105076827:2M.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3779]
+{org:en}
+Mesosphere
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+109352578:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+109352578:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3780]
+{org:en}
+The layer of the atmosphere above the stratosphere where temperatures drop quite rapidly with increasing height.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101463259:06.@entry.@def, 108499057:0J.@def)
+man(200057764:20, 600000018:2J)
+plc(200057764:20, 109448090:14.@def)
+mod(101463259:06.@entry.@def, 108499057:0J.@def)
+man(200057764:20, 600000018:2J)
+plc(200057764:20, 109448090:14.@def)
+obj(600000018:2J, 105137165:2Z)
+obj(600000072:0U, 109448090:14.@def)
+man(400535713:2B, 400018577:25)
+aoj(600000072:0U, 108499057:0J.@def)
+aoj(600000072:0U, 108499057:0J.@def)
+man(200057764:20, 400535713:2B)
+obj(200057764:20, 105011790:1N.@pl)
+mod(105137165:2Z, 302534877:2O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3781]
+{org:en}
+pH
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105039106:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+105039106:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3782]
+{org:en}
+Hydrogen-ion concentration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100375071:0F.@entry, 109315159:0B)
+mod(100375071:0F.@entry, 109315159:0B)
+mod(109315159:0B, 114640434:02)
+mod(109315159:0B, 114640434:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3783]
+{org:en}
+This is a logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen-ion concentration in a solution (-log10[H+]) used as a measure of the degree of acidicity or alkalinity of this solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(106812631:0C.@entry.@indef, 600000022:02.@topic)
+obj(600000023:2Y, 100174412:33.@indef)
+mod(100375071:1O.@def, 109315159:1K)
+mod(100190783:4O, 600000017:4J)
+aoj(300769761:0T, :6E.@def)
+obj(:01, 100190783:4O)
+aoj(106812631:0C.@entry.@indef, 600000022:02.@topic)
+obj(600000023:2Y, 100174412:33.@indef)
+mod(100375071:1O.@def, 109315159:1K)
+mod(100190783:4O, 600000017:4J)
+aoj(300769761:0T, :6E.@def)
+obj(:01, 100190783:4O)
+cnt(100190783:27.@indef, 115695565:2H.@parenthesis)
+mod(106812631:0C.@entry.@indef, :6E.@def)
+mod(105094565:3I.@def, :01)
+obj(201158572:2T, 100190783:27.@indef)
+mod(106812631:0C.@entry.@indef, 100375071:1O.@def)
+mod(100174412:33.@indef, 105094565:3I.@def)
+mod(106812631:0C.@entry.@indef, 100375071:1O.@def)
+mod(100174412:33.@indef, 105094565:3I.@def)
+mod(109315159:1K, 114640434:1B)
+plc(100375071:1O.@def, 100190783:27.@indef)
+or:01(105039709:45.@entry, 115694703:3S)
+man(201158572:2T, 600000023:2Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3784]
+{org:en}
+A pH of 7 is regarded as neutral (pure water), a pH less than 7 corresponds to an acid solution, and a pH greater 7 corresponds to an alkaline solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202774619:3E.@entry, 202774619:1U)
+mod(105039106:1F.@topic.@indef, 400099868:1I)
+bas(301395330:30, "7":3C)
+aoj:01(300361125:10, 107935504:15.@entry)
+aoj(300025728:3W, 100190783:45.@indef)
+gol(202133185:0F, 300359160:0R)
+and(202774619:3E.@entry, 202774619:1U)
+mod(105039106:1F.@topic.@indef, 400099868:1I)
+bas(301395330:30, "7":3C)
+aoj:01(300361125:10, 107935504:15.@entry)
+aoj(300025728:3W, 100190783:45.@indef)
+gol(202133185:0F, 300359160:0R)
+obj(202774619:1U, 100190783:2H.@indef)
+obj(202774619:3E.@entry, 100190783:45.@indef)
+obj(202133185:0F, 105039106:04.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(202774619:1U, 105039106:1F.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(202774619:3E.@entry, 105039106:2X.@indef)
+bas(400099868:1I, "7":1S)
+aoj(202774619:3E.@entry, 105039106:2X.@indef)
+bas(400099868:1I, "7":1S)
+and(202774619:1U, 202133185:0F)
+mod(105039106:04.@topic.@indef, "7":0A)
+qua(105039106:2X.@indef, 301395330:30)
+cnt(300359160:0R, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj(300025470:2C, 100190783:2H.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3785]
+{org:en}
+Radiation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+101252918:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+101252918:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3786]
+{org:en}
+The wavelike energy emitted by any substance that possesses heat (whose temperature differs from the absolute zero).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104633197:0F.@entry.@def, 303163902:06)
+obj(202632167:1G, 105725527:1Q)
+mod(100019613:11, 600000052:0X)
+mod(104633197:0F.@entry.@def, 303163902:06)
+obj(202632167:1G, 105725527:1Q)
+mod(100019613:11, 600000052:0X)
+bas:01(202666239:2E, 104614505:34.@def)
+agt(200105333:0M.@past, 100019613:11)
+aoj:01(202666239:2E, 105011790:22.@entry)
+obj(200105333:0M.@past, 104633197:0F.@entry.@def)
+obj(200105333:0M.@past, 104633197:0F.@entry.@def)
+mod(:01, 105725527:1Q)
+aoj(202632167:1G, 100019613:11)
+aoj:01(300005205:2V, 104614505:34.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3787]
+{org:en}
+This energy propagates in space at 300,000 kilometers per second (the speed of light).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200055539:0E.@entry, 104633197:07.@topic)
+obj(600000025:1K, 107180372:1O)
+aoj(600000025:1K, 113659760:19.@pl)
+obj(200055539:0E.@entry, 104633197:07.@topic)
+obj(600000025:1K, 107180372:1O)
+aoj(600000025:1K, 113659760:19.@pl)
+mod(104633197:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+plc(200055539:0E.@entry, 106389553:0S)
+mod:01(100330160:20.@entry.@def, 103665366:29)
+plc(200055539:0E.@entry, 113659760:19.@pl)
+plc(200055539:0E.@entry, 113659760:19.@pl)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 107180372:1O)
+qua(113659760:19.@pl, "300000":11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3788]
+{org:en}
+There are two basic components of radiation in the Earth's atmosphere
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, 103081021:0M.@pl)
+mod(108499057:1P.@def, 108562067:1H)
+aoj(300026168:0G, 103081021:0M.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3789]
+{org:en}
+solar and terrestrial radiations.
+{/org}
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+[S:3790]
+{org:en}
+Snow cover
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+mod(100988893:07.@entry, 111508382:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3791]
+{org:en}
+A layer of snow on the ground surface.
+{/org}
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+mod(101463259:04.@entry.@indef, 111508382:0D)
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+
+[S:3792]
+{org:en}
+Solar radiation
+{/org}
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+[W]
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3793]
+{org:en}
+Broadly speaking, this is the total electromagnetic radiation emitted by the Sun.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:3794]
+{org:en}
+In meteorology it is mainly understood as a visible spectrum together with near infrared and ultraviolet radiation, i.e. within the interval from 0.15 microns to 4.0 microns.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man:01(302517999:2A, 600000350:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3795]
+{org:en}
+Stratosphere
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3796]
+{org:en}
+The atmospheric layer above the troposphere and below the mesosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:01(600000072:0O, 109462600:0Y.@def)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:3797]
+{org:en}
+It extends roughly from 7-8 km in polar regions and 16-17 km in the tropics up to 70-80 km, and is characterized by isothermal conditions in its lower part and then gradual temperature increase.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3798]
+{org:en}
+Main part of the atmospheric ozone is concentrated here.
+{/org}
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+man(200237511:14.@entry, 400536275:1H)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3799]
+{org:en}
+Troposphere
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3800]
+{org:en}
+The lowermost layer of the atmosphere where the air temperature decreases with increasing height.
+{/org}
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+man(200151689:1U, 600000018:24)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3801]
+{org:en}
+It extends from the surface to heights of 7 or 8 km up to 16 or 17 km.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200154141:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
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+mod:02(105137165:0X.@entry.@pl, 115669024:1F)
+or:03("17":1U.@entry, "16":1O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3802]
+{org:en}
+Variability
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3803]
+{org:en}
+Parameter characterizing regular or irregular changes of an element or a state of some medium in time (temporal variability) or space (spatial variability).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(106254475:2A, :05.@parenthesis)
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+qua(106254475:2A, 600000034:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3804]
+{org:en}
+Water cycle
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107341038:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+mod(107341038:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3805]
+{org:en}
+The process by which water goes from the Earth's surface to the atmosphere and back again.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+met(200359916:0T, 100029677:06.@entry.@def)
+gol(200359916:0T, 108499057:1U.@def)
+met(200359916:0T, 100029677:06.@entry.@def)
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+obj(200359916:0T, 107935504:0N)
+src(200359916:0T, 115690588:17.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3806]
+{org:en}
+Weather
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+111524662:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+111524662:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3807]
+{org:en}
+The state of the atmosphere at any given time.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100024720:06.@entry.@def, 108499057:0J.@def)
+mod(100028270:17, 300028280:11)
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+tim(108499057:0J.@def, 100028270:17)
+tim(108499057:0J.@def, 100028270:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3808]
+{org:en}
+Wind
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100345641:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100345641:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3809]
+{org:en}
+Air moving above the Earth's surface.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200124442:06.@progress, 104727214:02.@entry)
+obj(200124442:06.@progress, 104727214:02.@entry)
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+man(200124442:06.@progress, 600000073:0D)
+man(200124442:06.@progress, 600000073:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3810]
+{org:en}
+Air motion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107163593:06.@entry, 104727214:02)
+mod(107163593:06.@entry, 104727214:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3811]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3812]
+{org:en}
+International Meteorological Vocabulary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301568375:02, 105651242:0V.@entry)
+aoj(301568375:02, 105651242:0V.@entry)
+aoj(303161104:0G, 105651242:0V.@entry)
+aoj(303161104:0G, 105651242:0V.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3813]
+{org:en}
+Geneva, 1992
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500004419:02.@entry, "1992":0A)
+tim(500004419:02.@entry, "1992":0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3814]
+{org:en}
+A multilingual glossary, containing explanations of more than 3,500 terms related to meteorology
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106420781:0H.@entry.@indef, 105793000:12.@pl)
+qua(105855904:1Y.@pl, 400099341:1I)
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+aoj(301545571:04, 106420781:0H.@entry.@indef)
+bas(400099341:1I, "3500":1S)
+obj(200953058:24, 105855904:1Y.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3815]
+{org:en}
+Lutgens F.K. and Tarbuck E.J.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323270:0J.@entry, 500323281:02)
+and(500323270:0J.@entry, 500323281:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3816]
+{org:en}
+The atmosphere
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+108499057:06.@entry.@def
+[/W]
+[W]
+108499057:06.@entry.@def
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3817]
+{org:en}
+an introduction to meteorology
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100238022:05.@entry.@indef, 106118563:0L)
+obj(100238022:05.@entry.@indef, 106118563:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3818]
+{org:en}
+Englewood Cliffs
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323277:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323277:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3819]
+{org:en}
+Prentice Hall, Inc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324247:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500324247:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3820]
+{org:en}
+This is a book that presents comprehensive insight to meteorology and presents also description and explanation of moisture and water in the atmosphere
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3821]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161322:02, 104227144:0F.@entry)
+aoj(303161322:02, 104227144:0F.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3822]
+{org:en}
+Nina A. Zaitseva HTM1 Dr.Sc., was born in August 1940 in Moscow (Soviet Union).
+{/org}
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+plc(301733462:10.@entry.@past, 500004288:1N)
+equ(500004286:1V.@parenthesis, 500004288:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3823]
+{org:en}
+In 1962, she graduated from the Lomonosov Moscow State University as a geographer-climatologist.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+For about thirty years she dealt with radiometersonde observations, which were organized on a special radiometersounding network on the USSR territory, weather ships, and in Antarctica.
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+During 1976-1984, N.A. Zaitseva was twice elected a member of the IAMAP (International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics) Radiation Commission.
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+She participated with reports in several quadrennial International Radiation Symposia, and is well experienced in international co-operation.
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+She is the author of over 100 published works, including a textbook on aerology and English-Russian Dictionary of Meteorology (co-author).
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+In 1962-1997, she served as junior, then senior scientist and secretary in the Central Aerological Observatory of the Russian Federal Service of Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring.
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+Since 1997, she has been leading scientist of the Department of Earth Sciences in Presidium of Russian Academy of Sciences.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:3833]
+{org:en}
+DRINKING WATER SUPPLY
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(113563522:0G.@entry, 303155687:02)
+mod(113563522:0G.@entry, 303155687:02)
+mod(113563522:0G.@entry, 107935504:0A)
+mod(113563522:0G.@entry, 107935504:0A)
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+
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+{org:en}
+DRINKING WATER SUPPLY
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(113563522:0G.@entry, 303155687:02)
+mod(113563522:0G.@entry, 303155687:02)
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+mod(113563522:0G.@entry, 107935504:0A)
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+
+[S:3835]
+{org:en}
+DRINKING WATER SUPPLY
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107935504:0A.@entry, 303155687:02)
+mod(107935504:0A.@entry, 303155687:02)
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+
+[S:3836]
+{org:en}
+Ludmila A. Prilipko
+{/org}
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+[W]
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+[/S]
+
+[S:3837]
+{org:en}
+All-Russia Scientific and Research Institute on Standardization, Gosstandart of Russia (State Committee for Standardization of Russian Federation), Moscow, Russia
+{/org}
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+
+[S:3838]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
+{/org}
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+[W]
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3839]
+{org:en}
+WHO, potable water, EPA, EC, turbidity, mutagen, water quality, carcinogenic, organoleptic properties, maximum permissible concentration, recommended values.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:3840]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
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+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3841]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3842]
+{org:en}
+Selection of water sources and their protection
+{/org}
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+obj(100784755:19.@entry, 600000020:13.@pl)
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+
+[S:3843]
+{org:en}
+Standardization of potable water quality
+{/org}
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+
+[S:3844]
+{org:en}
+Influence of water pollutants on its quality
+{/org}
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+plc(114857278:0L.@pl, 104723816:13)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:3845]
+{org:en}
+Methods and technological layouts for water quality improvement
+{/org}
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+pur(101010901:0S.@entry.@pl, 100248977:1I)
+pur(101010901:0S.@entry.@pl, 100248977:1I)
+mod(100248977:1I, 104723816:1A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3846]
+{org:en}
+Monitoring
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100880046:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100880046:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3847]
+{org:en}
+Conclusions
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3848]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02.@past, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301971237:02.@past, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3849]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3850]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3851]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3852]
+{org:en}
+Summary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3853]
+{org:en}
+The problem of providing potable water for people still remains unsolved in many countries and acquires a critical character in some regions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202288295:2P.@entry, 202637592:1M)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3854]
+{org:en}
+The process of preparing potable high quality water and its delivery to the population depends on a number of factors.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3855]
+{org:en}
+The most important are the status of water sources, conditions of centralized systems of potable water supply, sanitary and technical status of the water distribution networks, and level of laboratory control of water quality at all stages of its preparation and supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301275562:0B.@entry, :03)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3856]
+{org:en}
+This problem acquires an international character, and scientists of many different countries must be involved in its solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(110560637:1K.@topic.@pl, 108168978:2D.@pl)
+aoj(301568375:0R, 104616916:15.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3857]
+{org:en}
+Groundwater, surface water, and atmospheric precipitation are the sources of potable water supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(104263614:1V.@entry.@def.@pl, 113563522:2K)
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+and:01(105061149:19.@entry.@topic, 107935504:0M.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3858]
+{org:en}
+Establishment of standard requirements is conducted at international, regional, or national levels.
+{/org}
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+or:01(302408977:20, 301568375:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3859]
+{org:en}
+The "Manual on Quality Control of Potable Water " developed by the World health Organization in 1994 and the Directive on Potable Water of the European Community 98/83EC are the principal documents containing recommendations or requirements that are adopted as basic, when national standards or other documents are developed in most countries.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3860]
+{org:en}
+Also, several countries are using as basic requirements the norms of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:3861]
+{org:en}
+The characteristics of the potable water quality can be classified as follows
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(303160899:0T, 104723816:17.@def)
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+man(200654625:1M.@entry.@ability, 600000181:1X)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3862]
+{org:en}
+physical characteristics
+{/org}
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+aoj(300627004:02, 104731497:0A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300627004:02, 104731497:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3863]
+{org:en}
+chemical characteristics
+{/org}
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+aoj(302692624:02, 104731497:0B.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3864]
+{org:en}
+bacterial characteristics
+{/org}
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+aoj(302833544:02, 104731497:0C.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(302833544:02, 104731497:0C.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3865]
+{org:en}
+biological characteristics.
+{/org}
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+aoj(301405904:02, 104731497:0D.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3866]
+{org:en}
+Treatment of water to make it potable includes a complex of physical, chemical, and biological methods.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:3867]
+{org:en}
+The term, water treatment, includes not just purification from a number of undesirable and harmful admixtures, but also improvement of its natural properties by enriching it with components in short supply.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:3868]
+{org:en}
+There are two main constituents for monitoring of potable water quality
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3869]
+{org:en}
+continuous quality control to ensure that purification and distribution are in correspondence with the permanent aims and existing rules
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3870]
+{org:en}
+periodic microbiological inspections of the agency responsible for water supply, and sanitary supervision for the whole system of water supply from source to customer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+fmt:01(115669318:48.@entry, 104263614:3Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3871]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3872]
+{org:en}
+Deficiency of potable water, unfavorable changes in its quality, disparity between quality and sanitary and hygienic requirements, and serious consequences for human health from consuming poor quality water cause some of the gravest concern at the beginning of the twenty-first century.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3873]
+{org:en}
+The problem of providing potable water for people still remains unsolved in many countries and acquires a critical character in some regions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3874]
+{org:en}
+The process of preparing potable high quality water and its delivery to the population depends on a number of factors.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:2H.@entry, 100029677:06.@topic.@def)
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+obj(202663848:2H.@entry, 105858317:34.@pl)
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+obj(201754271:0H.@progress, :01:01)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3875]
+{org:en}
+The most important are the status of water sources, conditions of centralized systems of potable water supply, sanitary and technical status of the water distribution networks, and level of laboratory control of water quality at all stages of its preparation and supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3876]
+{org:en}
+The main sources of potable water in many countries are surface water basins.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua(108168978:18.@pl, 600000028:13)
+mod(104263614:0B.@topic.@pl, 301512527:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3877]
+{org:en}
+Various causes can lead to deterioration of their conditions
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774203:0E.@entry.@ability, 100007347:03.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105798863:19, 600000020:13.@pl)
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+obj(202774203:0E.@entry.@ability, 113464204:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3878]
+{org:en}
+intensive pollution (first of all, by unpurified wastewater), unsatisfactory conditions of sanitary protecting zones, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115689145:3A.@entry, 105798863:25.@pl)
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+aoj:01(303156301:14, 115669276:1D.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3879]
+{org:en}
+Although the sanitary and hygienic conditions of underground water sources is better, pollution by iron, fluorine, bromine, boron, manganese, strontium, and other microelements have all been recently observed in some regions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200732552:5S.@entry.@complete, 600000038:02)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:3880]
+{org:en}
+Intense development of industry, energy production, rural and municipal utilities, increased water consumption, and enhanced requirements for water quality require construction of new systems for water supply and enlargement and modernization of existing ones.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3881]
+{org:en}
+Humanity now faces serious problem in supplying water that is harmless for health.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:3882]
+{org:en}
+This problem acquires an international character, and scientists of many different countries must be involved in its solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+Specialists under the umbrella of the World Health Organization have elaborated common norms of permissible concentrations of various pollutants in water.
+{/org}
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+The Technical Committee "Water Quality " was organized within the International Standardization Organization (ISO TC 147).
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+Other international organizations, countries themselves, and regions are also involved in activity targeted at improving water quality.
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+Selection of water sources and their protection
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+In addition, changes in pressure and temperature, ion exchange between water and bottom sediments, enrichment of water with microelements resulting from biochemical processes, and mixing waters of different origin all cause changes in water composition.
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+Self-purification of water due to physical, chemical, and biological processes is observed in surface water streams.
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+Aeration, mixing, decanting of suspensions, and dilution of pollutants in large masses of water are all favorable for self-purification.
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+Bacteria and viruses perish due to action of aquatic Protozoa, antagonistic bacteria, bacteriophages, and antibiotics of biological origin.
+{/org}
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+The proper selection and protection of water sources are of primary importance for providing safe and harmless potable water supply.
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+{org:en}
+It is always better to protect water from pollutants than to purify it after polluting.
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+Before selecting new sources for potable water supply, it is important to be convinced that water quality is satisfactory and that the water can be purified to the required standards.
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+[S:3909]
+{org:en}
+In addition, the available quantity of potable water must be sufficient to satisfy the demands.
+{/org}
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+Day-to-day and seasonal variation in water consumption and planned growth of the serviced population should also be taken into account.
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+[S:3911]
+{org:en}
+The water accumulating area should be protected from unfavorable effects of human activity.
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+{org:en}
+Protective measures include isolation of the water accumulating area and control of human activity which could lead to water pollution.
+{/org}
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+[S:3913]
+{org:en}
+Recreational activity in the water accumulating area should be limited.
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+Sources of groundwater including springs and wells should be selected in such a way as to protect them from surface flow and floodwater.
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+The zones of water take-off should be fenced to prevent human access.
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+These zones should be kept clean and clear of wastes.
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+They should be located so as to prevent formation of stagnant water basins in periods of wet weather.
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+Strict control of livestock is necessary in such zones.
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+Protection of open surface water is a serious problem.
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+It is possible to protect water reservoirs from most kinds of human activity, but protection for rivers is possible only in a limited way, if at all.
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+It is often necessary to accept existing and historical uses of rivers or lakes and to organize an appropriate water purification process.
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+The characteristics of the potable water quality can be classified as follows
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+presence of aquatic organisms in the water HTM1 column and in bottom sediments, near its banks, and on the surface of the underwater objects.
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+Establishment of standard requirements is conducted at international, regional, or national levels.
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+The "Manual on Quality Control of Potable Water " developed by the World health Organization in 1994 and the Directive on Potable Water of the European Community 98/83EC are the principal documents containing recommendations or requirements that are adopted as basic, when national standards or other documents are developed in most countries.
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+Table 1 presents data on acceptance of these international documents as the basic ones by countries developing national standards for potable water.
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+The general tendency in development of systems of standard requirements for potable water quality is an increase in the number of characteristics to be controlled.
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+This results from intensive pollution of water basins, and consequently sources of water supply by wastewater containing large amounts of compounds hazardous for human health.
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+This includes a large diversity of organic compounds including pesticides, herbicides, intermediate and final products of organic synthesis, motor fuels, and oils.
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+Of vital importance is standardization of requirements for limitation of concentration of products of interaction of organic pollutants with disinfection products used for water purification.
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+Limitations of volatile organohalogen compounds of the chloroform type (potential carcinogens) relate in particular to such products.
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+As to the control of inorganic substances, special attention is paid to enlargement of the list of toxic metals (barium, cadmium, mercury, antimony, etc.) and some especially toxic nitrogen-containing compounds (such as cyanides).
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+[S:3945]
+{org:en}
+Table 1
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+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "1":08)
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+[S:3946]
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+Basic data on development of national standards for quality of potable water
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+[S:3947]
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+The general approach to determination of quantitative values of maximum permissible concentrations of hazardous and harmful components of potable water, and establishing standards for sanitary and toxicological criteria, is based on presumption.
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+The objective is to avoid any unfavorable influence on human health if water containing these components is consumed throughout a whole human life (average 70 years duration) with a daily input of 2 to 3 litres per day.
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+To achieve this, the toxicity parameters are determined in sanitary and toxicological experiments on warm-blooded animals using accepted typical procedures.
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+The capacity of the investigated toxicants for accumulation is determined, and the most sensitive functional systems of the organisms are used.
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+Safe threshold concentrations of substance in potable water can then be determined using sensitive tests on the most sensitive animal species.
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+It should be taking into consideration that experimentally determined MPC values for diverse chemical components in potable water have a probability character in a physical sense.
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+That means that there is no strict "border " between safe and hazardous concentrations because there are many random factors connected with individual human beings and their environment.
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+These factors can significantly "shift " MPC values in each particular case.
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+
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+{org:en}
+This is why risk levels of about HTM1 are specified in the recommendations of the WHO Manual, together with MPC values for many substances, in particular for carcinogens.
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+The so-called safety coefficients, which make considerably more "strict " the MPC values determined by calculations and experiments, are introduced for some types of toxicants in the process of developing standards of water quality in order to decrease the hazards of potable water.
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+{org:en}
+For example, "uncertainty coefficients " from 10 to 1000 are provided in the US EPA standards.
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+
+[S:3958]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the standard is determined by dividing the calculated value of safe concentration of a substance by the accepted coefficient.
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+Due to the probability features of safety of potable water, deviations of determined concentrations of various components from the standardized MPC values affect the probability of causing damage to human health.
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+[S:3960]
+{org:en}
+As a rule, this probability is negligibly small when the concentration is at the level of MPC.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Together with that, the complex impact of the whole set of pollutants in water should be taken into consideration in combination with other negative environmental factors.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:3962]
+{org:en}
+It is therefore necessary to strive for maximum possible decrease of concentrations in potable water of chemical substances that are classified according to their sanitary and toxicological characteristics as harmful to humans.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:3963]
+{org:en}
+Basic norms of water quality are provided in the "Manual on Quality Control of Potable Water " published in English, French, and Russian.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
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+[S:3964]
+{org:en}
+The data collected in this manual are the foundation for developing national standards in different countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:3965]
+{org:en}
+A revised edition was published in 1994 in three volumes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
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+{org:en}
+The recommended values of maximum permissible concentrations of various components in potable water are presented in Volume 1 "Recommendations".
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:3967]
+{org:en}
+Volume 2 "Hygienic criteria and other relevant information " contains monographs on criteria for every substance or type of pollutant, as the basis for the recommended values.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:3968]
+{org:en}
+Volume 3 with the title "Supervision and control of sources of municipal water supply " contains information and recommendations relating to measures for providing safe water supply in small settlements, especially in developing countries.
+{/org}
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+The characteristics of potable water quality that should be considered mandatory are divided into two groups in the Directive
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+microbiological and chemical.
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+The requirements of this directive were supplemented and made more accurate by taking into consideration the national approaches to the quality of potable water as well as special features of water sources.
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+Analysis of these supplements and improvements demonstrates that the general approach to nomenclature of the controlled characteristics of potable water quality, grouping of these characteristics, and magnitude of established values correspond to the basic documents.
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+The alterations are only concerned with establishing norms that are more "stringent".
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+The EC Directive was fully introduced in 1998 by publishing a special act that included a section encompassing all problems of providing potable water of adequate quality in correspondence with the above-mentioned EC Directive.
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+National systems for potable water quality also use the normative requirements established by the EC Directive.
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+National standards on potable water quality in countries of Central and South America are based mainly on the WHO Manual but take into consideration the EPA standards.
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+Argentina mainly follows the WHO recommendations, but a more stringent requirement is established in relation to lead content of potable water
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+[S:4018]
+{org:en}
+not more than HTM1.
+{/org}
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+[S:4019]
+{org:en}
+In addition, Chile, following WHO recommendations, revised its standards in correspondence with these documents.
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+[S:4020]
+{org:en}
+Ecological criteria for water quality, including the main requirements for water sources, were introduced in Mexico.
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+[S:4021]
+{org:en}
+There are no national standards for quality of potable water in Peru, so water quality control in large cities is mainly based on the WHO Manual.
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+[S:4022]
+{org:en}
+National standards for potable water in those African countries which have any regulations, are also mainly based on the WHO Manual.
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+[S:4023]
+{org:en}
+Some countries, however, use the International Standards for potable water adopted in 1971
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+[S:4024]
+{org:en}
+this contains about 20 characteristics for inorganic components, microbiological and organoleptic properties.
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+[S:4025]
+{org:en}
+The approach adopted by the South African Republic for standardization of requirements for potable water is of interest.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:4026]
+{org:en}
+The essence of this approach, as described in the national Instruction for estimating water quality, consists of formulation of three levels of potable water quality depending on their possible effects on human health
+{/org}
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+[S:4027]
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+first level (the best quality) is characterized by absence of any risk for human health or by negligibly low level of risk
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+[S:4028]
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+second level (medium quality) is characterized by low degree of risk
+{/org}
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+third level (poor quality) is characterizing by increased risk.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4030]
+{org:en}
+Norms are established for every level of potable water quality limiting MPCs of admixtures or maximum quantitative characteristics, essentially dealing with substances of inorganic origin (including toxic ones), microbiological, physico-chemical, and organoleptic properties.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+Inorganic substances are covered in these Instructions in greater detail than in the international documents and national documents of other countries.
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+Some African countries employ in their national regulating documents some of the guidance in the WHO Manual, depending on what is allowed by international standards and which depends on how well their analytical laboratories are equipped and staffed.
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+This is one of the reasons for high levels of mortality, mass diseases, and low longevity in African countries.
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+In Japan, the principal purpose of legislation for potable water production is ensuring the safety of the population consuming the water.
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+The Law of Water Production requires that the enterprises supplying the water must adhere to the valid standards for potable water.
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+The intense development of industry and high degree of urbanization in Japan caused a dramatic increase in the number of types of water pollutants found in water sources.
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+These include organic compounds
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+intermediate and final products of the organic synthesis industry, pesticides, halogen derivatives of organic compounds, and other organic substances.
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+In this connection, a directive instruction was issued in Japan in 1981, which established a general requirement for maximum permissible concentration of trihalomethane equal to 0.10 mg/l.
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+Polluted groundwater sources forced the Ministry of Public Health of Japan to develop limiting norms for trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene, and 1,1,1-trichloroethane.
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+These norms were included into a supplementary standard, which was in its turn was supplemented by a large group of organic and a few inorganic substances.
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+{org:en}
+These supplements were brought into force by special directive instruction.
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+In China, requirements for quality of potable water are regulated by national standards in which the nomenclature and qualitative characteristics of organoleptic and physical-chemical properties of water are relatively close to those of the WHO Manual.
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+{org:en}
+National standard for norms of potable water quality in Malaysia came into force in 1973.
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+This standard includes the recommended levels and compulsory requirements.
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+[S:4049]
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+Also included in the same document are recommendations on methods of water purification (as applicable to the various types of pollutants) and instructions for periodical control of water quality.
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+[S:4050]
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+The normative and directive documents regulating the requirements for quality of potable water in countries of the Middle East, i.e.
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+[S:4051]
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+Egypt, Jordan, Libya, etc. are based on the WHO Manual.
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+Two levels of norms are foreseeing in the standard on potable water quality in India.
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+This includes physical and chemical characteristics at two levels
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+[S:4054]
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+the first is permissible concentration, and the second concerns prohibitions on the use of water.
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+
+[S:4055]
+{org:en}
+The permissible levels of the most important physico-chemical characteristics are more stringent than the values recommended by WHO Manual.
+{/org}
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+[S:4056]
+{org:en}
+The Manual on Potable Water Quality is active in Indonesia.
+{/org}
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+[S:4057]
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+This document is based mainly on the international standards of 1971.
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+[S:4058]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the inclusion in official regulating documents of many countries of two level of norms of potable water quality, namely, target and actual norms, presumes that the achievements of science and technology in the field of potable water supply should eventually permit their drawing together and even coincidence.
+{/org}
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+The facts of coincidence of target and actual norms for many inorganic substances are evidence of this process.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
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+[S:4060]
+{org:en}
+Influence of water pollutants on its quality
+{/org}
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+mod(100157081:02.@entry, 114857278:0L.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4061]
+{org:en}
+Microbiological contaminations
+{/org}
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+aoj(303161141:02, 100276987:0I.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4062]
+{org:en}
+The most typical and widespread factors of risk for human health connected with potable water are infectious diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria, viruses, HTM1 Protozoa HTM2 and other parasitic agents.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(201645601:3B, 114070360:32.@entry.@pl)
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+aoj:02(303161307:3L, 115689384:3V.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4063]
+{org:en}
+The high degree of risk of disease is connected with the following species
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(300566099:14.@entry, 105094565:0B.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300705498:06, 105094565:0B.@topic.@def)
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+mod(105094565:0B.@topic.@def, 100802238:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4064]
+{org:en}
+bacteria HTM1 Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., HTM2 pathogenic HTM3 Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholera, Yersinia enterolitica, Campilobacter jejuni, HTM4 and HTM5 Campilobacter coli HTM6
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and(115690837:16, 115690837:0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4065]
+{org:en}
+viruses HTM1 Adenoviruses, Enteroviruses, Hepatitis A, Hepatitis niA, Hepatitis niB, Hepatitis E, HTM2 virus norfolk, rotavirus, small round viruses
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and(101337915:0T.@pl, 101330126:0F.@pl)
+mod(103823111:2A, 114130354:20)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4066]
+{org:en}
+parasitic agents HTM1 Giardia spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Entamoeba histolytica, HTM2 and HTM3 Dracunculus medinensis HTM4.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115692240:38.@entry, 115692804:21)
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+mod(115692240:38.@entry, 101933834:2W)
+mod(115692240:38.@entry, 101933834:2W)
+mod(115690837:0W, 101419888:0O)
+and(115690837:1I, 115690837:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4067]
+{org:en}
+Most of these pathogenic species are widespread over the whole world.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301102876:13.@entry, 600000078:02.@topic)
+mod(105844881:0R, 600000017:0A)
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+mod(600000078:02.@topic, 105844881:0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4068]
+{org:en}
+However, most outbreaks of cholera and infection of rigita HTM1 medinensis HTM2 are regional.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302408977:2E.@entry, 107435273:0G.@topic.@pl)
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+obj(107435273:0G.@topic.@pl, :01:01)
+and:01(104811296:15.@entry, 114129579:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4069]
+{org:en}
+Elimination of all these organisms from water intended for drinking is a matter of utmost importance.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000412:20.@entry, 100223720:02.@topic)
+mod(100004475:0R.@pl, 300521584:0H)
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+mod(100223720:02.@topic, 100004475:0R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4070]
+{org:en}
+The World Assembly of Public Health has recognized elimination of HTM1 D. medinensis HTM2 as one of the most important aims.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4071]
+{org:en}
+Chemical pollutants
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302692624:02, 114857278:0B.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:02, 114857278:0B.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4072]
+{org:en}
+The risk for human health connected with presence of toxic chemicals in potable water is different from the risk caused by microbiological contaminants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(101233802:1A, 107935504:2H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4073]
+{org:en}
+Only a few chemical components in water can cause acute health disorders, except some accidental cases of major contamination of water supply systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(103081021:0L.@topic.@pl, 303161004:02)
+mod(100276987:35, 104377057:3X.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4074]
+{org:en}
+The problems connected with chemical components of potable water arise mostly from their ability to affect human health over a prolonged period.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(303161884:3L, 106843520:3V.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4075]
+{org:en}
+Special attention should be paid to those polluting agents that manifest cumulative toxic action, as, for example, heavy metals and carcinogenic substances.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000117:2Z, :6O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4076]
+{org:en}
+Water pollution with inorganic compounds results from human economic activity
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(600000019:0H, 114516743:07.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4077]
+{org:en}
+run-off from agricultural land
+{/org}
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+aoj(302790222:0F, 109334396:0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4078]
+{org:en}
+discharge of waste water and storm water without proper purification
+{/org}
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+and:01(100974630:0U.@entry, 107935504:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4079]
+{org:en}
+discharge of wastewater from thermal power plants, metallurgical and galvanic manufacture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(105190804:12, 100017222:17.@pl)
+frm(115669276:0F, 100017222:17.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4080]
+{org:en}
+Data from WHO, ministries of Public Health, and the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences demonstrate that serious damage for human health is caused by polluting substances in the following ways
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(102669885:1Q.@entry.@def.@topic, 109728403:1I)
+mod(100172710:5A.@def.@pl, 300127815:50)
+frm:01(108462320:02.@topic.@def, 115669126:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4081]
+{org:en}
+carcinogenic
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+302679858:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+302679858:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4082]
+{org:en}
+cadmium, arsenic, chromium, chlorine, lead, selenium
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(114654175:1A.@entry, 101256270:14)
+and(114635092:0K, 114629149:0B)
+and(114654175:1A.@entry, 101256270:14)
+and(114635092:0K, 114629149:0B)
+and(114634591:0U, 114635092:0K)
+and(101256270:14, 114634591:0U)
+and(101256270:14, 114634591:0U)
+and(114629149:0B, 114632444:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4083]
+{org:en}
+mutagenic
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+302987017:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4084]
+{org:en}
+nickel, mercury, chromium
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and(114635092:0J.@entry, 105014308:0A)
+and(105014308:0A, 113390139:02)
+and(105014308:0A, 113390139:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4085]
+{org:en}
+genotoxic
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+303162219:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+303162219:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4086]
+{org:en}
+aluminum, cadmium, mercury, chromium
+{/org}
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+and(105014308:0L, 114632444:0C)
+and(105014308:0L, 114632444:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4087]
+{org:en}
+affecting central nerve system
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200019448:02.@entry.@progress, 104377057:0Q)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4088]
+{org:en}
+aluminum, arsenic, mercury, lead
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4089]
+{org:en}
+decreasing reproductive activity
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200151689:02.@progress, 100407535:0Q.@entry)
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+aoj(303162797:0D, 100407535:0Q.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4090]
+{org:en}
+boron, cobalt, manganese, nickel, nitrates, mercury, lead
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(101256270:1J.@entry, 105014308:1A)
+and(114635290:09, 114631871:02)
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+and(105014308:1A, 115015963:10.@pl)
+and(114644654:0H, 114635290:09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4091]
+{org:en}
+affecting internal organs
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300948670:0C, 103854065:0L.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4092]
+{org:en}
+barium, bromine, bromates of cadmium, mercury, and chromium
+{/org}
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+mod(115693391:0J.@entry.@pl, :01)
+and(114632129:0A, 114629998:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4093]
+{org:en}
+A large proportion of the organic pollution load in water originates from soil humus, products of living activity and decomposition of vegetative and animal organisms, and household and industrial wastewater.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(106013471:3C.@entry, 100407535:2Z)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:4094]
+{org:en}
+There are particular dangers associated with the presence in water of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, organic acids, esters, and alcohols.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(114792703:2G.@pl, 114864360:2A.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4095]
+{org:en}
+The presence of organic compounds in water leads to sharp deterioration of its organoleptic properties (odor, color, foaming capability) and causes unfavorable effects on the human organism (carcinogenic, mutagenic, genotoxic, etc.).
+{/org}
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+aoj(300604978:4C, 104809642:4O.@pl)
+cnt(104012260:2S.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+and:02(302987017:5X, 302679858:5J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4096]
+{org:en}
+Thousands of organic chemical substances have been found in potable water throughout the world, many of them in extremely low concentrations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200715239:1H.@entry.@progress.@complete, 100019613:0W.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:0F, 100019613:0W.@topic.@pl)
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+qua(100019613:0W.@topic.@pl, 600000399:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4097]
+{org:en}
+Some potentially dangerous chemical substances enter the potable water directly from the chemical reagents used for treatment of water supply system or from construction materials.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300651039:0J, 100019613:12.@topic.@pl)
+obj(100658082:39, 104377057:3X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4098]
+{org:en}
+The safest way to control such chemicals is to apply the corresponding specifications for chemical reagents and materials used.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(100172710:0D.@def, 200765396:1C.@entry.@will)
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+obj(201158572:3F, :01)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4099]
+{org:en}
+For example, a wide series of polyelectrolytes are used together with coagulants for water purification.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000113:1M, 114815728:20.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4100]
+{org:en}
+This is why the presence of some amounts of not reacted polymers is cause for concern.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man:01(101233802:0I.@topic.@def, 600000097:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4101]
+{org:en}
+Numerous polyelectrolytes are produced based on acrylamide polymers and copolymers, so in both cases the acrylamide monomer may be present in the water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4102]
+{org:en}
+Carbon tetrachloride is sometimes found in chlorine compounds used for water disinfection.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(103081859:1I.@pl, 114634591:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4103]
+{org:en}
+Such pollutants are best controlled by special rules regulating the quality of these products.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4104]
+{org:en}
+Radiation risk for health connected with presence of radionuclides entering water by natural means is very small compared with the radiation hazard in the environment as a whole.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301391351:31.@entry, 100802238:0C.@topic)
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+The unacceptable concentrations depend on a range of individual and local factors including the quality of the water normally used by the population.
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+{org:en}
+The color of potable water is connected mainly with the presence of humic and fulvic acids related to soil humus.
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+[S:4109]
+{org:en}
+The presence of iron and other metals as natural admixtures or as corrosion products strongly affect water color.
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+[S:4110]
+{org:en}
+No particular limiting value is proposed for the color of potable water in relation to its influence on human health.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Water aftertaste and odor are connected with natural and biological causes, or with chemical pollution, or can be a side effect of water purification.
+{/org}
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+[S:4112]
+{org:en}
+In addition, the aftertaste and odor can arise during storage and distribution of water.
+{/org}
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+[S:4113]
+{org:en}
+Cold water has a more pleasant taste than warm water.
+{/org}
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+[S:4114]
+{org:en}
+High temperature of water accelerates growth of microorganisms and can intensify problems connected with aftertaste, odor, color, and corrosion.
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+[S:4115]
+{org:en}
+Turbidity of potable water is connected with substances that can be present in water because of inadequate purification, or can result from repetitive suspension of precipitates in the water distribution system.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+In addition, turbidity can be explained by the presence of suspended inorganic substances in some groundwater.
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+{org:en}
+High turbidity protects microorganisms during the disinfection process and stimulates growth of bacteria.
+{/org}
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+This is why turbidity should always be as low as possible, during the decontamination and disinfection procedure.
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+Both inorganic components (e.g. aluminum, ammonia, chlorides, copper, hardness, hydrogen sulfide, iron, manganese, sodium, phosphates, zinc), and organic ones (e.g. toluene, xylenes, ethylbenzene, stirene, monochlorobenzene, trichlorobenzenes, synthetic detergents) affect organoleptic properties of water.
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+The pH value usually does not influence the consumers of water, but it is still one of the most important characteristics of water quality.
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+The optimum pH value varies from 6.5 to 9.5 for different systems depending on the water composition.
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+Methods and technological layouts for water quality improvement
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+Treatment of water to make it potable includes a complex of physical, chemical, and biological methods.
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+The term, water treatment, includes not just purification from a number of undesirable and harmful admixtures, but also improvement of its natural properties by enriching it with components in short supply.
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+Methods of water treatment can be divided into the following groups
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+improvement of organoleptic properties of water (clarifying, decoloration, deodorization)
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+disinfection (chlorination, ozonation, UV-radiation treatment)
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+conditioning of the mineral composition of water (fluorination and defluorination), removing ions of heavy metals, iron and manganese, softening, and desalination.
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+Comparison of these properties with the requirements of the consumer is also an extremely important stage of planning.
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+The most characteristic and general features of water admixtures are the forms of their presence, e.g. the phase conditions that can be characterized by the degree of dispersion of substances.
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+Every phase and dispersion state of the admixtures requires a specific combination of methods of action that would facilitate achievement of the desired characteristics.
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+Despite differences in the purposes of treatment methods, they are usually dependent in the phase-dispersion state of the mineral, organic, and biological components of the water.
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+aoj(:01, 103081021:4D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4138]
+{org:en}
+There are practically no methods of water preparation that can be guaranteed to produce water acceptable for potable purposes without additional treatment, i.e. conditioning.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+pur(300017782:2P, 105982152:3C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4139]
+{org:en}
+The technology of water conditioning involves processes connected with correction of physical and chemical properties, together with the disinfection process.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200401538:13.@entry, 100949619:06.@topic.@def)
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+and:01(302692624:2R.@entry, 300627004:2E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4140]
+{org:en}
+The following processes can be used for removing suspended matter, bacterial dispersion, and other biological contaminations from water
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+frm:01(100276987:31.@entry.@pl, 107935504:3L)
+obj:01(200148763:1C.@past, 100020827:1M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4141]
+{org:en}
+mechanical separation by gravitation or under the action of the centrifugal forces, filtration through porous fillers and through fine nets, adhesion on finely dispersed and granular materials, aggregation by flocculants, flotation of admixtures, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man:03(300540977:4Z, 400102463:4S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4142]
+{org:en}
+For removal of hydrophilic and hydrophobic colloidal components, high molecular weight compounds, and detergents, which are capable of changing their aggregate status in water medium, the following processes are efficient
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj:02(:01, 103081021:1S.@pl)
+and:02(103181899:3G.@entry.@pl, 103081859:31.@pl)
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+aoj(300839619:6Q.@entry, 100029677:6C.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj:02(302903946:1I, 103081021:1S.@pl)
+aoj(300839619:6Q.@entry, 100029677:6C.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj:02(302903946:1I, 103081021:1S.@pl)
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+mod(113945919:56, 600000020:4Q.@pl)
+aoj(300308015:46, :02.@entry)
+plc(200109660:4H.@progress, 106254475:5M)
+mod:02(104571088:2Q, 301542252:2G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4143]
+{org:en}
+oxidation of organic colloidal substances and high molecular weight compounds
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(113530408:02.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj:01(301093142:0F, 100019613:0X.@pl)
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+obj(113530408:02.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj:01(301093142:0F, 100019613:0X.@pl)
+mod:01(103081859:1Y.@entry.@pl, 301542252:1H)
+aoj:01(300705498:1C, 103081859:1Y.@entry.@pl)
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+and:01(103081859:1Y.@entry.@pl, 100019613:0X.@pl)
+aoj:01(302903946:0N, 100019613:0X.@pl)
+mod:01(103081859:1Y.@entry.@pl, 104571088:1R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4144]
+{org:en}
+their adhesion and adsorption on hydroxides of aluminum and iron
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:01.@entry, 114914670:16.@pl)
+mod(114914670:16.@pl, :02)
+obj(:01.@entry, 114914670:16.@pl)
+mod(114914670:16.@pl, :02)
+and:01(113427789:0O.@entry, 105584008:0B)
+mod(:01.@entry, 600000020:02.@pl)
+mod(:01.@entry, 600000020:02.@pl)
+and:02(103584829:1X.@entry, 114627820:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4145]
+{org:en}
+aggregation by cationic flocculants
+{/org}
+{unl}
+ins(115669048:02.@entry, 115690313:0Q.@pl)
+ins(115669048:02.@entry, 115690313:0Q.@pl)
+aoj(302930387:0H, 115690313:0Q.@pl)
+aoj(302930387:0H, 115690313:0Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4146]
+{org:en}
+treatment of water by chlorine or ozone, and other processes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+ins(100658082:02.@entry, :02)
+mod:02(100029677:1H.@entry.@pl, 600000053:1B)
+ins(100658082:02.@entry, :02)
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+and:02(100029677:1H.@entry.@pl, :01)
+obj(100658082:02.@entry, 107935504:0F)
+obj(100658082:02.@entry, 107935504:0F)
+or:01(114972807:10.@entry.@pl, 114634591:0O.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4147]
+{org:en}
+These treatments can decrease water color, eliminate microorganisms, and destroy hydrophilic colloids.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(:01.@entry, 100658082:08.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(200470701:19, 101326291:1J.@pl)
+aoj:01(300491971:2B, 114588219:2N.@pl)
+agt(:01.@entry, 100658082:08.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(200470701:19, 101326291:1J.@pl)
+aoj:01(300491971:2B, 114588219:2N.@pl)
+mod(100658082:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+obj:01(201326528:23.@entry, 114588219:2N.@pl)
+mod:01(104674968:12, 107935504:0W)
+and:01(201326528:23.@entry, 200470701:19)
+and:01(201326528:23.@entry, 200470701:19)
+obj:01(200151689:0N.@ability, 104674968:12)
+and:01(200470701:19, 200151689:0N.@ability)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4148]
+{org:en}
+Protective properties in relation to hydrophobic admixtures of water become evident, thus forming favorable conditions for their subsequent coagulation and accelerating the process of floc formation and precipitation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200149583:1Z.@entry, 104012260:0D.@topic.@pl)
+pur:02(105798863:32.@pl, 115669266:3Y)
+obj:02(200438178:4E.@entry.@progress, 100029677:4V.@def)
+aoj(300311187:02, 104012260:0D.@topic.@pl)
+obj(400121135:2F, :02)
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+pur:02(105798863:32.@pl, 115669266:3Y)
+obj:02(200438178:4E.@entry.@progress, 100029677:4V.@def)
+aoj(300311187:02, 104012260:0D.@topic.@pl)
+obj(400121135:2F, :02)
+aoj:02(300122626:3N, 115669266:3Y)
+mod:01(100925207:5B, 115693742:56)
+aoj(300080098:13, 102681084:1F.@pl)
+gol(200149583:1Z.@entry, 303161365:26)
+mod:02(115669266:3Y, 600000020:3H.@pl)
+and:01(105061149:5P.@entry, 100925207:5B)
+mod(102681084:1F.@pl, 107935504:1T)
+man(200149583:1Z.@entry, 400121135:2F)
+aoj:02(300604978:2S, 105798863:32.@pl)
+man(200149583:1Z.@entry, 400121135:2F)
+aoj:02(300604978:2S, 105798863:32.@pl)
+obj:02(100029677:4V.@def, :01:01)
+obj(600000175:0O, 102681084:1F.@pl)
+and:02(200438178:4E.@entry.@progress, 200144850:2K.@progress)
+aoj(600000175:0O, 104012260:0D.@topic.@pl)
+obj:02(200144850:2K.@progress, 105798863:32.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4149]
+{org:en}
+The following processes are used for removing from water molecular dissolved substances
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:0U.@entry, 100029677:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200338559:1W.@past, 100019613:26.@pl)
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+obj(201158572:0U.@entry, 100029677:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200338559:1W.@past, 100019613:26.@pl)
+mod(100019613:26.@pl, 107935504:1G)
+src(200173338:12.@progress, 100019613:26.@pl)
+pur(201158572:0U.@entry, 200173338:12.@progress)
+pur(201158572:0U.@entry, 200173338:12.@progress)
+mod(100029677:0G.@topic.@def.@pl, 300127815:06)
+mod(100019613:26.@pl, 301542252:1M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4150]
+{org:en}
+desorption of volatile compounds, oxidation of organic substances, adsorption onto activated carbon or other adsorbents, extraction by organic solvents, steam distillation, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100392950:3E.@entry, :02)
+aoj:01(301093142:1D, 100019613:1L.@pl)
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+mod:04(114598525:32.@entry.@pl, 600000053:2W)
+and:03(113468306:4F, 115047313:3Z.@pl)
+obj(200190682:2D.@past, :04:04)
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+and:03(115689145:4T.@entry, 113468306:4F)
+aoj:01(300346847:0G, 103081859:0P.@pl)
+and:02(113427789:1X.@entry, :01)
+ins(100392950:3E.@entry, :03)
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+obj:01(113530408:10.@entry, 100019613:1L.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4151]
+{org:en}
+The best method for removing electrolytes from water is the use of ionic processes such as
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(300227507:06, 400536271:2I)
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+aoj(100947128:1Q.@entry.@def, 105660268:0B.@topic.@def)
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+aoj(302750752:1X, 100029677:23.@pl)
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+src(200173338:0M.@progress, 107935504:1D)
+aoj(300227507:06, 105660268:0B.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4152]
+{org:en}
+formation of poorly dissociating or poorly soluble compounds
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100925207:02.@entry, 103081859:1H.@pl)
+aoj(303162755:12, 103081859:1H.@pl)
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+aoj(303162755:12, 103081859:1H.@pl)
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+aoj(303162755:0F, 103081859:1H.@pl)
+aoj(303162755:0F, 103081859:1H.@pl)
+aoj(302265015:19, 103081859:1H.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4153]
+{org:en}
+fixation in the solid phase of ion-exchange materials (Na- (H-) cationic exchanger, OH-anion exchanger)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(100276342:02.@entry, 104676540:0O.@def)
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+mod(100167063:11, 109315159:0X)
+cnt(103729951:1A.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
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+mod:01(110069120:2N, 109197815:2H)
+mod(100167063:11, 109315159:0X)
+cnt(103729951:1A.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj:01(302930387:1U, 110069120:23.@entry)
+aoj(300291181:0I, 104676540:0O.@def)
+mod:01(110069120:23.@entry, 115669300:1L)
+mod(104676540:0O.@def, 103729951:1A.@pl)
+mod:01(109197815:2H, 500324215:2E)
+mod(104676540:0O.@def, 103729951:1A.@pl)
+mod:01(109197815:2H, 500324215:2E)
+mod:01(110069120:23.@entry, 110069120:2N)
+mod(103729951:1A.@pl, 100167063:11)
+equ:01(106831926:1Q.@parenthesis, 115669300:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4154]
+{org:en}
+separation by change of state of aggregation by conversion to the gaseous state (distillation)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+ins(100383606:02.@entry, 100094788:1E)
+cnt(100024720:24.@def, 113468306:2B.@parenthesis)
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+man(100383606:02.@entry, 100191142:0G)
+aoj(302262542:1W, 100024720:24.@def)
+to(100094788:1E, 100024720:24.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4155]
+{org:en}
+ion distribution in the liquid phase (extraction, reverse osmosis), and
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(:20.@entry, 101083077:06)
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+Selection and development of technological layouts for improvement of water quality, and the requirements of the consumers with regard to physical, chemical, and bacteriological properties of water, are taken into consideration, as are the quality of water from the available water source, seasons, and the risk of pollution of the water source.
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+obj(600000033:02, 200735571:2Y.@ability.@not)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4171]
+{org:en}
+Surface waters require complete purification (disinfection, sedimentation, removal of mechanical admixtures, decoloration, preliminary filtration through gravel, slow filtration through sand, disinfection).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:02(100216723:25, 111445395:1Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4172]
+{org:en}
+Further procedures can be carried out thief required by local conditions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(202774207:0S.@entry.@ability, 202774169:17.@past)
+met(202774169:17.@past, 105798863:1P.@pl)
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+obj(202774207:0S.@entry.@ability, 100577068:0A.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301106405:1J, 105798863:1P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4173]
+{org:en}
+The constructional arrangement of the layout is determining by the production capacity and component assembly of the projected construction, topography, and hydrogeological conditions of the site, climatic conditions, and the possibility of organizing zones of sanitary protection, backed up by technical and financial calculations.
+{/org}
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+obj(600000035:D5, 100868910:8W.@pl)
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+and:04(105798863:4U.@entry.@pl, 105064541:3Y.@pl)
+and:04(105064541:3Y.@pl, 100873381:3K.@def.@pl)
+aoj(200699815:1E.@entry, 100912001:2U.@def)
+aoj(600000035:D5, :D4)
+mod:03(105792010:6B.@entry.@def, 105611062:71.@pl)
+aoj(200699815:1E.@entry, 100912001:2U.@def)
+aoj(600000035:D5, :D4)
+mod:03(105792010:6B.@entry.@def, 105611062:71.@pl)
+mod:01(100720951:27, 100522736:1W)
+aoj(303164328:06, 100939628:0L.@topic.@def)
+aoj:03(303055374:5I, 105798863:5Q.@pl)
+mod(100912001:2U.@def, :01)
+and:02(303161150:8M.@entry, 300484070:88)
+aoj:03(302112976:7A, 100784755:7J)
+aoj:04(303161724:4E, 105798863:4U.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4174]
+{org:en}
+Choice of types of basic and ancillary equipment depend on the technological method of water treatment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:1F.@entry, 100161243:02.@topic)
+obj(100161243:02.@topic, 104504486:0C.@pl)
+aoj(302084979:1R, 105660268:25.@def)
+aoj(202663848:1F.@entry, 100161243:02.@topic)
+obj(100161243:02.@topic, 104504486:0C.@pl)
+aoj(302084979:1R, 105660268:25.@def)
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+mod(105660268:25.@def, 100658082:2K)
+aoj(:01, 103294048:15)
+obj(202663848:1F.@entry, 105660268:25.@def)
+obj(202663848:1F.@entry, 105660268:25.@def)
+mod(104504486:0C.@pl, 103294048:15)
+mod(100658082:2K, 107935504:2F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4175]
+{org:en}
+The combination of corresponding technological processes and constructions compose a technological layout for water quality improvement.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201626138:23.@entry, 100378985:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100248977:3G, 104723816:38)
+aoj(302084979:2D, 101010901:2R.@indef)
+aoj(201626138:23.@entry, 100378985:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100248977:3G, 104723816:38)
+aoj(302084979:2D, 101010901:2R.@indef)
+aoj(302084979:0Z, :01)
+pur(101010901:2R.@indef, 100248977:3G)
+mod(:01, 301974451:0L)
+obj(201626138:23.@entry, 101010901:2R.@indef)
+obj(201626138:23.@entry, 101010901:2R.@indef)
+obj(100378985:06.@topic.@def, :01:01)
+mod(100248977:3G, 107935504:32)
+and:01(100873381:1P.@entry.@pl, 100029677:1D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4176]
+{org:en}
+The existing technological layouts can be classified as follows
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200654625:18.@entry.@ability, 101010901:0T.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302084979:0F, 101010901:0T.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200654625:18.@entry.@ability, 101010901:0T.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302084979:0F, 101010901:0T.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(101010901:0T.@topic.@def.@pl, 301731786:06)
+man(200654625:18.@entry.@ability, 600000181:1J)
+man(200654625:18.@entry.@ability, 600000181:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4177]
+{org:en}
+reagent and non-reagent
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(114778982:0I.@entry, 114778982:02)
+and(114778982:0I.@entry, 114778982:02)
+mod(114778982:0I.@entry, 303161142:0E)
+mod(114778982:0I.@entry, 303161142:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4178]
+{org:en}
+on the clarification effect
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000036:02.@entry, 104809642:0N.@def)
+obj(600000036:02.@entry, 104809642:0N.@def)
+mod(104809642:0N.@def, 107171206:09)
+mod(104809642:0N.@def, 107171206:09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4179]
+{org:en}
+on the number of technological processes and number of stages in each of them
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000036:02.@entry, 100306900:1L.@pl)
+aoj:01(302084979:0J, 100029677:0X.@pl)
+and:01(103835412:1B.@entry, 100029677:0X.@pl)
+obj(600000036:02.@entry, 100306900:1L.@pl)
+aoj:01(302084979:0J, 100029677:0X.@pl)
+and:01(103835412:1B.@entry, 100029677:0X.@pl)
+qua(100306900:1L.@pl, :01:01)
+plc(100306900:1L.@pl, 600000020:23)
+plc(100306900:1L.@pl, 600000020:23)
+mod(600000020:23, 600000092:1V)
+qua:01(100029677:0X.@pl, 103835412:09.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4180]
+{org:en}
+pressurized and free.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300916199:0I.@entry, 200403149:02.@past)
+and(300916199:0I.@entry, 200403149:02.@past)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4181]
+{org:en}
+Reagent and non-reagent layouts are very different as regards water purification constructions and in their conditions of operation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300490413:17.@entry, :01)
+and:01(101010901:0Q.@entry.@pl.@topic, 114778982:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100873381:2B.@pl, 107935504:1S)
+man(300490413:17.@entry, 400031899:12)
+aoj(300490413:17.@entry, :01)
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+mod(100873381:2B.@pl, 107935504:1S)
+man(300490413:17.@entry, 400031899:12)
+mod(105798863:32.@pl, 100409211:3G)
+man(300490413:17.@entry, 600000242:1H)
+mod:01(114778982:0I, 303161142:0E)
+obj(600000093:47, 105798863:32.@pl)
+man(300490413:17.@entry, 600000093:47)
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+man(300490413:17.@entry, 600000093:47)
+mod:01(101010901:0Q.@entry.@pl.@topic, 114778982:0I)
+mod(100873381:2B.@pl, 100252894:1Y)
+obj(600000242:1H, 100873381:2B.@pl)
+mod(105798863:32.@pl, 600000020:2W.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4182]
+{org:en}
+The reagent processes proceed more intensively and are much more efficient.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200341560:0O.@entry, 100029677:0E.@topic.@def.@pl)
+man(400099341:1Q, 400053744:1L)
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+man(400099341:1Q, 400053744:1L)
+man(400139392:11, 400099341:0W)
+man(200341560:0O.@entry, 400139392:11)
+man(200341560:0O.@entry, 300839619:1V)
+man(200341560:0O.@entry, 300839619:1V)
+mod(100029677:0E.@topic.@def.@pl, 114778982:06)
+man(300839619:1V, 400099341:1Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4183]
+{org:en}
+Thus, it takes enough only 2 to 9 hours for precipitation of the main bulk of the suspended matter when using reagents.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200523095:0B.@entry, 201158572:2S.@progress)
+mod(105025413:1U, 301512527:1P)
+obj(200523095:0B.@entry, "2":0N)
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+man(200523095:0B.@entry, 400121135:02)
+obj(200148763:26.@past, 100020827:2G.@def)
+man(200523095:0B.@entry, 400535197:0I)
+gol(200523095:0B.@entry, 105131023:0U.@pl)
+mod(105025413:1U, 100020827:2G.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4184]
+{org:en}
+Without reagents, this process requires a few days.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774169:0X.@entry, 600000043:02)
+obj(600000043:02, 114778982:0A.@pl)
+qua(114484516:1C.@pl, 600000101:16)
+man(202774169:0X.@entry, 600000043:02)
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+qua(114484516:1C.@pl, 600000101:16)
+obj(202774169:0X.@entry, 114484516:1C.@pl)
+aoj(202774169:0X.@entry, 100029677:0P.@topic)
+aoj(202774169:0X.@entry, 100029677:0P.@topic)
+mod(100029677:0P.@topic, 600000017:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4185]
+{org:en}
+The filtration is carried out at a rate from 5 to 12 HTM1 and more, when the reagents are employed, and only 0.1 to 0.3 HTM2 without reagents.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(600000124:1S.@entry, 113325010:11.@indef)
+obj(202774207:0K, 100191980:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj:03(600000060:3J, HTM2:3E.@entry)
+and:03(HTM2:3E.@entry, 202774279:2K)
+qua(HTM1:1J, :01:01)
+and(600000124:1S.@entry, 113325010:11.@indef)
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+qua(HTM1:1J, :01:01)
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+obj(600000033:1Y, :03)
+frm(113325010:11.@indef, HTM1:1J)
+fmt:02("0.3":3A.@entry, "0.1":33)
+man(600000124:1S.@entry, 600000033:1Y)
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+man(600000124:1S.@entry, 600000033:1Y)
+scn(202774207:0K, 113325010:11.@indef)
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+man:03(HTM2:3E.@entry, 400535197:2Y)
+fmt:01("12":1G.@entry, "5":1B)
+obj:03(202774279:2K, 114778982:27.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4186]
+{org:en}
+A technological scheme of complete or deep clarification is utilized for preparing potable water for economic and household needs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200161872:1Q.@entry, 105905348:0I.@topic.@indef)
+or:01(300149120:14.@entry, 300520214:0S)
+mod(109367991:3I, 300840212:2V)
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+mod(105905348:0I.@topic.@indef, 107171206:19)
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+pur(200161872:1Q.@entry, 201754271:23.@progress)
+mod(109367991:3I, 115669720:38)
+aoj(303160899:2D, 107935504:2L)
+aoj(:01, 107171206:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4187]
+{org:en}
+Technological layouts can be divided into a number of technological processes with different stages in each of them (single stage process, double stage process, and multistage process).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj:01(300539389:3B, 100029677:3O)
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+aoj:01(300896026:3X, 100029677:4A)
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+and:01(100029677:4A, 100029677:3O)
+aoj(300490413:2D, 100306900:2N.@pl)
+aoj(302084979:02, 101010901:0G.@topic.@pl)
+plc(200642098:0V.@entry.@ability, 600000020:35)
+aoj:01(303163510:4N, 100029677:4Y.@entry)
+plc(200642098:0V.@entry.@ability, 600000020:35)
+aoj:01(303163510:4N, 100029677:4Y.@entry)
+obj(600000018:28, 100306900:2N.@pl)
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+mod(100029677:1Y.@pl, 600000054:18)
+mod:01(100029677:4A, 100306900:44)
+mod(600000020:35, 600000092:2X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4188]
+{org:en}
+The number of technological processes and number of stages depends on the requirements for the water required by the consumer and on the quality of the initial water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:1P.@entry, :01)
+qua:01(100029677:0U.@pl.@topic, 103835412:06.@def)
+met(202774169:2V, 109612848:3B.@def)
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+aoj(202663848:1P.@entry, :01)
+qua:01(100029677:0U.@pl.@topic, 103835412:06.@def)
+met(202774169:2V, 109612848:3B.@def)
+plc(107935504:2P.@def, 104723816:3V.@def)
+and:01(103835412:18.@entry.@topic, 100029677:0U.@pl.@topic)
+pur(115669633:24.@def.@pl, 107935504:2P.@def)
+mod(107935504:4I.@def, 301011973:4A)
+obj(202663848:1P.@entry, 115669633:24.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(302084979:0G, 100029677:0U.@pl)
+obj(202663848:1P.@entry, 115669633:24.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(302084979:0G, 100029677:0U.@pl)
+mod(104723816:3V.@def, 107935504:4I.@def)
+obj(202774169:2V, 107935504:2P.@def)
+mod:01(103835412:18.@entry.@topic, 100306900:1I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4189]
+{org:en}
+It is possible in some cases to limit the technology by using sedimentation, centrifugation, or just filtration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301821266:08.@entry, 200235368:0Y)
+or:01(100191980:2V.@entry, 113445296:27)
+man(200235368:0Y, 600000577:0H)
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+{org:en}
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+{org:en}
+The technological layouts are divided into free (gravity flow) and pressurized ones.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The initial water flows through the construction under the action of gravity in a free-flowing layout.
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+{org:en}
+The water level in every subsequent construction is lower than in the preceding one.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The difference of levels is determined by the pressure necessary to overcome the hydraulic resistance in the construction and in the communications from one construction to another.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:4195]
+{org:en}
+In the pressurized technological layout, the water to be treated flows from one construction to another under pressure higher than atmospheric, with the constructions being at the same level.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:4196]
+{org:en}
+Monitoring
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+[/W]
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+
+[S:4197]
+{org:en}
+There are two main constituents for monitoring of potable water quality
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+obj(100880046:16.@def, 104723816:1Y)
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+[S:4198]
+{org:en}
+continuous quality control to ensure that purification and distribution are in correspondence with the permanent aims and existing rules
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:4199]
+{org:en}
+periodic microbiological inspections of the agency responsible for water supply, and sanitary supervision for the whole system of water supply from source to customer
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+aoj:01(302112976:2F, 101135529:2O.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4200]
+{org:en}
+The permanent control is the inseparable duty of the agency responsible for water supply and water works management.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:4201]
+{org:en}
+This covers the efficiency of the water purification processes, required quality of water supplied to the customer and absence of secondary water contamination in the distribution network.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Microbiological aspects
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+{org:en}
+The frequency of taking of water samples for microbiological examination is determined by the available means.
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+The more frequent the water inspections, the higher is the probability that accidental contamination would be revealed.
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+The probability of showing regular, not accidental, contamination increases if the samples are taken at a different time of day and on different days of the week.
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+[S:4206]
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+The frequency of sampling from the initial water sources depends on the general characteristics of their quality, capacity, time of year and probability of their contamination.
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+and:02(100720951:37, 104723816:2Y)
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+[S:4207]
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+The frequency of sampling is established by local controlling organizations and in many cases is specially indicated in the national rules and manuals.
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+Samples should be taken at random at least every month and they should be taking from month to month both from fixed points, and from arbitrary places along the whole distribution system.
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+This include points at the inlet and outlet of the system and water taps in sites of direct access in the water conducting network to the customers, where there is increased danger of contamination due to crossing of hydraulic connections or through reverse inflow.
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+[S:4213]
+{org:en}
+Any general recommendations are impossible when the water is delivered not through the pipeline or without purification, because in such cases the water quality and probability of its contamination varies depending on the season and local conditions.
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+[S:4214]
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+In this case the local controlling organization should determine the frequency of water sampling, taking into account the local conditions and results of sanitary investigations.
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+[S:4215]
+{org:en}
+Chemical aspects
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+[S:4216]
+{org:en}
+Numerous chemical substances can be present in the water in the multiple diverse physical-chemical forms or "types " with the properties that varies considerably.
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+{org:en}
+It is important to determine the substances that are most interesting, and express in figures the recommended values.
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+All substances can be dividing in two main types
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+Substances when the change in their concentration in the distribution process is less probable.
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+The concentration of these substances in the distribution system is mainly determined by their concentration in the water entering the distribution system and by substances which do not participate in any reactions in the distribution system.
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+Arsenic, chlorides, fluorides, substances determining water hardness, pesticides, sodium, and the sum of dissolved solids are examples of such substances.
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+aoj:02(200699815:18.@progress, 100019613:0X.@entry.@pl)
+and:01(114655371:2B.@def, 114980215:1Z.@pl.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4222]
+{org:en}
+Substances with varying concentrations along the distribution system, they include
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000019:0D, 100019613:02.@entry.@pl)
+mod(104377057:1S.@def, 101083077:1F)
+aoj(302507515:0I, 100375071:0Q.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:0D, 100019613:02.@entry.@pl)
+mod(104377057:1S.@def, 101083077:1F)
+aoj(302507515:0I, 100375071:0Q.@pl)
+aoj(600000135:15, 100375071:0Q.@pl)
+obj(600000019:0D, 100375071:0Q.@pl)
+obj(600000019:0D, 100375071:0Q.@pl)
+aoj(200183879:25.@entry, 600000020:20.@topic)
+obj(600000135:15, 104377057:1S.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4223]
+{org:en}
+substances, concentration of which in the distribution system depends mainly on their concentration in the water entering the water distribution system, but that can participate in various reactions in the distribution system.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100019613:02.@entry.@pl, 100375071:0E)
+mod(104377057:65.@def, 101083077:5S)
+man(201082606:37.@progress, 600000037:4B)
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+mod(104377057:65.@def, 101083077:5S)
+man(201082606:37.@progress, 600000037:4B)
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+aoj(600000051:6G, 100375071:0E)
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+aoj(202663848:1S, 100375071:0E)
+gol(201082606:37.@progress, 104377057:43.@def)
+aoj(202663848:1S, 100375071:0E)
+gol(201082606:37.@progress, 104377057:43.@def)
+man(202663848:1S, 400535216:20)
+obj(202774402:4O.@ability, 100202816:5B.@pl)
+mod(104377057:1L.@def, 101083077:18)
+obj(600000037:4B, 202774402:4O.@ability)
+obj(201082606:37.@progress, 107935504:31.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4224]
+{org:en}
+The examples of such substances are aluminum, iron, magnesium, hydrogen ions (pH), and chloroform.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 105820620:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(114644249:1I, 103584829:1C)
+cnt:01(109315159:25.@pl, 105039106:2B.@parenthesis)
+aoj(:01.@entry, 105820620:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(114644249:1I, 103584829:1C)
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+mod(100019613:0N.@pl, 600001411:0I)
+and:01(109315159:25.@pl, 114644249:1I)
+mod(105820620:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 100019613:0N.@pl)
+and:01(103022406:2O.@entry, 109315159:25.@pl)
+and:01(103022406:2O.@entry, 109315159:25.@pl)
+and:01(103584829:1C, 114627820:12)
+mod:01(109315159:25.@pl, 114640434:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4225]
+{org:en}
+substances, for which the principal source is the distribution system itself (benzopyrene, copper, lead, and zinc)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(100019613:02.@entry.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj(303161143:0S, 104263614:12.@topic.@def)
+mod(104377057:1T.@def, 600000145:20)
+cnt(100019613:02.@entry.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
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+mod(104377057:1T.@def, 600000145:20)
+and:01(102282385:2L, 115694822:28)
+aoj(104377057:1T.@def, 104263614:12.@topic.@def)
+and:01(101256270:2T, 102282385:2L)
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+pur(104377057:1T.@def, 100019613:02.@entry.@pl)
+and:01(114661977:33.@entry, 101256270:2T)
+mod(104377057:1T.@def, 101083077:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4226]
+{org:en}
+This classification is applicable to water supply systems only.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301975448:0P.@entry, 101148904:07.@topic)
+mod(101148904:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(104377057:1E.@pl, 107935504:13)
+aoj(301975448:0P.@entry, 101148904:07.@topic)
+mod(101148904:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(104377057:1E.@pl, 107935504:13)
+ben(301975448:0P.@entry, 104377057:1E.@pl)
+man(301975448:0P.@entry, 400535197:1M)
+man(301975448:0P.@entry, 400535197:1M)
+mod(104377057:1E.@pl, 113563522:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4227]
+{org:en}
+For all other types of systems of water supply, all components of water are treated as substances of the first type.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(200078760:25.@entry, 104504486:0G.@pl)
+mod(104377057:0P.@pl, 113563522:15)
+mod(103081021:1H.@topic.@pl, 107935504:1V)
+mod(100019613:2G.@pl, 104504486:34.@def)
+pur(200078760:25.@entry, 104504486:0G.@pl)
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+mod(100019613:2G.@pl, 104504486:34.@def)
+mod(104504486:0G.@pl, 300521584:06)
+gol(200078760:25.@entry, 100019613:2G.@pl)
+mod(104504486:0G.@pl, 104377057:0P.@pl)
+obj(200078760:25.@entry, 103081021:1H.@topic.@pl)
+mod(113563522:15, 107935504:10)
+obj(200078760:25.@entry, 103081021:1H.@topic.@pl)
+mod(113563522:15, 107935504:10)
+mod(103081021:1H.@topic.@pl, 300521584:1D)
+mod(104504486:34.@def, "1":2Y.@ordinal)
+mod(104504486:0G.@pl, 600000053:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4228]
+{org:en}
+Sampling and analysis for control of organic and inorganic compounds in potable water are carried out less frequently than for microbiological control.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:2K.@entry, :01:01)
+and:02(301679244:1F.@entry, 301093142:13)
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+man(202774207:2K.@entry, 400035058:31)
+aoj(303160899:22, 107935504:2A)
+man(202774207:2K.@entry, 400035058:31)
+aoj(303160899:22, 107935504:2A)
+pur(:01, 100803617:0S)
+aoj(303161141:3L, 100803617:41)
+aoj(:02, 103081859:1P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4229]
+{org:en}
+Especially thorough investigation of water quality is required in cases where water supply from novella new source begins, and immediately after any major change in purification technology.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774169:1K.@entry, 400535221:02)
+obj(600000002:3V, 100191142:4B)
+obj(200348746:33, 113563522:2F)
+obj(100633864:0M.@topic, 104723816:19)
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+mod(100191142:4B, 301471002:45)
+man(202774169:1K.@entry, 400535221:02)
+obj(600000002:3V, 100191142:4B)
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+mod(100191142:4B, 301471002:45)
+aoj(300024996:2S, 104263614:2W)
+man(202774169:1K.@entry, 600000002:3V)
+mod(100191142:4B, 600000052:41)
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+mod(104723816:19, 107935504:13)
+obj(202774169:1K.@entry, 100633864:0M.@topic)
+plc(100191142:4B, 100949619:4Y)
+obj(202774169:1K.@entry, 100633864:0M.@topic)
+plc(100191142:4B, 100949619:4Y)
+frm(113563522:2F, 104263614:2W)
+aoj(300311505:0D, 100633864:0M.@topic)
+plc(200348746:33, 102974697:1Y.@pl)
+mod(100949619:4Y, 100252894:4L)
+man(600000002:3V, 400048739:3J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4230]
+{org:en}
+The frequency of analyses of samples is determined by local conditions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:16.@entry, 113598237:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(113598237:06.@topic.@def, 100634276:0J.@pl)
+obj(200699815:16.@entry, 113598237:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(113598237:06.@topic.@def, 100634276:0J.@pl)
+aoj(301106405:1K, 105798863:1Q.@pl)
+aoj(200699815:16.@entry, 105798863:1Q.@pl)
+aoj(200699815:16.@entry, 105798863:1Q.@pl)
+obj(100634276:0J.@pl, 105821775:0V.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4231]
+{org:en}
+In addition, it is important to know about any changes in the catchments area.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(301275562:0L.@entry, 400535244:02)
+mod(102735688:26.@def, 102983357:1V.@pl)
+obj(100191142:1D.@pl, 102735688:26.@def)
+man(301275562:0L.@entry, 400535244:02)
+mod(102735688:26.@def, 102983357:1V.@pl)
+obj(100191142:1D.@pl, 102735688:26.@def)
+obj(200594337:0Y, 100191142:1D.@pl)
+aoj(301275562:0L.@entry, 200594337:0Y)
+aoj(301275562:0L.@entry, 200594337:0Y)
+mod(100191142:1D.@pl, 600000052:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4232]
+{org:en}
+This information can be utilized for prognosis of possible pollution, and as a consequence for the requirement of more frequent sampling for particular compounds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200161872:0Q.@entry.@ability, 105091527:07.@topic)
+man(300486990:3D, 400099341:38)
+obj(600000032:24, 105170574:29.@indef)
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+obj(200161872:0Q.@entry.@ability, 105091527:07.@topic)
+man(300486990:3D, 400099341:38)
+obj(600000032:24, 105170574:29.@indef)
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+pur(200161872:0Q.@entry.@ability, 100153665:13)
+mod(105091527:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(115669633:2T.@def, 100161888:3M)
+man(200161872:0Q.@entry.@ability, 600000032:24)
+mod(103081859:4A.@pl, 300311044:3Z)
+man(200161872:0Q.@entry.@ability, 600000032:24)
+mod(103081859:4A.@pl, 300311044:3Z)
+obj(105170574:29.@indef, 115669633:2T.@def)
+aoj(301821266:1G, 114516743:1P)
+aoj(300486990:3D, 100161888:3M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4233]
+{org:en}
+Sampling points should be chosen taking into account local specific conditions concerning particular problems, water sources, and the distribution system.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200674607:0S.@entry.@should, 103974215:0B.@topic.@pl)
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+aoj(600000182:29, 105798863:1Y.@pl)
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+obj(202774261:16.@progress, 105798863:1Y.@pl)
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+and:01(104263614:3A.@pl.@def, 105687338:2V.@pl.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4234]
+{org:en}
+It is sufficient to take samples only from water entering the system for substances of type 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302335828:08.@entry, 200523095:0M)
+obj(201082606:1F.@progress, 104377057:1S.@def)
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+pur(104377057:1S.@def, 100019613:23.@pl)
+agt(201082606:1F.@progress, 107935504:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4235]
+{org:en}
+Concentrations of substances of the type 2 can change between the sites of water supply and the consumers' taps.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100375071:02.@entry.@pl, 100019613:0K.@pl)
+mod(108622950:1W.@def.@pl, :01)
+man(200109660:1D.@entry.@ability, 600000010:1K)
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+mod(108622950:1W.@def.@pl, :01)
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+obj(600000010:1K, 108622950:1W.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4236]
+{org:en}
+Many interconnected processes can proceed, such as pipeline corrosion, scale deposit formation, reaction between water components, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200341560:10.@entry.@ability, 100029677:0M.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(100372448:27, 101902877:21)
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+and:01(100202816:2Q, 100925207:2F)
+mod:01(100925207:2F, 100372448:27)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4237]
+{org:en}
+These processes determine the necessity of sampling directly from consumers' taps.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200699815:0I.@entry, 100029677:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100125436:27.@pl, 109612848:1W)
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+obj(109367203:0W.@def, 201195299:19.@progress)
+obj(200699815:0I.@entry, 109367203:0W.@def)
+obj(200699815:0I.@entry, 109367203:0W.@def)
+mod(100029677:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+man(201195299:19.@progress, 400051848:1I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4238]
+{org:en}
+Such samples are taking from taps chosen at random and from taps chosen systematically, taking into consideration the factors affecting the substance of interest.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200523095:0J.@entry, 105821775:07.@topic.@pl)
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+man(200674607:1X, 400120474:24)
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+src(200674607:12, 100125436:1S.@pl)
+agt(200019448:3Q.@progress, 105858317:3I.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4239]
+{org:en}
+The character and scale of the quality variations and the target aims of the monitoring determine which of these approaches (or a combination) is most suitable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:2I.@entry, 301020885:49)
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+{org:en}
+Analysis of water entering the supply system usually provides a suitable basis for monitoring of substances of type 1.
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+The main factors that determine the time and frequency of sampling are the concentrations of the substance under investigation and the capability of purifying the water with regard to this component.
+{/org}
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+Many processes affect the concentration of substance of type 2.
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+This is why there are complex chaotic fluctuations in their concentrations over time.
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+[S:4244]
+{org:en}
+Every case requires special investigation (substance, distribution system, necessity of information).
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+[S:4245]
+{org:en}
+The purposes of monitoring have a big effect on the timing of sampling.
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+[S:4246]
+{org:en}
+The place of sampling must also be carefully chosen, along with the time, because there are limitations on the number of samples that can be treated and analyzed.
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+[S:4247]
+{org:en}
+Detailed recommendations on sampling methods for various water sources and distribution systems, as well as from water supply and taps are giving in Volume 3 of the WHO Manual.
+{/org}
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+[S:4248]
+{org:en}
+When the sampling is carrying out, it is usually performed in correspondence with international standards on water quality (Table 2) and Article 6 of EC Directive 98/83.
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+
+[S:4249]
+{org:en}
+Table 3 represents data on the minimum frequency of sampling of potable water from the distribution system, as recommended by WHO.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Table 2
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+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "2":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:4251]
+{org:en}
+ISO standards on water quality, with recommendations on water sampling.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Table 3
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+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "3":08)
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+[S:4253]
+{org:en}
+Minimum frequency of sampling of potable water from the distribution network.
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+{/unl}
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+[S:4254]
+{org:en}
+Inspecting monitoring
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+
+[S:4255]
+{org:en}
+The purpose of inspecting monitoring is to provide information about organoleptic and microbiological quality of the water supplied to consumers, and information on the efficiency of water treatment (in particular, disinfection), where it is carried out.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+The purpose of the inspecting monitoring is to determine whether the water intended for human consumption corresponds to the characteristic values conditioned by corresponding standards.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4257]
+{org:en}
+The following characteristics are main subjects of the inspecting monitoring
+{/org}
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+mod(104731497:0G.@topic.@def.@pl, 300127815:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4258]
+{org:en}
+aluminum content (determined when flocculants are used)
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:01(201158572:1G, 115690313:10.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:4259]
+{org:en}
+ammonia content
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+Clostridium perpringens HTM1 content (if the water is from a surface source or is influenced by surface water)
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+All the staff should be completely informed about them.
+{/org}
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+A novel solution of these problems is formation of an information system for control, with utilization of databases and expert systems.
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+The formation of databases includes a series of stages beginning with problem formulation based on examination of the object of control, up to development of the database structure and composition.
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+The form of data collection and data presentation, and exploitation instructions should be elaborated.
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+Such systems provide for collection and treatment of current information from the water preparing stations and networks, and statistical analysis of information.
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+The ability for correction of the composition and methods of collecting information should also be provided.
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+[S:4291]
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+Using special software, the operator can reveal the causes of changes in the controlled parameter of water in any point of the system.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4292]
+{org:en}
+Conclusions
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+{unl}
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+Problems of regional water consumption, regeneration and support of water resources have taken on great importance for most countries throughout the world.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4294]
+{org:en}
+It is necessary to use expensive and complex technology for preparing high quality potable water.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4295]
+{org:en}
+This is unavailable for some enterprises and countries.
+{/org}
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+Also, conventional technological processes of oxidation and adsorption do not provide the necessary effect of water purification from pesticides and dissolved or emulsified hydrocarbons.
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+[S:4297]
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+Consequently, care for pure water should also be directed at complete prevention of pollution of water sources, and not just on water purification.
+{/org}
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+[S:4298]
+{org:en}
+Solution of problems of regional use and protection of water resources, satisfaction of the needs of the Earth's population for potable water of adequate quality, and prevention of floods and extraordinary situations affecting water bodies, are vital areas of activity for governments, as well as scientific, social and economic organizations, if they are to achieve sustainable development of modern society.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4299]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02.@entry, 106396142:08.@pl)
+aoj(301971237:02.@entry, 106396142:08.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4300]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
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+{org:en}
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+[S:4306]
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+Turbidity
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+[/W]
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+Water quality
+{/org}
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+mod(104723816:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+mod(104723816:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:4321]
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+the characteristic of composition and properties of water that determine its suitability for particular kinds of use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104731497:06.@entry.@def, :01)
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+[S:4322]
+{org:en}
+WHO
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+[W]
+115669126:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4323]
+{org:en}
+World Health Organization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+108302724:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+108302724:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4324]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4325]
+{org:en}
+Frog B.H., and Levchenko A.P.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323201:0I.@entry, 500323217:02)
+and(500323201:0I.@entry, 500323217:02)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4326]
+{org:en}
+Water Preparing
+{/org}
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+obj(201754271:08.@progress.@entry, 107935504:02)
+obj(201754271:08.@progress.@entry, 107935504:02)
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+
+[S:4327]
+{org:en}
+Moscow, Stroiizdat
+{/org}
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+plc(500323924:0A.@entry, 500004288:02)
+plc(500323924:0A.@entry, 500004288:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4328]
+{org:en}
+The book contains concise information on the composition of the natural waters and methods of their quality assessment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:0B.@entry, 102870092:06.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(105660268:2D.@entry.@pl, 105146055:32)
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+aoj:01(301335708:1U, 115689188:22.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4329]
+{org:en}
+The regulations imposed by some water consumers are providing.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200406963:1I.@entry.@progress, 100805034:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+qua(109612848:14.@pl, 600000034:0T)
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+
+[S:4330]
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+The modern methods of water preparing, the most important technological layouts and water purification constructions are considering
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+and(200691312:3F.@entry, :01)
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+aoj:01(300414354:06, 105660268:0D.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4331]
+{org:en}
+Russian
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+109728403:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+109728403:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4332]
+{org:en}
+Fomin G.S.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323103:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323103:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4333]
+{org:en}
+Encyclopedic Handbook
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300527744:02, 106421301:0F.@entry)
+aoj(300527744:02, 106421301:0F.@entry)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:4334]
+{org:en}
+Water
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+107935504:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+107935504:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4335]
+{org:en}
+Control of Chemical, Bacterial, and Radiation Safety according International Standards
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100803617:05.@entry, 100188620:1F)
+obj(600000111:1M, 104301140:2D.@pl)
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+and:01(302833544:0Q, 302692624:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4336]
+{org:en}
+in Russian
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000051:0H, :0G.@entry)
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+obj(600000051:0H, 109728403:05)
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+
+[S:4337]
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+Moscow, Protector
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+mod(500004288:02.@entry, 115669784:0A)
+mod(500004288:02.@entry, 115669784:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4338]
+{org:en}
+624 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(115669681:06.@entry, "624":02)
+qua(115669681:06.@entry, "624":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4339]
+{org:en}
+This Encyclopedic Handbook contains guidelines on the application of the international standards in the field of water quality control
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:0T.@entry, 106421301:0K.@topic)
+aoj(300527744:07, 106421301:0K.@topic)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4340]
+{org:en}
+Russian
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+109728403:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+109728403:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4341]
+{org:en}
+WHO
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115669126:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115669126:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4342]
+{org:en}
+Manual for Quality Control of Potable Water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(106421685:02.@entry, 100803617:0L)
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+obj(100803617:0L, 107935504:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4343]
+{org:en}
+Vols. 1 - 3
+{/org}
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+mod(115689976:02.@entry.@pl, "1-3":08)
+mod(115689976:02.@entry.@pl, "1-3":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4344]
+{org:en}
+Geneva
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+[W]
+500004419:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500004419:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4345]
+{org:en}
+(1993) and (1994).
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+This document contains the recommended values for various components of drinking water adopted by World Health Organization together with the information necessary for substantiating these values
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+Directive of European Community Council on the Water Quality of Intended for Human Consumption
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+This document contains the requirements and established values applied for the water intended for human consumption in the countries of the European Community
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+[S:4349]
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+On the drinking water in the USA
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+[S:4350]
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+A review of problems concerned with providing required drinking water quality in the USA, taking into account the legal amendments
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+[S:4351]
+{org:en}
+Water
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+[W]
+107935504:02.@entry
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4352]
+{org:en}
+Ecology and Technology
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100949619:0E.@entry, 106070929:02)
+and(100949619:0E.@entry, 106070929:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4353]
+{org:en}
+Proceeding of the International Congresses
+{/org}
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+[S:4354]
+{org:en}
+Moscow
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+[S:4355]
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+1994, 1996, 1998 and 2000.
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+[S:4356]
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+Abstract papers of the HTM1 International Congress are included
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+[S:4357]
+{org:en}
+Rakhmanin Yu.A., Mikhailova R.I., Cheskis A.B., and Rogovets A.I.
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+[S:4358]
+{org:en}
+Modern Criteria of Hygienic Estimation of the Good-Quality Potable Water
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+Hygiena and Sanitary.
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+The book contains the most important parameters and values of characteristics used for quality control of drinking water
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+{org:en}
+Russian
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+[W]
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:4362]
+{org:en}
+Rai A., Watchdog fight, Water and Waste Treat.
+{/org}
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+[S:4363]
+{org:en}
+Gr. Brit.
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:4364]
+{org:en}
+Vol. 36, no. 11, pp. 39 - 45.
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+[S:4365]
+{org:en}
+Discussion on the necessary strategy in achieving required water quality in the countries of EC and based on priority of quality over price.
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+The situation in the EC is discussed concerning the pressure from the Green Party to introduce more rigid standards of drinking water quality as a preventative measure against water pollution
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+[S:4367]
+{org:en}
+Sidorenko G.I. and Mozhaev E.A.
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+and(500323267:0L.@entry, 500323301:02)
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+[S:4368]
+{org:en}
+Problems of Water Hygiene abroad, Hygiene and Sanitary
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+[S:4369]
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+Moscow
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+[W]
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+no. 3, pp. 12 - 17.
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+Problems of investigations of the quality of underground and potable water as well as water from surface water basins are considered.
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+Hygienic assessments of chemical and bacterial water pollution are given, and problems of hygienic standardization and water pollution control in the research carried out in the foreign countries are discussed
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+[S:4373]
+{org:en}
+in Russian
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+[S:4374]
+{org:en}
+Galal-Gorchev H., Ozolins G., and Bonnefoy X.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:4375]
+{org:en}
+Revision of the WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:4376]
+{org:en}
+Ann. Inst. Super. Sanita
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:4377]
+{org:en}
+Vol. 29, pp. 335 - 345.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Information on assessment of microbiological water quality and development of procedure for assessment of risk from consumption of water of poor quality
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+[S:4379]
+{org:en}
+Packham R.F.
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+[S:4380]
+{org:en}
+Drinking Water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303155687:02, 107935504:0B.@entry)
+aoj(303155687:02, 107935504:0B.@entry)
+{/unl}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Future Quality requirements
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+mod(115669633:0H.@entry.@pl, 104723816:09)
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+
+[S:4382]
+{org:en}
+J. Inst. Water and Environ. Manag.
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+[S:4383]
+{org:en}
+Gr. Brit.
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+[W]
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+[/W]
+[W]
+500323828:02.@entry
+[/W]
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+{org:en}
+vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 532 - 538.
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+The Directive 80/778 EC. regulates the drinking water quality in the EC countries.
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+The maximum permissible concentrations of chemical and radioactive substances are established for these purposes.
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+
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+Microbiological characteristics of the water quality will be estimated by probabilities in future, using indicator microorganisms, because direct determination of pathogenic microorganisms requires too much time.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4391]
+{org:en}
+Mengho B.M.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323220:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323220:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4392]
+{org:en}
+Le probleme de l'approvisionnement et de la qualite de l'eau potable en milieu rural au Congo
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105687338:05.@entry.@def, :01)
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:4393]
+{org:en}
+Analyse de quelques cas, Rev. belge geogr.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua(102974697:0M, 600000034:0D)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:4394]
+{org:en}
+Vol. 117, nos. 1-2, pp. 69 - 74.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(115689976:02.@entry, "117":07)
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+mod(107205104:0C.@pl.@entry, "1-2":0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4395]
+{org:en}
+The quality of the potable water consumed in cities does not meet the WHO recommendations on practically all characteristics including microbiological ones.
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+{unl}
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+
+[S:4396]
+{org:en}
+This undoubtedly negatively affects the health of people.
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+
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+{org:en}
+The conclusion is derived that in this conditions it is hardly possible to achieve in the undeveloped countries of the Congo type the goals set up by the WHO program "Health for everybody by the year 2000"
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4398]
+{org:en}
+French
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+109732903:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+109732903:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4399]
+{org:en}
+Luke R.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323445:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323445:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4400]
+{org:en}
+European Community Standards for Backflow Protection?
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(104301140:0L.@entry.@pl, 100784755:18)
+mod(100784755:18, 107406350:0Z)
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+aoj(302968325:02, 104301140:0L.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4401]
+{org:en}
+Drink. Water and Backflow Prev.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4402]
+{org:en}
+Vol.10, no. 5, pp. 12 - 16.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115669681:0H.@entry, 107205104:0A)
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+The strategy of formulation of the new European standards is discussed.
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+Five categories of risk of potential pollution of potable water should be established as well as the requirements for equipment and other assemblies for protection of water distribution networks from penetration of polluted water.
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+It is emphasized that developed standards should provide established normal quality of potable water with the minimum of expense.
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+
+[S:4407]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{org:en}
+Ludmila A.Prilipko HTM1 is Chief of Department of All-Russia Scientific and Research Institute on standardization, Gosstandart of Russia.
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+Professor Prilipko's research and teaching interests are focused in a number of areas.
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+One is standardization, certification, metrology, management and control quality drinking water.
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+A second area is standardization and certification food products and food technology.
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+A third focus is designing (projection) technology processes and production in the food industry.
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+Her research laid the foundation for system certification on drinking water and equipment for water in Russia.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4414]
+{org:en}
+ETHICS AND SCIENCE
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105999797:0B.@entry, 106159473:00)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4415]
+{org:en}
+Ethics and Science
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105999797:0B.@entry, 106159473:00)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4416]
+{org:en}
+Koïchiro Matsuura
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323046:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4417]
+{org:en}
+Director-General of UNESCO
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(500323549:00.@entry, 500323519:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4418]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668697:00.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4419]
+{org:en}
+Ethics, moral, development, progress, science, technology, education, UNESCO
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:4420]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4421]
+{org:en}
+Ethics and Science
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105999797:0E.@entry, 106159473:03)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4422]
+{org:en}
+UNESCO as the World’s Forum for Ethics
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4423]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:00, 106396142:08.@pl.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4424]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
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+[W]
+106420781:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4425]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4426]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
+{/org}
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+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4427]
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+Ethics and Science
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+{unl}
+and(105999797:0E.@entry, 106159473:03)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4428]
+{org:en}
+From Harmony to Progress
+{/org}
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+fmt(100249501:0L.@entry, 104713118:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4429]
+{org:en}
+What force should future times represent in present times?
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+{org:en}
+Hans Jonas, HTM1 The Principle of Responsibility
+{/org}
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+Is science, applied or pure, ethically neutral?
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+{org:en}
+A blind force driven by its own momentum?
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+Bluntly put, the question is absurd.
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+Science is born of human minds, classifies observable facts of the surrounding universe according to human categories of thought, and its applications, wise or not so wise, are made to minister to strictly human needs.
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+Such needs have always included ethics.
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+Past civilizations did not separate "pure" science from so-called "moral" preoccupations.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4437]
+{org:en}
+Traditional spiritual leaders, in every land and age, sought to reconcile the cosmological representations and technical skills developed by their own particular culture, with the ethical values and ideal standards of behavior devised by that same culture.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4438]
+{org:en}
+Intellectual syntheses elaborated by the cultural elites of previous millennia, whether orally or in writing, expressed ideals of harmony, stability, even eternity, between human beings, their surrounding world, and the cosmic powers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4439]
+{org:en}
+Traditional ethical systems defined the proper place of human beings within a material environment perceived as basically unchanging (save in case of divine intervention).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4440]
+{org:en}
+Technical innovations were few, gradually introduced, and absorbed over generations.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4441]
+{org:en}
+Until only a few centuries ago, most human beings on this planet, for better or worse, expected to live out their lives in a world broadly similar to the one in which they were born—and drew up their moral codes accordingly.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4442]
+{org:en}
+No longer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+400031515:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4443]
+{org:en}
+The guiding ideal of "modernism," a planetary and accelerating cultural phenomenon, is not "stability" but relentless "change."
+{/org}
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+agt(201212230:04.@progress, 105923696:0C.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4444]
+{org:en}
+The initial impetus of modernism’s drive, from "stability" to "change," was sprung roughly a half-millennium ago by a peculiar twist taken by Western European cultural development (which itself, however, had borrowed heavily from the accumulated legacy both philosophical and technical of many rich civilizations on other continents).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4445]
+{org:en}
+Western European and then Euro-American global expansion certainly imparted a European cultural tinge to modernism’s first phases
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4446]
+{org:en}
+but as technical and scientific modernism spread, took root, and was first successfully appropriated by other civilizations (like Petrovian Russia, Meiji Japan, or Kemalist Turkey), a universal, science-oriented culture of modernism did fully emerge—albeit with precious local variations—by the early twentieth century.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4447]
+{org:en}
+Modernism’s impact over the last 200 years on the world’s traditional ethical systems has everywhere been profound, sometimes traumatic.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+The Twentieth Century Jolt
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+French biochemist and 1965 Nobel prizewinner François Jacob pointedly wrote in this regard, that the time when circumscribed issues were substituted for general ones is when modern science began.
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+Science at the Moral Crossroads
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+One of the most wrenching upheavals in twentieth-century science was moral.
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+Humanity’s demonstrated capacity to put its new tools to the most evil use—to dominate or kill—took on appalling proportions by the first half of the century, shattering complacent assumptions that scientific, technical, and ethical "progress" went naturally hand in hand.
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+{org:en}
+The twentieth century’s searing experiences have taught us the very worst that human beings are capable of inflicting upon one another, regardless of technical sophistication, when all ethical standards lapse.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:4480]
+{org:en}
+Since the mid-twentieth century, humans have faced an awesome realization.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4481]
+{org:en}
+We have multiplied technical means not only to cure more hitherto fatal illnesses (though tragically not yet all), convey ourselves farther in space, or speed our mail, but also to destroy ourselves and the planet we occupy.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4482]
+{org:en}
+We live from now on in moral awareness of our own power permanently to soil, or altogether to annihilate, our environment—and to abolish not only our own species, but every other living species as well.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:4483]
+{org:en}
+No previous group of human beings in history has ever wielded such power.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4484]
+{org:en}
+No traditional human civilization has ever thought it necessary to focus its main attention in the way that we must now, on issues of science and applied technology.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4485]
+{org:en}
+Nor were the ethical leaders of past centuries, guardians of the world’s great spiritual traditions, called upon to face quite the same the stark moral choices that we must urgently make today
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:4486]
+{org:en}
+to deal, that is, with natural surroundings no longer stable but in constant flux.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4487]
+{org:en}
+Hence the crucial issue before us today
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:4488]
+{org:en}
+to define the ethics of science and technology as the necessary moral guidelines of our age.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4489]
+{org:en}
+The Threat to our Planet
+{/org}
+{unl}
+to(106733476:09.@entry.@def, 109394007:0N)
+mod(109394007:0N, 600000005:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4490]
+{org:en}
+At the time of writing, fear of nuclear self-destruction has receded through what we hope will prove a durable thaw in international relations.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4491]
+{org:en}
+But this menace which darkened four previous decades has now given way to other perceived, and hardly less deadly, threats, at least over the long term
+{/org}
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+man(600000040:3W, 600000217:3N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4492]
+{org:en}
+such as rapid depletion of irreplaceable natural resources, extinction of whole animal species, irreversible pollution and degradation of the oceans, rivers, and inland seas, of the plant cover, and of our common biosphere, and finally, global warming as a consequence of our thoughtless emission into the atmosphere of the fossil fuels that we burn daily.
+{/org}
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+Desiccation of whole swathes of the planet’s surface, a dangerous rise in sea levels, and a permanent shred in our protective ozone layer, were some of the ominous warnings seriously repeated by many sober, scientifically fully qualified observers of human industry’s impact on nature as the twentieth century ended.
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+We know that our globe makes up a natural unit whose precious biodiversity ignores political frontiers.
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+But will leading industrial nations show the necessary self-restraint and mature responsibility to reduce looming perils to our environment over the coming decades?
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+Transcending immediate economic interests, ecology is really a HTM1 moral HTM2 option, one of HTM3 ethically HTM4 deciding what we wish to do to our earthly home, over the long run, with our knowledge and tools.
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+Hopes raised by the UN-hosted Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, then by the Kyoto Summit in 1997, were temporarily dashed when the Hague Summit in 2000 failed to yield a consensus of views among the great economic powers.
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+But other meetings will, of course, follow.
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+The search for a comprehensive solution to environmental threats will be pursued, because it must.
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+A growing number of citizens and leaders are realizing that the ethics of science is not only a moral imperative, but also one that addresses human survival.
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+The issue of global warming is truly becoming a question, not only of extra-human cosmic accident, but, to repeat, of human choice
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+hence of ethics.
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+Tinkering with the Alphabet-Blocks of Life
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+Eugenics is another case in point.
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+Breakthroughs triggered by rapidly developing disciplines like computer science, embryology, medically-aided procreation techniques, neuroscience, or robotics are opening up an entire new era of surgery.
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+Healthier babies are delivered every day thanks to our astounding new tinkering with the fundamentals of human biology.
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+We are now in a position to read the basic "alphabet-blocks" of life itself, as many scientists like to phrase it.
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+The imminent completion of human genome mapping makes hitherto undreamt-of therapies and preventions possible.
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+But is everything technically possible also morally admissible?
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+When recent experiments in cloning raised possibilities of application to humans, shock waves jolted the media and rocked public opinion.
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+[S:4511]
+{org:en}
+Governments have generally agreed not to authorize reproductive cloning for humans.
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+{org:en}
+But what about cloning for therapeutic purposes?
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+And will future medical or, indeed, political authorities always resist temptation to manipulate genetics in order to produce the "perfect child"?
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+[S:4514]
+{org:en}
+Tomorrow is the proverbial looking-glass, through which we only see darkly
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+[S:4515]
+{org:en}
+will the ruling powers of an age to come, for benevolent or malevolent reasons, wish to twist the chemical make-up of human beings into serving their own purposes?
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+[S:4516]
+{org:en}
+The Asilomar meeting in 1975 was a milestone in the bioethics movement.
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+[S:4517]
+{org:en}
+For the first time, scientists publicly stated their awareness of the new powers and consequences of science, particularly in the area of genetics, in view of enhancing potential benefits for the human race, but controlling potential hazards.
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+[S:4518]
+{org:en}
+The Widening Gap Between Rich and Poor
+{/org}
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+[S:4519]
+{org:en}
+Another disturbing trend, one demanding both far-reaching ethical and soundly practical answers, is today’s widening technological gap
+{/org}
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+[S:4520]
+{org:en}
+between the Earth’s wealthier centers of scientific research and application, and vast poorer areas left painfully deprived of either.
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+{org:en}
+Whole human communities would suffer inadmissible loss of control over their own fate if allowed to fall yet farther behind the more favored lands in terms of access to scientific information, to vital medical services, or to the latest agricultural techniques.
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+{org:en}
+Biotechnology, for instance, offers revolutionary new crops that may certainly help humans overcome hunger and malnutrition forever.
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+
+[S:4523]
+{org:en}
+But how do we ensure that mass production of these same crops in the industrialized lands might not, at the same time, overwhelm the struggling farming economies of the developing countries, and increase their already crushing dependence for food on the scientifically so-called "developed" world?
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+While not strictly speaking a scientific issue in itself, but a question more generally related to the popularization of scientific knowledge, today’s widening educational divide between "rich" and "poor" raises an equally serious ethical problem.
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+[S:4525]
+{org:en}
+Before many of the world’s developing countries were even able to make good their serious deficit in books, schoolrooms, and other traditional educational facilities, the information revolution at the turn of this century multiplied the speed and spread of every kind of data through a truly planetary electronic network
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+
+[S:4526]
+{org:en}
+provided users were privileged enough to purchase, or be furnished with, all the necessary machinery.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:4527]
+{org:en}
+Computer screens deliver treasures of knowledge at a touch of the fingers, the literal meaning of "digital," thus hugely expanding the human mind’s reach and vastly extending our educational range.
+{/org}
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+[S:4528]
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+But those who enjoy no access to such tools, which still includes whole categories of the human family, are left entirely outside today’s cultural mainstream
+{/org}
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+[S:4529]
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+stranded, as it were, in an educational backwater.
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+[S:4530]
+{org:en}
+The very existence of harsh new catch phrases, like the current cliché that separates today’s "info-poor" from the "info-rich" on either side of a planetary "digital gap," points to growing and widespread public awareness of a serious educational imbalance both between, and within, the world’s various national communities.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4531]
+{org:en}
+For the bulk of the world’s population, in effect, science is a blind sphinx, distant and omnipotent, whose mysteries concern only the rich.
+{/org}
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+The planet can no longer remain split between the privileged and the excluded.
+{/org}
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+The latter are nine-tenths of the world’s population.
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+[S:4534]
+{org:en}
+Yet our planet’s common future is the same for all.
+{/org}
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+[S:4535]
+{org:en}
+If today’s technological acceleration is suffered to widen and worsen this already deplorable extant "gap," not only between the "info-poor" and "info-rich," but between the deprived and the wealthy in absolute terms, such a chasm could prove, in a foreseeable future, even more difficult (not to say despairingly impossible) to bridge, with possibly disastrous social consequences.
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+
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+{org:en}
+To allow our planet permanently to remain split between the haves and have-nots would be no real "progress" at all.
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+Here again, carefully defined moral and legal codes do offer humanity at least some safeguards against unwarranted scientific—and moral—deviations.
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+How we decide to direct our technical might is indeed an issue of sheer ethics
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+to be weighed anew, in light of both abiding cultural standards, and fresh cultural challenges.
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+For all our pride in our new learning and latest equipment, we are not really so different from every past generation of our species.
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+We, too, must mentally struggle to make meaning of our natural surroundings, and to take stock of our practical behavior within such surroundings, in terms of the values that we want to cherish, moral guidelines we wish to adopt, and ethical code by which we intend to live.
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+UNESCO as the World’s Forum for Ethics
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+As the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO is deeply committed to defend and promote universal human dignity within a dramatically changing world, while helping to raise the great moral questions and to define the ethical guidelines so keenly required, and so urgently needed to be recognized, by all peoples and lands.
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+UNESCO remains the world’s forum for earnest debate on these issues, at a time when the brunt of funding for scientific research in the universities and other centers of learning is visibly shifting from government support to backing by private enterprise.
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+Such a shift could result in a change of focus in scientific research itself if universities are increasingly invited to look for sponsorship from industry
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+or being told, indeed, that their research must be financially self-supporting.
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+In such disciplines as molecular biology or genetic engineering, much current research is already being underwritten by private firms
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+largely the pharmaceutical industry.
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+Such private sponsorship is dynamic, creative, and very welcome.
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+But financial profit, rather than intellectual advancement, can never become the sole major motivation for research.
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+The great moral options must be pondered and the ethical guidelines drawn, in view of the well-being of all the planet’s dwellers.
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+In the year 2000 alone, UNESCO initiated or participated in key meetings on issues like care for water resources, the ethics of space policies, or bioethics and the rights of the child, attended by the most eminent scholars, in various cities of the world.
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+How do we ensure that all countries, including the poorest, receive their due share from scientific developments which so far they cannot afford?
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+How do we encourage solidarity with the developing lands on the part of the wealthier nations, and common concern for saving this planet’s remaining biodiversity, in an age when a growing number of citizens and leaders now see the ethics of science as part of a collective logic of survival?
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+[S:4555]
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+Clearly the ethics of tomorrow must be taught to tomorrow’s young, but along which theoretical and practical lines, should we introduce the subject of such ethics in the world’s schools, while taking due account of the aspirations, structures and needs of different countries and cultures?
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+Preoccupation with the ethics of science can be the exclusive right of no single society, no particular mentality, since the concern is the world’s.
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+[S:4557]
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+Science and technology have made all lands interdependent.
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+[S:4558]
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+Joint, unselfish action is called for to enable vital ideas like these to take lasting root, as the responsibility not only of decision-makers, also of every individual citizen.
+{/org}
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+[S:4559]
+{org:en}
+The International Bioethics Committee
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+In 1993, UNESCO established the International Bioethics Committee (IBC), which now includes thirty-six members from all regions of the world, who sit in their personal capacity, and represent all fields concerned by bioethics
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+among which are biology, medicine, law, philosophy, sociology, and anthropology.
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+In parallel, an Intergovernmental Bioethics Committee (IGBC), made up of representatives of thirty-six Member States elected by the General Conference of UNESCO, was inaugurated in 1998.
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+The International Bioethics Committee meets annually, and the Intergovernmental Bioethics Committee every two years.
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+When entrusted with preparing an international legal instrument on the human genome, the IBC chose a two-pronged strategy.
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+In this regard, the Committee examined the ethical and legal issues of genetic screening and testing, genetic counseling, confidentiality of genetic data, gene therapy, access to experimental treatment, population genetics, development of plant and animal biotechnologies, and neurosciences.
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+The Human Genome and Human Rights
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+As adopted by the UNESCO General Conference in 1997, the Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights became the first universal legal instrument in the field of biology, medicine, and genetics.
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+In endorsing this Declaration in 1998, the United Nations General Assembly recognized the importance of formulating ethical principles regarding the application of science to human beings, and so acted well in advance of the explosion in human genetics and resulting debates and controversies.
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+The UNESCO Declaration brought key focus to bear on recognition of universal human dignity as the absolute moral imperative to preserve, in all research and applied technology regarding the human genome.
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+To quote the Declaration’s first article on Human Dignity and the Human Genome
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+the human genome underlies the fundamental unity of all members of the human family, as well as the recognition of their inherent dignity and diversity.
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+UNESCO’s establishment in 1998 of the World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology (COMEST), chaired by H. E. Ms Vigdis Finnbogadottir, President of the Republic of Iceland from 1980 to 1996, was a further milestone in the elaboration of a co-ordinated global response to the critical challenges of our day.
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+COMEST began by focusing attention on the policies of energy, of outer space, and of the information society, among other fields—and perhaps most notably, on the issue of water.
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+Water for All
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+In the lands of the North and South alike, and among governmental and non-governmental international organizations, concern for freshwater has produced an unprecedented flowering, as it were, of economic, technical, industrial, social, legal, and cultural initiatives.
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+{org:en}
+Given the rate at which human consumption is depleting age-old freshwater reserves, modern science and technology must develop alternative solutions.
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+{org:en}
+In this regard, current research to develop comprehensive technologies, at reduced cost, to reprocess wastewaters or to desalinate seawater, for example, holds out excellent medium-term prospects.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The availability of freshwater for all as a fundamental right depends upon such factors as distribution, quality, and the exploitation of extant resources whether on the surface or below ground.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:4598]
+{org:en}
+Taking into consideration population growth, technological advances, industrial pollution, the diversification of consumption, and today’s various new political orders, the question of how to allocate such water resources is now arising on a planetary scale.
+{/org}
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+[S:4599]
+{org:en}
+Where access to water is concerned, different concerns narrowly mingle
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4600]
+{org:en}
+the "hard" sciences, the social sciences, applied technology, and the viewpoints of such sectors as industry, agriculture, tourism, and health.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4601]
+{org:en}
+The whole complex issue of water is at once interdisciplinary, universal, and vital, literally overflowing all geographical boundaries.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:4602]
+{org:en}
+As stressed at the Second World Water Forum held at The Hague in March 2000, we have no time to lose in finding equitable solutions together, if we wish to bequeath to future generations an intact resource so essential to life.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4603]
+{org:en}
+The ethical requirement here involves courage and lucidity, no less than knowledge.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4604]
+{org:en}
+Sources of Energy for Today and Tomorrow
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+But matters are no simpler regarding other sources of energy to be harnessed, transformed, and used by individuals and communities.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Three energy sources are normally distinguished
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+{org:en}
+fossil fuels, nuclear power, and renewable sources.
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+{org:en}
+To these may be added geothermal energy.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+Special attention remains focused on electricity, for all practical purposes the most convenient secondary form of energy
+{/org}
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+[/S]
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+[S:4610]
+{org:en}
+that is, energy produced from another source.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Each of these sources combines advantages and drawbacks.
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+Fossil fuels account for approximately 75 percent of primary energy
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+they are relatively easy to exploit
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+hence their cost is relatively modest.
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+However, they contribute to build up carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and their deposits will become ever scarcer.
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+{org:en}
+Nuclear power (which represents less than 10 percent of total energy supplies) does not add to the atmosphere’s carbon dioxide content
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+its unit cost is low
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+{org:en}
+As regards renewable energy sources (over 15 percent of all energy), these do not pollute the atmosphere
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+but they are not all environment-friendly in other respects
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+and the cost of their exploitation will remain relatively high for some time to come.
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+What then to do?
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+Without any doubt, we should be directing efforts primarily towards a strategy of energy management that pays careful regard to the long term, or what has come to be known as "sustainable development."
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+[S:4624]
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+Current techniques to tap the planet’s resources should be used with a cautious eye to the welfare, not only of today’s generation, but of future generations as well.
+{/org}
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+[S:4625]
+{org:en}
+In terms of practical action, such considerations must draw in turn on two major ethical principles
+{/org}
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+the principle of equity, according to which each individual or each community is entitled to suitable energy resources
+{/org}
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+[S:4627]
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+and the precautionary principle, which emphasizes close monitoring of those systems—whether technological, economic, or ecological—that closely depend upon, or are related to, such energy sources.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4628]
+{org:en}
+Principle to Practice
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(105872477:07.@entry, 202561332:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4629]
+{org:en}
+An Education in Ethics
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(100611433:0X.@indef.@entry, 106159473:1A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4630]
+{org:en}
+For principle to become actual practice, that is, for an ethics of science to acquire meaningful reality in today’s societies, requires open and informed debate.
+{/org}
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+[S:4631]
+{org:en}
+The general public must enjoy access to information of high quality regarding science’s most recent advances and pertinent applications, together with clear, objective presentations of possible social impacts.
+{/org}
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+Only a duly informed population can contribute to solid debate on such issues, and help decision-makers take legal or otherwise relevant action.
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+Further training programs for scientific mediators or moderators, and more topical debates or ad hoc forums attended by scientists, laymen and decision-makers alike, could thus certainly help enhance public awareness and understanding of the issues.
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+But indispensable efforts to inform and instruct also require attention to the ethics of science, which might well become part of an essential formal education in citizenship itself.
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+One institution of higher learning that devotes considerable attention to these issues has been the Harvard Business School, which since the end of the 1980s has introduced a brilliantly successful experimental Program in Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Responsibility.
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+The final aims of the course are to raise awareness, among future business leaders, as to the extant hiatus between the special goals of industries and professional groups, and the concerns of society’s individual private citizens.
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+and to instill a sense of moral responsibility, among students, towards the environment, basic education and health care systems, and other major ethical problems involving society as a whole.
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+The Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Responsibility initiative at Harvard is only one example of what can be achieved today, through intelligent, creative teamwork, and profound moral commitment.
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+But far more could and should be done along such lines, and from the ground up.
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+of the notions of risk, or the principles of precaution, with regard to, say, food, or the environment
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+or of the nagging inequality in health conditions that persists between North and South.
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+The challenge of teaching ethics in schools could well be, creatively and vividly, to confront students with the varied moral problems raised by the latest technical breakthroughs or scientific discoveries
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+to help encourage active discussion among young people in learning precisely how to define a personal stand or a moral position when probing a given issue’s uncertainties and dilemmas
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+to develop a mature sense of relativity—as in having to find the least problematic outcome in a given case
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+and to heighten awareness of at least some of the moral ambivalence of science’s many new powers and gifts.
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+{org:en}
+For an Age of Wisdom
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+In a word, education in ethics is to prepare for the future we want, and for the world we choose.
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+We live in an age of scientific and technical revolution.
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+Writing in the immediate nineteenth-century aftermath of history’s earlier great political revolution, Dickens, in his novel HTM1 A Tale of Two Cities HTM2 , made the famous quip
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+
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+It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness.
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+Earth Summit
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:4696]
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+Barinaga, M. 2000.
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+Asilomar Revisited
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+HTM1 Science, HTM2 Vol. 287, No. 5458, pp. 1584–5.
+{/org}
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+Shockley on Eugenics and Race
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+[S:4703]
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+The Application of Science to the Solution of Human Problems
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+[W]
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+A guide for study on eugenics
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+[/W]
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+Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice
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+Adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO at its twentieth session, November 27.
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+Paris
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+[/W]
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+[/S]
+
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+Sociological Theories
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+Race and Colonialism
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+Mainly scientific works on the United Nations statements on race.
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+A good pedagogical start.
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+The Universal Declaration on The Human Genome and Human Rights
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+The UNESCO Courier.
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+The uncontested merit of this text resides in the balance it strikes between safeguarding respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms and the need to ensure freedom of research.
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+Mr Matsuura, born in Tokyo in 1937, has served as Japan’s Ambassador to France since 1994.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4724]
+{org:en}
+He also served as the Chairperson of UNESCO’s World Heritage Committee for the year ending November 1999.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4725]
+{org:en}
+FOOD AND WATER DEMAND AND SUPPLY IN 2025
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(:02.@entry, "2025":12)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4726]
+{org:en}
+FOOD AND WATER DEMAND AND SUPPLY IN 2025
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(:02.@entry, "2025":12)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4727]
+{org:en}
+Charlotte de Fraiture, David Molden, Upali Amarasinghe
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323490:13.@entry, 500323092:0P)
+and(500323092:0P, 500323241:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4728]
+{org:en}
+International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323601:02.@entry, 500003027:18)
+plc(500003027:18, 500003026:1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4729]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4730]
+{org:en}
+Water use, water use projections, PODIUM model, diet, efficiency in irrigation, productivity in agriculture
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(113824500:2A.@entry, 105644527:1K)
+mod(100947128:08, 107935504:02)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4731]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4732]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4733]
+{org:en}
+The PODIUM Model
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100898804:0D.@entry.@def, 103159640:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4734]
+{org:en}
+What we can do to Change Future Water Use
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4735]
+{org:en}
+Concluding Remarks
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301010271:02, 105710573:0D.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4736]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4737]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4738]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4739]
+{org:en}
+Summary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4740]
+{org:en}
+Water use projections indicate that in the year 2025 humans will need more than 22% more primary water than in 1995, equivalent to 2820 HTM1 to meet all agricultural, domestic, and industrial needs.
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+
+[S:4741]
+{org:en}
+In addition to using water more effectively, this projection indicates that mankind has to continue to place considerable financial resources into developing water resource infrastructure to store and divert water.
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+[S:4742]
+{org:en}
+Water use is a function of population, diets, domestic, and industrial needs, and how effectively water resources are used.
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:4743]
+{org:en}
+When will human society start to reach the limits of its renewable water resources?
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+What is the potential for reducing future requirements by improvements in managing water resources or changing consumption patterns?
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+
+[S:4745]
+{org:en}
+A base case scenario generated by the PODIUM model, representing a likely scenario of water resource use, was used to explore these and related water supply and demand questions.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4746]
+{org:en}
+Using PODIUM, it is estimated that in 1995, on a global average, a person requires 470 HTM1 of water per year.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:4747]
+{org:en}
+The base case scenario, using an assumed population growth of 33%, projects that by 2025 average annual water diversions amount to 450 HTM1.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:4748]
+{org:en}
+Additional scenarios, using the PODIUM base case as a reference, explored sensitivity in water supply to population, diets, efficiency in irrigation, and productivity in irrigated and rain-fed agriculture.
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+
+[S:4749]
+{org:en}
+It was shown that changing to a less meat-intensive diet could save some water, but it depends heavily on in which countries this change takes place.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Consuming more vegetables may offset gains made in consuming less meat.
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+There are gains to be made in water savings in agriculture, but these are far more limited in magnitude than commonly thought and do not go far beyond the base case scenario.
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+
+[S:4752]
+{org:en}
+It may not be environmentally prudent to increase efficiency in water use beyond the gains already shown in the PODIUM base case.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:4753]
+{org:en}
+Productivity gains in both irrigated and rain-fed agriculture certainly hold the most potential for reducing the need for additional water resources.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+But this will require significant changes in the way agriculture is carried out in developing countries.
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+
+[S:4755]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4756]
+{org:en}
+For millennia, humans have diverted water from its natural hydrologic course to meet basic human needs
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+{org:en}
+drinking, bathing, manufacturing, and food production.
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+[S:4758]
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+Except in the most arid areas, a major problem has been to develop more infrastructure for storing and diverting water to meet human needs.
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+[S:4759]
+{org:en}
+When will mankind start to reach the limits of its renewable water resources?
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+How much more infrastructure must be developed to exploit more water resources?
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4761]
+{org:en}
+What is the potential for improvements in managing water resources?
+{/org}
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+[S:4762]
+{org:en}
+Can humans change their habits to use a limited resource better?
+{/org}
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+[S:4763]
+{org:en}
+With more and more people facing water scarcity in cities and in agriculture, these are critical questions for the twenty-first century.
+{/org}
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+[S:4764]
+{org:en}
+To explore these questions, the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) developed a Policy Dialogue Model (PODIUM) to help global communities and nations understand key relationships between human water needs, water availability and water use.
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+{/unl}
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+[S:4765]
+{org:en}
+The model was used extensively to facilitate understanding and promote discussions and consultations meetings leading to the 2000 World Water Forum.
+{/org}
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+[S:4766]
+{org:en}
+This paper describes key results from the PODIUM modeling exercise.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+It explores the relationship between global water use and key variables of population, diets, irrigated versus rain-fed agriculture, and productivity of water.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+In this way the effect of the most important water-related choices needing to be made in the near future can be understood.
+{/org}
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+tim(200012267:2B, 103408721:2S.@def)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4769]
+{org:en}
+The PODIUM Model
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100898804:0D.@entry.@def, 103159640:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4770]
+{org:en}
+Model Description
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105840076:08.@entry, 100898804:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4771]
+{org:en}
+The most important aspect of PODIUM is that it projects HTM1 what can happen HTM2 as opposed to HTM3 what will happen HTM4.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:4772]
+{org:en}
+A wide variety of variables can be changed that have a major impact on water use and food production.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4773]
+{org:en}
+It allows exploration of various key policy options that will have a major impact in this century.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4774]
+{org:en}
+PODIUM is run on a national scale, and then results are compiled on a global scale to obtain a worldwide picture of water use and food production.
+{/org}
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+mod(100522736:3T, :01)
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+
+[S:4775]
+{org:en}
+Computations are done in four steps (Figure 1).
+{/org}
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+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+The first estimates food grain requirements based on assumptions concerning population growth, calorie intake, and composition of diets.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Second, food production is estimated based on expected yields and cultivated area under both irrigated and rain-fed conditions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
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+The projected production is then compared to the required production and country-wide surplus and deficit of food grains is estimated.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+The third module estimates future water requirements by considering domestic, industrial, and agricultural needs.
+{/org}
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+Projected food production by irrigated agriculture is converted into water requirements.
+{/org}
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+
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+Finally, food production is compared to demand, then future water requirements compared to availability of water, to obtain an indication of water scarcity.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:4782]
+{org:en}
+Figure 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "1":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4783]
+{org:en}
+PODIUM Model Variables
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100898804:09, 103159640:02)
+{/unl}
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+It should be emphasized that reliable data on key factors in global water and food supply are lacking.
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+Consequently, assessments of the water use situation and projections for the future involve a large amount of uncertainty.
+{/org}
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+There are large gaps in knowledge about water resources, water use, and irrigated areas.
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+[S:4787]
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+Thus, there is an urgent need for more accurate data.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+The figures used in the PODIUM model are based on published data sets, supplemented by "best estimates" by IWMI scientists and national collaborators working in the different countries.
+{/org}
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+agt(200150096:4L.@progress, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4789]
+{org:en}
+The Base Case Scenario
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301117362:06, 106756111:0G.@entry.@def)
+mod(106756111:0G.@entry.@def, 102974697:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4790]
+{org:en}
+One of the scenarios that is formulated using the PODIUM model is the HTM1 IWMI Base Case HTM2 scenario.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(201633173:0Y, 201158572:19.@progress)
+pof(600000027:05, 106756111:0G.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4791]
+{org:en}
+This scenario describes a future based on present trends, and a fairly optimistic view of the ability to adjust to problems and crises.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj:02(302351064:12, 103408721:0V.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4792]
+{org:en}
+This base case will be used to focus the discussion in this article, and act as a baseline to compare sensitivity to various parameters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:01(200314272:0X, 107138085:17.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4793]
+{org:en}
+Within an overall framework of social, technical, and economic feasibility, it relies on substantial investments and changes in policies, institutions, and management systems to realize four major objectives
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774350:22.@entry, 600000042:02)
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+mod:03(103838298:5C.@pl, 301471002:56)
+and:03(104377057:4I.@entry.@pl, 103574555:3P.@pl)
+mod:03(103838298:5C.@pl, 301471002:56)
+and:03(104377057:4I.@entry.@pl, 103574555:3P.@pl)
+and:01(300840212:1D.@entry, 300484070:0Y)
+aoj(300625393:2C, :02)
+mod(103391770:0D.@indef, 105152364:1M)
+obj:03(201644746:4T, 103838298:5C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4794]
+{org:en}
+Achieve an adequate level of per capita food consumption, partly through increased irrigation, to substantially reduce malnutrition and the most extreme forms of poverty.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(202526085:02.@entry, 200045817:36)
+obj(200045817:36, :01)
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+obj(202526085:02.@entry, 105093890:0M.@indef)
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+man(600000026:1V, 400535393:1O)
+man(202526085:02.@entry, 600000026:1V)
+man(200045817:36, 400379432:2S)
+mod(100356367:1B, 100021265:16)
+man(200045817:36, 400379432:2S)
+mod(100356367:1B, 100021265:16)
+aoj(300051045:0D, 105093890:0M.@indef)
+aoj:01(300446107:43, 103384535:4B.@pl)
+mod(100695448:2D, 300880207:23)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4795]
+{org:en}
+Provide sufficient water to the domestic and industrial sectors to meet basic needs and economic demands for water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(200406963:02.@entry, 201079480:1X)
+mod:02(109367991:28.@pl, 300026168:22)
+and:01(301188648:1B.@entry, 301036754:0Y)
+aoj(302335828:0A, 107935504:0L)
+pur:02(101061333:2R.@entry.@pl, 107935504:33)
+mod:02(109367991:28.@pl, 300026168:22)
+and:01(301188648:1B.@entry, 301036754:0Y)
+aoj(302335828:0A, 107935504:0L)
+pur:02(101061333:2R.@entry.@pl, 107935504:33)
+obj(200406963:02.@entry, 107935504:0L)
+and:02(101061333:2R.@entry.@pl, 109367991:28.@pl)
+gol(200406963:02.@entry, 104165551:1M.@def.@pl)
+obj(201079480:1X, :02)
+obj(201079480:1X, :02)
+aoj(:01, 104165551:1M.@def.@pl)
+mod:02(101061333:2R.@entry.@pl, 300840212:2I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4796]
+{org:en}
+Increase food security and rural income in countries where a large % age of poor people depend on agriculture for their livelihoods through agricultural development and protection from excessive (and often highly subsidized) agricultural imports.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:02.@entry, :03:03)
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+aoj:03(301128719:26, 107942152:2B)
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+aoj:03(301128719:26, 107942152:2B)
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+mod:03(115690536:3E.@pl, 600000041:38.@pl)
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+aoj:03(301533974:57, 103564667:6O.@pl)
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+man:02(202216710:5Z.@entry, 400089267:5S)
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+mod:03(104924103:1Z.@indef, 107942152:2B)
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+and:03(113255145:0Z.@entry, 100823316:0G)
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+tim:03(202663848:2I, 104924103:1Z.@indef)
+aoj:03(302790222:6B, 103564667:6O.@pl)
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+tim:03(202663848:2I, 104924103:1Z.@indef)
+aoj:03(302790222:3Y, :01)
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+obj:03(600000045:3Q, :01)
+mod:03(104924103:1Z.@indef, "%":1X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4797]
+{org:en}
+Introduce and enforce strong policies and programs to increase water quality and to support environmental uses of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(:01.@entry, :03:03)
+mod:03(104723816:1Z, 107935504:1T)
+and:03(201720773:2E.@entry, 200153263:1K)
+and:02(100551215:18.@entry.@pl, 105901508:0V.@pl)
+mod:03(100947128:30.@pl, 302943151:2M)
+mod:03(104723816:1Z, 107935504:1T)
+and:03(201720773:2E.@entry, 200153263:1K)
+and:02(100551215:18.@entry.@pl, 105901508:0V.@pl)
+mod:03(100947128:30.@pl, 302943151:2M)
+and:01(202560164:0G.@entry, 200706693:02)
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+obj(:01.@entry, :02:02)
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+obj:03(201720773:2E.@entry, 100947128:30.@pl)
+aoj:02(301068609:0O, 105901508:0V.@pl)
+obj:03(200153263:1K, 104723816:1Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4798]
+{org:en}
+The base case scenario relies largely on existing trends in population growth, dietary changes, growth in agricultural area, and agricultural production.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774350:0P.@entry, 106756111:0G.@topic.@def)
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+aoj:01(302790222:3X, 100522736:4A.@entry)
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+mod(106756111:0G.@topic.@def, 102974697:0B)
+aoj:01(302790222:36, 102735688:3J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4799]
+{org:en}
+A relatively high growth in yield is assumed for countries which have low productivity levels, while in other countries growth in production is assumed to be relatively lower.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200524682:13.@entry, 108438067:0K.@topic.@indef)
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+pur(200524682:42, 301206474:4R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4800]
+{org:en}
+Over-exploitation of water is limited to allow sufficient water for the environment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200235368:0W.@entry, 100418903:07.@topic)
+obj(100418903:07.@topic, 107935504:0N)
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+mod(100418903:07.@topic, 600001405:02)
+aoj(302335828:1D, 107935504:1O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4801]
+{org:en}
+Using these base case assumptions, PODIUM results indicate that
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200923793:1G.@entry, 201158572:02.@progress)
+aoj(301117362:0E, 100082870:0O.@pl)
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+aoj(301117362:0E, 100082870:0O.@pl)
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+mod(115698567:18.@topic.@pl, 103159640:11)
+aoj(200923793:1G.@entry, 115698567:18.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100082870:0O.@pl, 102974697:0J)
+mod(100082870:0O.@pl, 102974697:0J)
+mod(100082870:0O.@pl, 600000017:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4802]
+{org:en}
+To meet domestic, industrial, and agricultural demands, a growth in primary water supplies of 22% is required.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(202774169:2V.@entry, 201079480:05)
+obj(201079480:05, 101061333:1D.@pl)
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+aoj(:01, 101061333:1D.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 101061333:1D.@pl)
+mod(115669704:26.@pl, 300699521:1Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4803]
+{org:en}
+Total diversions to these sectors increases from 3195 to 4125 HTM1 , a growth of 29%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:10.@entry, 100350380:08.@topic.@pl)
+qua(100350380:08.@topic.@pl, 303160907:02)
+fmt:01("4125":1N.@entry, "3195":1F)
+obj(108438067:21.@indef, "29%":2B)
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+fmt:01("4125":1N.@entry, "3195":1F)
+obj(108438067:21.@indef, "29%":2B)
+qua(HTM1:1S, :01:01)
+aoj(108438067:21.@indef, HTM1:1S)
+gol(200153263:10.@entry, HTM1:1S)
+mod(104165551:0S.@pl, 600000017:0M)
+mod(104165551:0S.@pl, 600000017:0M)
+to(100350380:08.@topic.@pl, 104165551:0S.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4804]
+{org:en}
+One km3
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(115695498:06.@entry, "1":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4805]
+{org:en}
+liters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+113624190:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4806]
+{org:en}
+To give an idea of the order of magnitude, the High Aswan dam in Egypt, serving most of Egypt's agriculture, one of the biggest dams in the world, releases 55 HTM1 annually.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(201757994:4J.@entry, 200108604:08)
+mod(104698656:0S.@def, 105090441:11)
+obj(201077568:2C.@progress, 600000078:2K)
+mod(101323493:1Y.@topic.@def, 600000027:3D)
+aoj(300173391:3O, 101323493:3W.@def.@pl)
+obj(201757994:4J.@entry, HTM1:4V)
+pof(600000027:3D, 101323493:3W.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:1N, 101323493:1Y.@topic.@def)
+mod(104698656:0S.@def, 105090441:11)
+obj(201077568:2C.@progress, 600000078:2K)
+mod(101323493:1Y.@topic.@def, 600000027:3D)
+aoj(300173391:3O, 101323493:3W.@def.@pl)
+obj(201757994:4J.@entry, HTM1:4V)
+pof(600000027:3D, 101323493:3W.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:1N, 101323493:1Y.@topic.@def)
+mod(105833840:0G.@indef, 104698656:0S.@def)
+man(201757994:4J.@entry, 400081737:50)
+mod(108075287:30, 115690374:2S)
+plc(101323493:1Y.@topic.@def, 115690374:25)
+obj(200108604:08, 105833840:0G.@indef)
+agt(201757994:4J.@entry, 101323493:1Y.@topic.@def)
+mod(600000078:2K, 108075287:30)
+aoj(201077568:2C.@progress, 101323493:1Y.@topic.@def)
+mod(600000078:2K, 108075287:30)
+aoj(201077568:2C.@progress, 101323493:1Y.@topic.@def)
+man(300173391:3O, 400536271:6O)
+qua(HTM1:4V, "55":4S)
+plc(101323493:3W.@def.@pl, 105670972:48.@def)
+mod(101323493:1Y.@topic.@def, 500003804:1S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4807]
+{org:en}
+Primary water supply differs from total diversions in that it excludes the amount of water that is recycled.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202666239:0N.@entry, 115669704:0A.@topic)
+mod(115669704:0A.@topic, 300699521:02)
+plc(100350380:16.@pl, 600000030:1K)
+obj(201162425:2T, 107935504:2F)
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+plc(100350380:16.@pl, 600000030:1K)
+obj(201162425:2T, 107935504:2F)
+src(202666239:0N.@entry, 100350380:16.@pl)
+obj(200615774:1S, 107935504:2F)
+scn(202666239:0N.@entry, 200615774:1S)
+agt(200615774:1S, 600000016:1P.@topic)
+agt(200615774:1S, 600000016:1P.@topic)
+qua(100350380:16.@pl, 303160907:10)
+qua(107935504:2F, 100033615:25.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4808]
+{org:en}
+This shows the need to develop more water storage, diversion, and supply infrastructure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+and:01(113563522:1W.@entry, 100350380:1H)
+obj(200234057:0P, 103569964:23)
+mod:01(100811355:18, 107935504:12)
+and:01(113563522:1W.@entry, 100350380:1H)
+obj(200234057:0P, 103569964:23)
+mod:01(100811355:18, 107935504:12)
+pur(109367991:0H.@def, 200234057:0P)
+qua:01(100811355:18, 400099341:0X)
+obj(200923307:07.@entry, 109367991:0H.@def)
+and:01(100350380:1H, 100811355:18)
+and:01(100350380:1H, 100811355:18)
+mod(103569964:23, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4809]
+{org:en}
+The primary water supply of all countries is projected to increase by some 600 HTM1 , from 2225 HTM2 in 1995 to 2818 HTM3 in 2025, an increase of 22%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200706243:1B.@entry, 115669704:0E.@topic.@def)
+tim:01(HTM2:2T, "1995":31)
+aoj(HTM1:29, :01)
+mod(108168978:0Y.@pl, 300521584:0U)
+qua(HTM1:29, 600000034:20)
+obj(115669704:0E.@topic.@def, 108168978:0Y.@pl)
+tim:01(HTM3:3L.@entry, "2025":3T)
+tim:01(HTM2:2T, "1995":31)
+aoj(HTM1:29, :01)
+mod(108168978:0Y.@pl, 300521584:0U)
+qua(HTM1:29, 600000034:20)
+obj(115669704:0E.@topic.@def, 108168978:0Y.@pl)
+tim:01(HTM3:3L.@entry, "2025":3T)
+man(200153263:1O, HTM1:29)
+obj(100363260:46.@indef, "22%":4I)
+fmt:01(HTM3:3L.@entry, HTM2:2T)
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+qua:01(HTM2:2T, "2225":2O)
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+qua:01(HTM2:2T, "2225":2O)
+aoj(100363260:46.@indef, HTM1:29)
+qua(HTM1:29, "600":25)
+mod(115669704:0E.@topic.@def, 300699521:06)
+qua:01(HTM3:3L.@entry, "2818":3G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4810]
+{org:en}
+In this scenario irrigation is and will remain the biggest user of water, accounting for 69% of all diversions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(202637592:17.@entry.@will, 106756111:0D)
+mod(106756111:0D, 600000017:08)
+aoj(300173391:1I, 110741590:1Q.@def)
+gol(202637592:17.@entry.@will, 110741590:1Q.@def)
+mod("69%":2K, 100350380:2V.@pl)
+mod(106756111:0D, 600000017:08)
+aoj(300173391:1I, 110741590:1Q.@def)
+gol(202637592:17.@entry.@will, 110741590:1Q.@def)
+mod("69%":2K, 100350380:2V.@pl)
+man(202637592:17.@entry.@will, 200939621:25.@progress)
+obj(200939621:25.@progress, "69%":2K)
+obj(202637592:17.@entry.@will, 100695448:0Q.@topic)
+man(300173391:1I, 400536271:3V)
+man(300173391:1I, 400536271:3V)
+mod(110741590:1Q.@def, 107935504:1Y)
+mod(100350380:2V.@pl, 300521584:2R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4811]
+{org:en}
+However, irrigation is also the slowest growing sector, with primary diversions to it increasing by only 17%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(104165551:17.@entry.@def, 400027384:02)
+ins(200153263:29.@progress, "17%":2S)
+man(300980527:0Y, 400536271:33)
+man(104165551:17.@entry.@def, 400047534:0P)
+to(100350380:1S.@pl, 600000016:26)
+ins(200153263:29.@progress, "17%":2S)
+man(300980527:0Y, 400536271:33)
+man(104165551:17.@entry.@def, 400047534:0P)
+to(100350380:1S.@pl, 600000016:26)
+aoj(600000019:1F, 104165551:17.@entry.@def)
+obj(200153263:29.@progress, 100350380:1S.@pl)
+aoj(104165551:17.@entry.@def, 100695448:0B.@topic)
+mod("17%":2S, 303161004:2N)
+obj(600000019:1F, 100350380:1S.@pl)
+mod("17%":2S, 303161004:2N)
+obj(600000019:1F, 100350380:1S.@pl)
+aoj(300980527:0Y, 104165551:17.@entry.@def)
+mod(100350380:1S.@pl, 300699521:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4812]
+{org:en}
+Domestic use is the smallest user (11% of all diversions in 2025) but the most rapidly growing sector, with an increase of 84%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000019:2X, :02.@entry)
+mod:01("11%":11.@entry, 100350380:1C.@pl)
+man:02(400535713:29, 400536271:24)
+mod:02(104165551:2P.@entry.@contrast, 303070879:2H)
+obj(600000019:2X, 100363260:35.@indef)
+man:02(301391351:0M, 400536271:3X)
+mod:01("11%":11.@entry, 100350380:1C.@pl)
+man:02(400535713:29, 400536271:24)
+mod:02(104165551:2P.@entry.@contrast, 303070879:2H)
+obj(600000019:2X, 100363260:35.@indef)
+man:02(301391351:0M, 400536271:3X)
+and:02(104165551:2P.@entry.@contrast, 110741590:0V.@def.@contrast)
+mod(100947128:0B, 301036754:02)
+aoj:02(301391351:0M, 110741590:0V.@def)
+mod(:02.@entry, 100947128:0B)
+mod:01(100350380:1C.@pl, 300521584:18)
+cnt:02(110741590:0V.@def.@contrast, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(100350380:1C.@pl, 300521584:18)
+cnt:02(110741590:0V.@def.@contrast, :01.@parenthesis)
+man:02(303070879:2H, 400535713:29)
+obj(100363260:35.@indef, "84%":3H)
+tim:01("11%":11.@entry, "2025":1Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4813]
+{org:en}
+Industrial uses account for 22% of all diversions in 2025, growing 60% over the period 1995 to 2025.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200939621:0I.@entry, 100947128:0D.@pl)
+tim(106843520:2A.@def, :01:01)
+aoj(301188648:02, 100947128:0D.@pl)
+qua(100350380:15.@entry.@pl, "22%":0U)
+man(200094460:1P.@progress, 600000040:21)
+tim(106843520:2A.@def, :01:01)
+aoj(301188648:02, 100947128:0D.@pl)
+qua(100350380:15.@entry.@pl, "22%":0U)
+man(200094460:1P.@progress, 600000040:21)
+tim(200939621:0I.@entry, "2025":1J)
+man(200094460:1P.@progress, "60%":1X)
+obj(200939621:0I.@entry, "22%":0U)
+fmt:01("2025":2P.@entry, "1995":2H)
+man(301188648:02, 200094460:1P.@progress)
+fmt:01("2025":2P.@entry, "1995":2H)
+man(301188648:02, 200094460:1P.@progress)
+mod(100350380:15.@entry.@pl, 300521584:11)
+obj(600000040:21, 106843520:2A.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4814]
+{org:en}
+See Figure 3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200662589:02.@entry, 100556992:06)
+mod(100556992:06, "3":0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4815]
+{org:en}
+According to this scenario the irrigated area worldwide expands by 95 million hectares.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200257269:1M.@entry, 600000046:02)
+qua("1000000":20, "95":1X)
+man(200257269:1M.@entry, 400535386:1C)
+mod(106756111:0K, 600000017:0F)
+qua("1000000":20, "95":1X)
+man(200257269:1M.@entry, 400535386:1C)
+mod(106756111:0K, 600000017:0F)
+ins(200257269:1M.@entry, 113613985:28.@pl)
+obj(600000046:02, 106756111:0K)
+obj(200257269:1M.@entry, 102735688:17.@topic.@def)
+obj(200079951:0X.@past, 102735688:17.@topic.@def)
+obj(200079951:0X.@past, 102735688:17.@topic.@def)
+qua(113613985:28.@pl, "1000000":20)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4816]
+{org:en}
+Primary diversions to agriculture increase by 17% compared to the 29% increase in area, due to improvements in water use in agriculture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+to(100350380:0A.@entry.@pl, 100363260:10)
+obj(100248977:2P.@pl, 100947128:3B)
+gol(200652900:1G, 100363260:20.@def)
+mod(100363260:10, 108075287:0O)
+aoj(300137725:2I, 102735688:2C)
+obj(100248977:2P.@pl, 100947128:3B)
+gol(200652900:1G, 100363260:20.@def)
+mod(100363260:10, 108075287:0O)
+aoj(300137725:2I, 102735688:2C)
+ins(100363260:10, "17":1C)
+mod(100947128:3B, 107935504:35)
+mod(100363260:20.@def, "29%":1W)
+mod(100350380:0A.@entry.@pl, 300699521:02)
+scn(100947128:3B, 108075287:3I)
+obj(100363260:20.@def, 102735688:2C)
+scn(100947128:3B, 108075287:3I)
+obj(100363260:20.@def, 102735688:2C)
+obj(200652900:1G, "17":1C)
+obj(300137725:2I, 100248977:2P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4817]
+{org:en}
+The global average of irrigated cereal yield is projected to increase from 3.3 to 4.7 tons per hectare.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200706243:1E.@entry, 105856979:0D.@topic.@def)
+mod(104612722:15, 107702796:0Y)
+fmt:01("4.7":2C.@entry, "3.3":25)
+aoj(600000025:2L, 115668835:2G.@pl)
+aoj(301568684:06, 105856979:0D.@topic.@def)
+mod(104612722:15, 107702796:0Y)
+fmt:01("4.7":2C.@entry, "3.3":25)
+aoj(600000025:2L, 115668835:2G.@pl)
+aoj(301568684:06, 105856979:0D.@topic.@def)
+frm(100363260:1R, 115668835:2G.@pl)
+mod(105856979:0D.@topic.@def, 104612722:15)
+gol(200706243:1E.@entry, 100363260:1R)
+obj(600000025:2L, 113613985:2P)
+obj(600000025:2L, 113613985:2P)
+qua(115668835:2G.@pl, :01:01)
+obj(200079951:0O.@past, 104612722:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4818]
+{org:en}
+The base case scenario assumes that many high-income developing countries, such as Indonesia, India, and China, in their attempt for food self-sufficiency will increase agricultural production by expanding the area under cultivation with emphasis on irrigated agriculture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200524682:0P.@entry, 200153263:4L.@will)
+mod(108167046:1M.@topic.@pl, 113255145:1F)
+mod(102735688:5Z.@def, 600000009:64)
+man(200153263:4L.@will, 200257269:5L.@progress)
+mod(100786195:3I, 600000020:3C.@pl)
+scn(108167046:1M.@topic.@pl, 100786195:3I)
+mod(106756111:0G.@topic.@def, 102974697:0B)
+and:01(500003815:2R, 500003850:2G)
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+mod(102735688:5Z.@def, 600000009:64)
+man(200153263:4L.@will, 200257269:5L.@progress)
+mod(100786195:3I, 600000020:3C.@pl)
+scn(108167046:1M.@topic.@pl, 100786195:3I)
+mod(106756111:0G.@topic.@def, 102974697:0B)
+and:01(500003815:2R, 500003850:2G)
+obj(107102945:6R, 108075287:7D)
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+aoj(300705498:1A, 108167046:1M.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301117362:06, 106756111:0G.@topic.@def)
+and:01(103018209:32.@entry, 500003815:2R)
+obj(600000018:6M, 107102945:6R)
+aoj(302790222:4U, 100522736:57)
+mod(105112609:44, 302794670:3Z)
+qua(108167046:1M.@topic.@pl, 600000028:15)
+agt(200524682:0P.@entry, 106756111:0G.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000029:28, :01)
+obj(600000009:64, 100915722:6A)
+obj(200153263:4L.@will, 100522736:57)
+obj(600000029:28, :01)
+obj(600000009:64, 100915722:6A)
+obj(200153263:4L.@will, 100522736:57)
+mod(105112609:44, 100021265:3U)
+aoj(600000029:28, 108167046:1M.@topic.@pl)
+agt(200153263:4L.@will, 108167046:1M.@topic.@pl)
+pur(100786195:3I, 105112609:44)
+obj(200079951:73.@past, 108075287:7D)
+obj(200257269:5L.@progress, 102735688:5Z.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4819]
+{org:en}
+Low-income developing countries with rapid population growth will increasingly rely on food imports.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774350:29.@entry.@will, 108167046:0D.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303161574:02, 108167046:0D.@topic.@pl)
+mod(103564667:2M.@pl, 100021265:2H)
+mod(108438067:1K, 101257969:19)
+aoj(303161574:02, 108167046:0D.@topic.@pl)
+mod(103564667:2M.@pl, 100021265:2H)
+mod(108438067:1K, 101257969:19)
+man(202774350:29.@entry.@will, 400059854:1W)
+aoj(300979697:13, 108438067:1K)
+obj(202774350:29.@entry.@will, 103564667:2M.@pl)
+obj(600000019:0Y, 108438067:1K)
+obj(600000019:0Y, 108438067:1K)
+aoj(600000019:0Y, 108167046:0D.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4820]
+{org:en}
+Production from food exporting countries will be sufficient to meet the needs of increased cereal needs of food importers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161285:1F.@entry.@will, 100522736:02.@topic)
+obj(201379097:0N.@progress, 108168978:0X.@pl)
+mod(109367991:2S.@pl, 300880207:2B)
+obj(109367991:22.@def.@pl, 109367991:2S.@pl)
+frm(100522736:02.@topic, 108168978:0X.@pl)
+obj(201379097:0N.@progress, 108168978:0X.@pl)
+mod(109367991:2S.@pl, 300880207:2B)
+obj(109367991:22.@def.@pl, 109367991:2S.@pl)
+frm(100522736:02.@topic, 108168978:0X.@pl)
+obj(201079480:1T, 109367991:22.@def.@pl)
+mod(110201366:36.@pl, 100021265:31)
+obj(303161285:1F.@entry.@will, 201079480:1T)
+mod(109367991:2S.@pl, 107702796:2L)
+mod(109367991:2S.@pl, 107702796:2L)
+obj(109367991:2S.@pl, 110201366:36.@pl)
+mod(108168978:0X.@pl, 100021265:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4821]
+{org:en}
+Figure 2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "2":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4822]
+{org:en}
+Sectoral Water Demand in 1995 and 2025
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(101061333:0H.@entry, :01:01)
+and:01("2025":10.@entry, "1995":0R)
+and:01("2025":10.@entry, "1995":0R)
+mod(101061333:0H.@entry, 107935504:0B)
+aoj(303161593:02, 101061333:0H.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4823]
+{org:en}
+The base case scenario concludes that despite improvements in productivity and efficiency, water scarcity at the national level will exist, a situation which will need to be managed
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200715074:0P.@entry, 202603699:3U.@will)
+obj(600000083:17, 100248977:1F.@pl)
+aoj(202603699:3U.@will, 105116953:2U.@topic)
+mod(106756111:0G.@topic.@def, 102974697:0B)
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+mod(106756111:0G.@topic.@def, 102974697:0B)
+aoj(201189113:4O.@will, 113925752:43.@indef)
+mod(105116953:2U.@topic, 107935504:2O)
+aoj(301117362:06, 106756111:0G.@topic.@def)
+and:01(105644527:2C.@entry, 113824500:1V)
+plc(105116953:2U.@topic, 105093890:3J.@def)
+agt(200715074:0P.@entry, 106756111:0G.@topic.@def)
+obj(100248977:1F.@pl, :01:01)
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+obj(100248977:1F.@pl, :01:01)
+scn(202603699:3U.@will, 113925752:43)
+man(202603699:3U.@will, 600000083:17)
+obj(201189113:4O.@will, 202436349:4Z)
+mod(105093890:3J.@def, 301105840:3A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4824]
+{org:en}
+33% of the population of the 45 studied countries will live in HTM1 physical water scarce HTM2 areas.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4825]
+{org:en}
+Water limits these countries' ability to produce enough food after industrial and domestic consumption requirements are met.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(115669633:2X.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4826]
+{org:en}
+45% of the population will live in countries with substantially underdeveloped water resources, requiring development of 25% or more additional water supplies, in the form of small or large scale facilities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202614387:0T.@entry.@will, "45%":02.@topic)
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+or:02(303162656:56.@entry, 301391351:4X)
+obj(600000019:1B, 105154676:2F.@pl)
+obj(600000154:4I, 115689574:5I)
+obj(100250259:30, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4827]
+{org:en}
+The situation in these countries is termed HTM1 economic water scarcity HTM2 because of the need for substantial investments in financial resources to meet future needs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201029642:12.@entry, 113925752:06.@topic.@def)
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+obj(201079480:49, 109367991:4L.@pl)
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+pur(105154676:3W.@pl, 201079480:49)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4828]
+{org:en}
+22% of the population will live in countries, mainly developed countries, with little or no water scarcity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202614387:0T.@entry.@will, "22%":02.@topic)
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+or:01(600001330:2J.@entry, 600000177:29)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4829]
+{org:en}
+There is enough water available to meet basic human and environmental needs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, 107935504:0I)
+aoj(:01, 109367991:20.@pl)
+obj(300183053:0O, 201079480:11)
+aoj(:01, 109367991:20.@pl)
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+and:01(302943151:1M.@entry, 301258617:1C)
+obj(201079480:11, 109367991:20.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4830]
+{org:en}
+In total, 78% of the population will live in physical and economic water scarce areas in 2025.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202614387:13.@entry.@will, 400197275:02)
+aoj(300016756:23, 102735688:2A.@pl)
+plc(202614387:13.@entry.@will, 102735688:2A.@pl)
+qua(101257969:0N.@topic.@def, "78%":0C)
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+plc(202614387:13.@entry.@will, 102735688:2A.@pl)
+qua(101257969:0N.@topic.@def, "78%":0C)
+tim(202614387:13.@entry.@will, "2025":2J)
+and:01(300840212:1O.@entry, 300627004:1B)
+agt(202614387:13.@entry.@will, 101257969:0N.@topic.@def)
+obj(300016756:23, 107935504:1X)
+obj(300016756:23, 107935504:1X)
+mod(102735688:2A.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4831]
+{org:en}
+This does not mean that everyone in these countries will directly experience water scarcity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200708840:0G.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(105116953:2G, 107935504:2A)
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+mod(105116953:2G, 107935504:2A)
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+plc(600000577:0T.@topic, 108168978:1B.@pl)
+plc(600000577:0T.@topic, 108168978:1B.@pl)
+man(202108026:1Z.@will, 400051848:1Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4832]
+{org:en}
+As usual, the economically better off members of most countries will have enough water and food, while poor and disadvantaged people will suffer the major part of the burden.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(200065370:1Z.@entry.@will, 200065070:3W.@will)
+man(300067379:0T, 400099341:4U)
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+agt(200065070:3W.@will, 107942152:3K)
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+and:02(303163161:36.@entry, 301128719:2X)
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+qua(108168978:1K.@pl, 600000067:1F)
+mod(108170686:14.@topic.@def.@pl, 108168978:1K.@pl)
+qua(108168978:1K.@pl, 600000067:1F)
+mod(108170686:14.@topic.@def.@pl, 108168978:1K.@pl)
+aoj(:02, 107942152:3K)
+mod(:01, 600000275:24)
+mod(103892891:4D.@def, 105832745:4P.@def)
+man(300067379:0T, 400123229:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4833]
+{org:en}
+Figure 3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "3":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4834]
+{org:en}
+IWMI's Base Case Scenario Scarcity Map
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103720163:11.@entry, 500323561:02)
+mod(105116953:0S, 106756111:0J)
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+aoj(301117362:09, 103720163:11.@entry)
+mod(106756111:0J, 102974697:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4835]
+{org:en}
+According to the base case scenario all countries facing absolute water scarcity, except South Africa, will be forced to import a large % age of their cereal needs, mainly because of water scarcity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200747418:35.@entry.@will, 600000046:02)
+mod(109367991:4G.@pl, 107702796:49)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4836]
+{org:en}
+Countries that have to import more than ten % of their cereal consumption are considered as food importers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200691312:28.@entry, 108168978:02.@topic.@pl)
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+qua("%":1A, 400099341:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4837]
+{org:en}
+They are depicted as crosshatched in the map.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4838]
+{org:en}
+Many countries with economic scarce conditions will be food importers because they have not developed their utilizable water resources in the past, and will lack the financial capacity to do so in the near future.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4839]
+{org:en}
+These are mainly low-income developing countries in Africa and South-Asia.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(108167046:0U.@entry.@pl, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
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+and:01(115690876:1Z.@entry, 500005179:1I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4840]
+{org:en}
+The largest cereal exporters such as the US, Canada, and France, face no water scarcity because of exceptionally favorable conditions for rain-fed agriculture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200189511:41.@past, 108075287:45)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4841]
+{org:en}
+Some of the main importers without water scarcity problems, such as Japan, suffer from land constraints or choose to be importers because of comparative advantages in other non-agricultural sectors.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+or(200674607:3F.@entry, 200065070:2J)
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+{org:en}
+What can be done to Change Future Water Use
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+Main Driving Forces behind Changes in Agricultural Water Use
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+Some people consider the base case to under-estimate future development needs, and anticipate that future water demand will exceed the projected amount.
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+Others fear the adverse social and environmental impacts of increased irrigation development and claim that water demand for agriculture could instead be curtailed considerably if appropriate action is undertaken.
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+[S:4847]
+{org:en}
+The PODIUM model identifies population growth, diets, international trade, productivity in irrigated and rain-fed agriculture, and expansion of the irrigated area, as key drivers behind future water need in agriculture.
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+[S:4848]
+{org:en}
+On a world scale, water resources are sufficient to meet future demands.
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+{org:en}
+Some researchers suggest that the importance of food trade will increase as water becomes scarcer.
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+They argue that food produced in water-abundant areas should be exported to water-short areas.
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+For many developing countries the objective to reduce imports, and thus economic and political considerations, are more important.
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+In 1995 international trade accounted for 11% of the total cereal consumption by volume.
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+The IWMI base case scenario does not foresee drastic changes in this volume-it remains at 10%.
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+The trade issue is not further elaborated in this article.
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+The base case scenario emphasizes the need for expansion of irrigated areas and-to a lesser extent-improvements in productivity as a means to balance future food demand and supply.
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+Expansion of irrigated areas translates directly into the need for additional storing, transporting, and draining of water.
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+Not all the storage needs to be behind large dams
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+{org:en}
+groundwater storage and small reservoirs have advantages.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:17.@entry, :01)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4859]
+{org:en}
+Even very small technologies can play an important role in providing water access.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200406963:1P.@progress, 100281132:25)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:4860]
+{org:en}
+But all of these infrastructure development options carry economic, social, and environmental costs.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4861]
+{org:en}
+The question arises whether it will be possible to balance future food demand and supply without expanding the irrigated areas.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4862]
+{org:en}
+This section explores the scope and uncertainties associated with alternative options.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4863]
+{org:en}
+It raises issues for discussion and unanswered questions that merit more research and debate.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4864]
+{org:en}
+For the purpose of this analysis countries are sub-divided into three groups.
+{/org}
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+mod(105982152:0A.@def, 108168978:0Z.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4865]
+{org:en}
+The first group consists of developed countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4866]
+{org:en}
+The second group incorporates developing countries characterized by large irrigated areas
+{/org}
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+aoj(300527870:1Y, 102735688:2E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4867]
+{org:en}
+the contribution of irrigated agriculture to total cereal production in these countries is greater than the world's average of 43%.
+{/org}
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+qua(100522736:1O, 303160907:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4868]
+{org:en}
+The production of cereals in the third group of developing countries mainly originates from rain-fed agriculture and irrigated agriculture is relatively less important.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(301275562:4N.@entry, 201628449:26)
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+obj(201628449:26, 100522736:06.@topic.@def)
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+man(201628449:26, 400535216:1Z)
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+obj(200079951:3I.@past, 108075287:3S.@topic)
+agt(200189511:2U.@past, 105045208:2P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4869]
+{org:en}
+Details are given in Table 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200108604:0E.@entry, 105817845:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104379243:0N, "1":0T)
+plc(200108604:0E.@entry, 104379243:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4870]
+{org:en}
+Table 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "1":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4871]
+{org:en}
+Salient features country groups
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100031264:0R.@entry.@pl, 103325769:0A.@pl)
+aoj(301235439:02, 103325769:0A.@pl)
+mod(100031264:0R.@entry.@pl, 108168978:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4872]
+{org:en}
+Population
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+101257969:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4873]
+{org:en}
+What will the population be in 2025 and what does this mean for water demand?
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(101061333:20, 107935504:1U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4874]
+{org:en}
+The most commonly used population projections are those published by the United Nations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000030:1G.@entry.@pl, 104008947:10.@topic.@pl)
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+man(400516615:0B, 400536271:06)
+mod(104008947:10.@topic.@pl, 101257969:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4875]
+{org:en}
+The UN distinguishes three projections
+{/org}
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+qua(104008947:0T.@pl, "3":0N)
+obj(200650353:09.@entry, 104008947:0T.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4876]
+{org:en}
+low, medium, and high.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300705498:0J.@entry, 300617752:07)
+and(300617752:07, 301206474:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4877]
+{org:en}
+The high projection is viewed as the most unlikely of the three, while the medium projection is generally regarded as the most likely one.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(202130300:0P.@entry, 202133185:30)
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+man(202133185:30, 600000023:39)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4878]
+{org:en}
+But some scientists argue that the low projection probably is the most accurate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(300021766:24, 400536271:1Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4879]
+{org:en}
+Their argument focuses on the assumptions concerning the behavior of the Total Fertility Rate (TFR).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(101220984:1N.@def, 113325010:2J.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4880]
+{org:en}
+The medium projection assumes that the TFR cannot fall below the replacement level of 2.2 children per woman of childbearing age.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(200147815:1J.@ability.@not, 600000091:1O)
+qua(109917593:2N.@pl, "2.2":2J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4881]
+{org:en}
+On the other hand, the low projection is based on statistical extrapolations of the trend of fertility rates, often going below the replacement level.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202756196:17.@entry, 600000146:02)
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+man(200359916:3A.@progress, 400059547:34)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4882]
+{org:en}
+These scientists consider the latter method to be more scientific.
+{/org}
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+man(302084804:1L, 400099341:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4883]
+{org:en}
+According to the medium projection the world population will reach about 7.8 billion people by the year 2025 and continue to grow to 8.9 billion in 2040.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4884]
+{org:en}
+The low projection foresees that the population growth levels off by 2025, and stabilizes at a level of 7.3 billion people.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:01(202776049:1O, 108438067:1H.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4885]
+{org:en}
+Results from the PODIUM model indicate that the difference in primary water supply between scenarios using the low and medium projection is 200 HTM1 , or 8% compared to the base case.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200923793:0W.@entry, :02:02.@entry)
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+qua:02(HTM1:45, "200":41)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4886]
+{org:en}
+Taking the world average, each 100 million people require an additional 4.7 million hectares of irrigated land and 45 HTM1 of primary water supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774169:1G.@entry, 200523095:02.@progress)
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+qua:01("1000000":26, "4.7":22)
+qua:01(HTM1:3C, "45":39)
+qua:01("1000000":26, "4.7":22)
+qua:01(HTM1:3C, "45":39)
+mod(105856979:0J.@def, 105670972:0D)
+qua:01(115669704:3S.@entry, HTM1:3C)
+qua("1000000":11, "100":0X)
+aoj:01(303161014:1R, 113613985:2E.@indef.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4887]
+{org:en}
+This is equivalent to 1230 liters per capita per day of primary water to meet all agricultural, domestic and industrial water needs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(201079480:23, 109367991:3K.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4888]
+{org:en}
+Table 2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "2":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4889]
+{org:en}
+Per capita water demand
+{/org}
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+mod(101061333:0J.@entry, 107935504:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4890]
+{org:en}
+Per capita water requirements are more than double in developed countries as compared to developing countries (See Table 2).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(400099341:10.@entry, 115669633:0J.@topic.@pl)
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+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4891]
+{org:en}
+The difference is largely due to high water use in the domestic and industrial sectors.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(:01, 104165551:29.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:0Z, 100947128:1A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4892]
+{org:en}
+Water use in those sectors is-up to a certain level-related to income.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300309740:14, 105093890:1C.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4893]
+{org:en}
+If all people in the world used water at the same rate as in developed countries, water demands in 2025 would more than double as compared to 1995.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200246217:3E.@entry.@will.@past, 600000008:3L)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4894]
+{org:en}
+Although population growth has a direct bearing on water demand, potential increases in the water demand of domestic and industrial sectors as a result of raising living standards in developing countries appears to play an even more critical role.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200422090:5Q.@entry, 600000038:02)
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+obj(200158503:4D.@progress, 104301140:4S.@pl)
+mod(101061333:2S.@def, 107935504:2M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4895]
+{org:en}
+Diets
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+101070187:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4896]
+{org:en}
+What if societies change their eating habits?
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(600000048:02.@entry.@interrogative, 200109660:0K.@should)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4897]
+{org:en}
+If they eat less meat, could the strain on water resources be reduced?
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4898]
+{org:en}
+The PODIUM model uses two variables to express diet
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4899]
+{org:en}
+the level of per capita calorie intake and the composition of diet.
+{/org}
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+and(103081660:1D.@entry.@def, 105093890:06.@def)
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+mod(103576617:0Y, 113726296:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4900]
+{org:en}
+The base case allows for average country level diets between 2700 and 3200 Kilocalorie (Kcal) to satisfy basic food needs.
+{/org}
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+qua(115692861:25, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4901]
+{org:en}
+Much more uncertainty exists about the future composition of diets and its effect on water demands.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:0O.@entry, 104756887:0C.@topic)
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+qua(104756887:0C.@topic, 400099341:07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4902]
+{org:en}
+Given these calorie demands, one way to reduce water needs would be to eat less meat.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201166351:28.@entry.@will.@past, 600000431:05)
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+mod(101061333:0P.@pl, 600000017:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4903]
+{org:en}
+The logic behind this statement is simple
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301793812:11.@entry, 105615028:06.@topic.@def)
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+aoj(600000160:0C, 105615028:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4904]
+{org:en}
+less meat consumption results in a decrease in feed grain demand and this leads to a reduction in water use for the production of these grains.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202774203:24.@entry, 202774178:0O)
+obj(100351638:11.@indef, 101061333:1O)
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+obj(202774178:0O, 100351638:11.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4905]
+{org:en}
+Although there is some truth in this statement, reality proves more complex.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200664788:1M.@entry, 600000038:02)
+aoj(202603699:0H, 105819453:0P)
+qua(105870365:1Y, 400099341:1T)
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+plc(105819453:0P, 106722453:13)
+obj(600000038:02, 202603699:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4906]
+{org:en}
+As shown in Table 3, there is a huge difference in food and feed grain consumption between the different country groups.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202603699:10.@entry, 600000008:05)
+mod(100031264:3E.@def.@pl, 108168978:36)
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+aoj(300490413:2W, 100031264:3E.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4907]
+{org:en}
+Developed countries consume two to three times the amount of grains
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200600903:0M.@entry, 108168978:0C.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300741867:02, 108168978:0C.@topic.@pl)
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+aoj(300741867:02, 108168978:0C.@topic.@pl)
+qua(100028270:17.@pl, :01:01)
+obj(200600903:0M.@entry, 104950713:1R.@pl)
+man(200600903:0M.@entry, 100028270:17.@pl)
+qua(104950713:1R.@pl, 100033615:1H.@def)
+qua(104950713:1R.@pl, 100033615:1H.@def)
+fmt:01("3":11.@entry, "2":0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4908]
+{org:en}
+sixty % of this is used as animal feed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:0L.@entry, 600000022:0D.@topic)
+qua("%":08, "60":02)
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+qua("%":08, "60":02)
+mod(107800091:10, 301778572:0T)
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+man(201158572:0L.@entry, 600000023:0Q)
+qua(600000022:0D.@topic, "%":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4909]
+{org:en}
+Table 3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "3":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4910]
+{org:en}
+Per capita grain consumption
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(400501291:02, 100356367:0J.@entry)
+mod(100356367:0J.@entry, 104950713:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4911]
+{org:en}
+The PODIUM model was used to explore the impact of the consumption of animal products on water use in agriculture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:0N.@entry.@past, 100898804:0D.@topic.@def)
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+obj(107338552:17.@def, 100356367:1L.@def)
+mod(100898804:0D.@topic.@def, 103159640:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4912]
+{org:en}
+This "product" category includes red meat, white meat, eggs, milk, cheese, butter, and so on.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:10.@entry, 105838765:0R.@topic)
+mod(105838765:0R.@topic, 600000017:02)
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+and:01(107850329:27, 105399034:21)
+aoj:01(300381097:19, 107649854:1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4913]
+{org:en}
+Because of data problems it is not possible to disaggregate feed consumption within this broad category.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(301821266:11.@entry.@not, 600000012:02)
+obj(600000042:27, 105838765:2P)
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+obj(600000042:27, 105838765:2P)
+obj(202775950:1D, 100356367:1V)
+obj(600000012:02, 105687338:0I.@pl)
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+mod(105838765:2P, 600000017:2E)
+mod(100356367:1V, 107800091:1Q)
+mod(105687338:0I.@pl, 108462320:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4914]
+{org:en}
+The composition of this category varies between countries and contribute to differences in the amount of feed grains used per unit product (see below).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202774798:1S.@entry, 200436879:0Z)
+obj(200436879:0Z, 103081660:06.@topic.@def)
+qua(104950713:35.@pl, 100033615:2Q.@def)
+obj(104748836:27.@pl, 104950713:35.@pl)
+mod(103081660:06.@topic.@def, 105838765:0Q)
+obj(600000213:3H, 103748886:3Q)
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+obj(104748836:27.@pl, 104950713:35.@pl)
+mod(103081660:06.@topic.@def, 105838765:0Q)
+obj(600000213:3H, 103748886:3Q)
+obj(202774798:1S.@entry, 104748836:27.@pl)
+obj(600000010:16, 108168978:1E.@pl)
+man(201158572:3C, 600000213:3H)
+aoj(202774798:1S.@entry, 103081660:06.@topic.@def)
+man(200436879:0Z, 600000010:16)
+mod(104950713:35.@pl, 107800091:30)
+man(200436879:0Z, 600000010:16)
+mod(104950713:35.@pl, 107800091:30)
+obj(201158572:3C, 104950713:35.@pl)
+mod(105838765:0Q, 600000017:0L)
+mod(103748886:3Q, 105869857:3L)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4915]
+{org:en}
+Fish products are not included in this analysis.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200183879:0O.@entry.@not, 103748886:07.@topic.@pl)
+mod(103748886:07.@topic.@pl, 102512053:02)
+mod(103748886:07.@topic.@pl, 102512053:02)
+mod(100634276:15, 600000017:10)
+gol(200183879:0O.@entry.@not, 100634276:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4916]
+{org:en}
+Figure 4 shows the results for India and the US.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0B.@entry, 100556992:02.@topic)
+and:01(115689879:1B.@entry.@def, 500003815:0X.@def)
+and:01(115689879:1B.@entry.@def, 500003815:0X.@def)
+pur(115698567:0L.@def.@pl, :01:01)
+obj(200923307:0B.@entry, 115698567:0L.@def.@pl)
+mod(100556992:02.@topic, "4":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4917]
+{org:en}
+Figure 4.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "4":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4918]
+{org:en}
+Animal product consumption and water demand in India and USA
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(101061333:13.@entry, :02:02)
+and:02(500323518:1N.@entry, 500003815:1D)
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+and:01(107935504:0X.@entry, 100356367:0H)
+mod(101061333:13.@entry, :01)
+mod(101061333:13.@entry, 301778572:02)
+mod:01(100356367:0H, 103748886:09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4919]
+{org:en}
+In India, a reduction in meat consumption by 10% results in a reduction in need for primary water by four %.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(202774178:1F.@entry, 500003815:05)
+ins(100356367:0W, "10%":1B)
+aoj(600000035:4I, 107935504:2M)
+scn(100192300:1S.@indef, 109367991:25)
+qua("%":30, "4":2V)
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+obj(600000035:4I, "%":30)
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+obj(109367991:25, 107935504:2M)
+scn(100192300:0E.@topic.@indef, 100356367:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4920]
+{org:en}
+In the United States, a reduction in the % age of meat in the diet by 10% reduces primary water requirements by 16%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200045817:24.@entry, 500004476:09.@def)
+aoj(600000035:3O, 101070187:1S.@def)
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+mod(104924103:19.@def, "%":17)
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+mod(104924103:19.@def, "%":17)
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+aoj(300699521:2C, 115669633:2Q.@pl)
+plc(107649854:1G, 101070187:1S.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4921]
+{org:en}
+In both cases there is a decrease, but the difference in magnitude of decrease is striking.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(303158444:2C.@entry.@contrast, 202603699:0M)
+plc(202603699:0M, 102974697:0A.@pl)
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+obj(104748836:19.@topic.@def, 105090441:1N)
+aoj(303158444:2C.@entry.@contrast, 104748836:19.@topic.@def)
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+mod(102974697:0A.@pl, 600000323:05)
+aoj(202603699:0M, 100351638:0R.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4922]
+{org:en}
+The explanation lies in how animals are fed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200057410:0I.@entry, 200189511:16)
+obj(200189511:16, 100015388:0U.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200189511:16, 100015388:0U.@topic.@pl)
+man(200189511:16, 400536278:0Q)
+aoj(200057410:0I.@entry, 105793000:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4923]
+{org:en}
+If animals rely on feed from irrigated land, as is common in the US, water requirements are highly sensitive to the % age of meat in the diet.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(303161386:2T.@entry, 202774350:0D)
+man(202774350:0D, 600000008:1B)
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+mod(115669633:25.@pl, 107935504:1Z)
+aoj(303161386:2T.@entry, 115669633:25.@pl)
+frm(107800091:0L, 109334396:15)
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+frm(107800091:0L, 109334396:15)
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+plc(300485711:1H.@state, 115689879:1V.@def)
+obj(202774350:0D, 107800091:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4924]
+{org:en}
+If on the other hand, animals graze, or eat crop residues, irrigation is less important in producing grains to feed animals.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(301275562:2F.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(115004501:1I.@pl, 103134496:1D)
+pur(104950713:32.@pl, 200189511:3C)
+man(301275562:2F.@entry, 400099868:2A)
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+pur(104950713:32.@pl, 200189511:3C)
+man(301275562:2F.@entry, 400099868:2A)
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+pur(301275562:2F.@entry, 201621555:2S.@progress)
+obj:01(201240514:0Z, 100015388:0R.@topic.@pl)
+or:01(201166351:19.@entry, 201240514:0Z)
+aoj(301275562:2F.@entry, 100695448:1W.@topic)
+man:01(201240514:0Z, 600000146:08)
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+man:01(201240514:0Z, 600000146:08)
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+obj(201621555:2S.@progress, 104950713:32.@pl)
+obj:01(201166351:19.@entry, 115004501:1I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4925]
+{org:en}
+A feed to meat conversion factor, defined as the amount of feed grain that is needed to produce one unit of animal products, captures this relation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201480149:3J.@entry, 107800091:04.@topic.@indef)
+mod(103748886:39.@pl, 301778572:32)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4926]
+{org:en}
+Based on data derived from FAOSTAT (UN Food and Agriculture Organization Statistical Databases), India used 0.06 kilograms of feed grains to produce 1000 kcal of animal products in 1995.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:4927]
+{org:en}
+The US used more than 20 times as much for the same amount (1.3 kilograms per 1000 kcal).
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+
+[S:4928]
+{org:en}
+The conversion factor not only varies considerably between country but will also be subject to changes in future decades.
+{/org}
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+[S:4929]
+{org:en}
+The following factors contribute to differences and changes in the conversion factor
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4930]
+{org:en}
+In some countries the use of feed grains is very low because farmers use grazing lands and crop waste to feed their cattle.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:4931]
+{org:en}
+However, the carrying capacity of these traditional feed resources might reach its limit and additional production of animal products to meet future demands will most likely increasingly rely on the use of feed grains.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4932]
+{org:en}
+In countries where this is happening the conversion factor will increase.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200153263:1U.@entry.@will, 108168978:05.@pl)
+plc(200339934:0T.@progress, 108168978:05.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4933]
+{org:en}
+In some countries there is a shift in consumption from red to white meats.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4934]
+{org:en}
+Since the feed requirements for white meats are lower, this trend will contribute to a decrease in conversion factor.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:4935]
+{org:en}
+Because of technological improvements in the meat and dairy producing industry the "conversion efficiency" improves.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:4936]
+{org:en}
+In other words, the conversion factor goes down with advancing technology.
+{/org}
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+[S:4937]
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+In some countries feed grain consumption declines because of substitution for other feeds such as cassava (mainly grown under rain-fed conditions) and oil-meal.
+{/org}
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+[S:4938]
+{org:en}
+Little is known about these factors and their interplay.
+{/org}
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+[S:4939]
+{org:en}
+For example, the conversion ratio will most probably increase in India if there is a shift to more meat consumption-cattle will have eaten all crop residues and grazed most land and will need feed grains (the dotted line in Figure 4 depicts such a scenario).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4940]
+{org:en}
+In the US the conversion factor is likely to go down due to technological innovations and a shift from red to white meats.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4941]
+{org:en}
+A reduction in animal product consumption will most probably have a positive effect on moderating water demand in agriculture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+From a nutritional point of view the shift toward higher vegetable and fruit consumption is recommendable.
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+But it might result in a substantial increase in the demand for irrigation.
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+Vegetable production in most countries is not possible without irrigation and drainage systems.
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+But more importantly, the production of vegetables requires more water than cereals per calorie.
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+A case study from California indicates that it takes more than twice the amount of water to produce 1000 Kcal of vegetables than to produce the same amount of energy in cereals.
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+Irrigated Areas, Yields and Water Demands
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+With improved yields under irrigated conditions, the need for expansion of irrigated area decreases.
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+Less irrigated area means less need to develop additional water resources.
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+Large areas of irrigated land, mainly in developing countries, are performing under their potential.
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+Thus there is enormous scope to conserve water by increasing productivity in irrigated agriculture.
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+This hypothesis is clearly illustrated by the case of India. Average cereal yields under irrigated conditions in India amount to 2.7 tons per hectares, well below the world average of 3.3 tons per hectare.
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+Table 4 provides details on irrigated cereal yields obtained in other parts of the world.
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+Table 4
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+Cereal yields under irrigated and rain-fed conditions in selected countries
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+The PODIUM model was used to test the impact of increased productivity on water demand in agriculture.
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+Figure 5 depicts water requirements in India for different productivity scenarios.
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+If yields remain at 1995 levels and all additional production originates from expansion of the irrigated area, water requirements rise to more than 1200 HTM1.
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+The base case scenario predicts that yields will go up to 3.6 tons per hectare and total water requirements in irrigated agriculture rise to 900 HTM1.
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+If on the other hand yields increase to 4.6 tons per hectare, no additional irrigated area is required and hence no additional areas or infrastructure need to be developed and water requirements for agricultural purposes remain at 1995 levels.
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+Figure 5.
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+Relationship between yields and total diversions to agriculture for India under different scenarios
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+India will need an estimated additional 90 million tons of cereals to feed its population in 2025.
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+A study by Joshi (1996) quantified the yield gap by comparing actual and attainable yields obtained in demonstration plots managed by field research stations in different states across India. Figure 6 depicts the existing yield gap for the major states.
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+The study concluded that an additional 70 million tons of cereals could be obtained by bridging the observed yield gap.
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+Figure 6.
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+Observed wheat yield gaps in Indian states
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+There is, however, evidence that in major irrigation schemes in India productivity per unit of land is stagnating since the first years of implementation, unlike schemes in the US where output values follow a rising trend in the long run.
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+Some researchers even claim that productivity in India declined over the last decade of the twentieth century, due to lack of proper investment in operation and maintenance
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+and declining soil fertility.
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+Although improvements in yields and water productivity are technically feasible, they may require substantial investments in infrastructure operation and maintenance, management, institutions, agro-services, and research.
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+These measures might not be easier to achieve or more cost-effective than expanding the irrigated area.
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+{org:en}
+The policy options which India and many other developing countries face are between emphasis on the development of new water infrastructure and more irrigated land versus more productive use of existing irrigated agriculture.
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+[S:4977]
+{org:en}
+In view of water scarcity the latter deserves more attention.
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+Another possibility is to increase food imports.
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+[S:4979]
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+For many countries like India and China this is not a desirable option because of economic and political reasons.
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+[S:4980]
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+In developing countries where rain-fed agriculture provides the major part of cereal production, increasing irrigated productivity will help but not solve the problem.
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+[S:4981]
+{org:en}
+The irrigated area is so small that productivity gains in irrigated agriculture will be inconsequential.
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+[S:4982]
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+In these areas it is imperative either to provide more water infrastructure, or to focus on rain-fed or small amounts of irrigation to supplement unpredictable rainfall.
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+[S:4983]
+{org:en}
+Scope for Water Savings by Improved Efficiency
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+[S:4984]
+{org:en}
+Since 80% of the world's developed water resources are diverted to irrigation, it is logical that improvements in irrigation would remove much stress on them.
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+[S:4985]
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+It is a common perception that irrigation wastes enormous quantities of water, especially from leaky canals and over-application of water.
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+[S:4986]
+{org:en}
+This perception is in many cases not true, and the opportunity for real water savings is much less than thought.
+{/org}
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+[S:4987]
+{org:en}
+The reason for this misperception lies in the incorrect use of the concept of "efficiency" used in irrigation.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Generally, efficiency is defined by the amount of delivered water contributing to crop evaporation in a field or irrigation system.
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+{org:en}
+We refer to this definition as "classical efficiency".
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+
+[S:4990]
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+The use of this concept at basin or country scale is misleading because it disregards the fact that water "losses" from inefficient irrigation systems are commonly recycled by other uses downstream.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:4991]
+{org:en}
+One person's loss is another person's supply.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4992]
+{org:en}
+Instead of considering efficiency at irrigation system level, it is more correct to look at what happens at the larger scale of basins or countries.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:4993]
+{org:en}
+A useful concept in this context is "effective efficiency" taken at the basin or country scale.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4994]
+{org:en}
+This factor relates the total amount of crop evaporation contributed by water supplies (omitting rainfall contributions) to primary water supply at basin or country scale.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:01(202773903:2I.@entry.@progress, 100787465:30.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4995]
+{org:en}
+It differs from the classical definition in that it takes the primary water supply as the denominator instead of the total diversions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202666239:05.@entry, 600000206:17)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4996]
+{org:en}
+Measured at different scales the effective efficiency tends to differ substantially.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300044132:0Z, 105644527:19.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4997]
+{org:en}
+For example in the Bhakra irrigation scheme in northwestern India percolation from paddy fields replenish the shallow groundwater.
+{/org}
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+mod(101097119:2J.@pl, 107804900:2D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4998]
+{org:en}
+This groundwater is pumped by numerous tube-wells located in the command area, which are used in conjunction with canal water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:4999]
+{org:en}
+The classical efficiency of surface water may be low (35 to 45%) but in combination with tube-wells the effective efficiency in the sub-basin is close to 80%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5000]
+{org:en}
+In Egypt, effective efficiency has been estimated at 70 to 80%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(105644527:0M.@topic, 115690374:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5001]
+{org:en}
+In tank irrigation prevalent in Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu, drainage outflows from paddy fields upstream are captured in reservoirs located downstream.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201480149:31.@entry, 100695448:0A)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5002]
+{org:en}
+Improvements in irrigation efficiency in irrigation schemes upstream will have direct negative impacts on water availability in systems downstream.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:24.@entry.@will, 100248977:02.@topic.@pl)
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+plc(105644527:0T, 105905348:1I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5003]
+{org:en}
+Basically, there are two ways to increase the effective efficiency
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5004]
+{org:en}
+increase classical efficiency at scheme level and increase recycling.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5005]
+{org:en}
+These are interrelated
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161340:0C.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5006]
+{org:en}
+as an irrigation scheme becomes more efficient, it "produces" less drainage water and hence the possibility of recycling downstream reduces.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:5007]
+{org:en}
+Improving classical efficiency at system level typically includes costly measures such as lining of canals, introducing alternative irrigation methods (e.g. drip or sprinkler), and management changes.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5008]
+{org:en}
+Enhancing recycling may require check dams and pumps in drains or the construction of tube-wells to facilitate reuse of seepage water that replenishes shallow ground water.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5009]
+{org:en}
+In some cases recycling may be cheaper and easier to achieve than improving efficiency at system level, but it carries the danger of environmental hazards such as build-up of salts and agro-chemicals.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5010]
+{org:en}
+Which measures-or combination of measures-are most appropriate differ between country and are dependent on physical and management characteristics of the basin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5011]
+{org:en}
+Theoretically, effective efficiency could reach close to 100%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200743344:18.@entry.@ability.@past, 400170045:02)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5012]
+{org:en}
+However, it is desirable that some liquid water should flow out of the basin to flush out salts, meet environmental needs, and provide some buffer for dry years.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:5013]
+{org:en}
+For example, survival of coastal estuaries is dependent on some outflow of good quality water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5014]
+{org:en}
+The limit is set by the % age of primary water supply that is evaporated by different uses within the country or basin.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:5015]
+{org:en}
+Generally, the % age should not exceed 70 to 80%.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5016]
+{org:en}
+The cut-off value of 70% is a rough estimate.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:5017]
+{org:en}
+Little is known about water quantities necessary for environmental purposes and this area merits further investigation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5018]
+{org:en}
+In other words, a maximum of 70 to 80% of all primary water leaves the basin as vapor while a 20-30% allocation is made for outflow to environmental uses.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5019]
+{org:en}
+When this factor reaches around 100%, the results are falling water tables, buildup of salinity, and heavily polluted rivers.
+{/org}
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+man:01(200492706:33.@past, 400176383:2V)
+obj(200743344:0J, 105858317:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5020]
+{org:en}
+Table 5.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "5":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5021]
+{org:en}
+Effective efficiency and reduction of primary water demand
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5022]
+{org:en}
+Table 5 shows the results of the sensitivity analysis of effective efficiency on water demand and scope for improvement, using the PODIUM model.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5023]
+{org:en}
+The scope for reducing primary water demand is limited to a maximum of 7.6% compared to 1995 conditions, an amount of 130 HTM1 of water.
+{/org}
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+qua(HTM1:3G, "130":3C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5024]
+{org:en}
+The rather optimistic base case already allows for 6% of the increase, thus the saving potential over the base case is only one % or 18 HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774514:16.@entry, 400121135:21)
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+aoj(:01, 114482620:2H.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5025]
+{org:en}
+This analysis suggests that the scope for saving water by improving efficiency in irrigation is much less than commonly perceived.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5026]
+{org:en}
+In irrigated areas suffering from waterlogging and rising-often saline-groundwater tables with limited scope for recycling, improving classical efficiency is essential to reduce environmental problems, rather than to save water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5027]
+{org:en}
+As far as possible, interventions that convert non-beneficial uses of water into beneficial uses should be pursued.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200114837:15, 100947128:1S.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5028]
+{org:en}
+But these gains may not yield tremendous amounts of water to slow the need for growth in irrigation development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+Rain-Fed versus Irrigated Agriculture
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+One popular idea is to concentrate food production in rain-fed, rather than irrigated, areas to avoid adverse consequences of water infrastructure development.
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+Because of its larger scale, productivity improvements in rain-fed agriculture will have a much larger impact on total production than in irrigated agriculture.
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+An important question in this debate is to what extent rain-fed agriculture can contribute to the augmentation of food production.
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+Some fear that this will not be possible without a major increase in area under rain-fed agriculture.
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+Since productivity in rain-fed agriculture is less than in irrigated areas, an increase in production from rain-fed areas requires a greater area expansion than the same production increase from irrigated areas.
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+Most of the suitable areas are already under cultivation, and hence expansion will be in marginal areas, characterized by erratic rainfall and low yields.
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+Moreover, area expansion might only be possible at the expense of natural forests and wetlands.
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+They point to biotechnology as a possibility for developing drought-resistant varieties.
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+Or they emphasize the still largely unexplored possibilities for boosting yields by small scale supplementary irrigation and local water harvesting techniques.
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+As input to this debate, the PODIUM model was used to answer the question
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+What is the required increase in food grain production from rain-fed agriculture to meet all additional demands without increasing the irrigated area?
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5045]
+{org:en}
+The base scenario is taken as the basis for total food requirements, irrigated yield growth, and overall cereal production level in 2025 for individual countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5046]
+{org:en}
+Irrigated yields grow according to the trends observed during the last decade of the twentieth century, while the irrigated area remains at the 1995 level.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5047]
+{org:en}
+Figure 7 shows the results.
+{/org}
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+mod(100556992:02.@topic, "7":09)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5048]
+{org:en}
+Figure 7.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5049]
+{org:en}
+Present and future rain-fed production assuming zero-growth of irrigated area
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5050]
+{org:en}
+The results indicate that under this scenario total rain-fed production needs to grow from 930 million tons in 1995 to 1238 million tons in 2025, an increase of 33%, compared to an increase of 3% as predicted in the base case scenario.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5051]
+{org:en}
+Total cultivated area in the majority of countries only slightly expanded over the last five years 1990-1995.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5052]
+{org:en}
+Assuming rain-fed areas remain constant over the subsequent 30 years, the rain-fed yield (world average) has to grow from 2.2 to 2.9 tons per hectares.
+{/org}
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+[S:5053]
+{org:en}
+This seems a modest and feasible increase (32%).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5054]
+{org:en}
+But this world average masks the large differences between the country groups.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5055]
+{org:en}
+In developing countries with large irrigated areas, rain-fed yields have to increase from 1.7 to 3.1 tons per hectare (an increase of 82%).
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5056]
+{org:en}
+It is unlikely these countries will be able to raise yields to the necessary extent, unless a major breakthrough in crop technology occurs.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5057]
+{org:en}
+Despite many encouraging examples at a local scale, measures such as rainwater harvesting techniques and supplemental irrigation may not be sufficient to boost productivity up to the required level at national scale.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5058]
+{org:en}
+Without increases in irrigated production, these countries will have to expand the rain-fed area by 65%-infeasible in most countries-or relax their policy of self-sufficiency and become importers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5059]
+{org:en}
+More likely, irrigated production in food supply in these countries will become more important.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5060]
+{org:en}
+Increasing irrigated productivity is the most effective way to reduce water needs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(300044132:1C, 400536271:17)
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+obj(200153263:02.@topic.@progress, 113824500:0N)
+obj(200045817:1T, 109367991:26.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5061]
+{org:en}
+In developing countries characterized by large rain-fed production, rain-fed yields need to increase from 1.5 to 2.2 ton per hectare (65%) to achieve self-sufficiency in cereals in 2025.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201189113:2E.@entry, 108167046:05.@pl)
+agt(200189511:1I.@past, 105045208:1D)
+tim(202526085:40, "2025":53)
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+aoj(300527870:17, 105045208:1D)
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+aoj(300527870:17, 105045208:1D)
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+cnt(113613985:3J, "65%":3S.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5062]
+{org:en}
+This might be feasible provided that more attention is given to agriculture in marginal rain-fed areas.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301822563:0G.@entry.@may.@past, 600000022:02.@topic)
+gol(200108604:1L, 108075287:1U)
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+mod(105045208:2I, 301872486:29)
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+obj(200189511:2N.@past, 102735688:2R.@pl)
+plc(200108604:1L, 102735688:2R.@pl)
+qua(101228645:18, 400099341:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5063]
+{org:en}
+The base case scenario is less optimistic and projects an average rain-fed yield of 1.7 tons per hectare in these countries whereas the predicted importance of irrigated agriculture to total cereal production increases from 12 to 16%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:01.@entry, 600000179:3P)
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+obj:01(200189511:24.@past, 104612722:2C)
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+mod(108075287:4Z, 105168261:4B.@def)
+man:01(301663571:0X, 400099868:0S)
+qua:01(115668835:2P.@pl, "1.7":2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5064]
+{org:en}
+Clearly, more emphasis on ways to raise productivity in rain-fed agriculture in this country group will help to reduce the need for expansion of irrigated area and consequently water requirements in agriculture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200082081:2Y.@entry.@will, 400039058:02)
+mod(100031264:2N, 600000017:2A)
+obj:01(200079951:43.@past, 102735688:4D)
+obj(100365709:3Q, :01)
+scn(113824500:16, 108075287:1V)
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+man:01(115669633:55.@entry.@pl, 400062857:4M)
+mod(100031264:2N, 600000017:2A)
+obj:01(200079951:43.@past, 102735688:4D)
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+scn(113824500:16, 108075287:1V)
+obj(200045817:36, 109367991:3H.@def)
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+man:01(115669633:55.@entry.@pl, 400062857:4M)
+agt(200189511:1R.@past, 105045208:1M)
+obj(200082081:2Y.@entry.@will, 200045817:36)
+qua(107102945:0G.@topic, 400099341:0B)
+scn:01(115669633:55.@entry.@pl, 108075287:5L)
+obj(200189511:1R.@past, 108075287:1V)
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+plc(107102945:0G.@topic, 100172710:0S.@pl)
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+mod(100031264:2N, 108168978:2F)
+plc(107102945:0G.@topic, 100172710:0S.@pl)
+and:01(115669633:55.@entry.@pl, 102735688:4D.@pl)
+plc(108075287:1V, 100031264:2N)
+obj(109367991:3H.@def, 100365709:3Q)
+obj(200158503:10, 113824500:16)
+mod:01(115669633:55.@entry.@pl, 107935504:4Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5065]
+{org:en}
+Concluding Remarks
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301010271:02, 105710573:0D.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5066]
+{org:en}
+The IWMI base case scenario anticipates that in order to meet food demands in 2025 the gross irrigated area needs to be expanded by some 95 million hectares (a growth of nearly one third compared to the 1995 level).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200342640:0U.@entry, 201189113:35)
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+qua:01("/3":56, "1":52)
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+agt(200257269:3H, 113613985:49.@pl)
+qua:01(105093890:5X.@def, "1995":5S)
+mod(106756111:0L.@topic, 500323561:06.@def)
+obj(600000044:1E, 201079480:1Q)
+qua("1000000":41, "95":3Y)
+obj(201189113:35, 200257269:3H)
+obj:01(303161442:5C, 105093890:5X.@def)
+agt(200342640:0U.@entry, 106756111:0L.@topic)
+obj(200079951:2Q.@past, 102735688:30.@topic.@def)
+qua(113613985:49.@pl, "1000000":41)
+aoj(201189113:35, 102735688:30.@topic.@def)
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+mod(113613985:49.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5067]
+{org:en}
+Primary water diversions to agriculture must increase from 1600 to 1870 HTM1 , a 17% increase compared to 1995.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:1B.@entry.@obligation, 100350380:0G.@topic.@pl)
+obj(303161442:2R, "1995":33)
+aoj(300699521:02, 100350380:0G.@topic.@pl)
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+obj(303161442:2R, "1995":33)
+aoj(300699521:02, 100350380:0G.@topic.@pl)
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+qua(HTM1:25, :01:01)
+aoj(100363260:2I.@indef, HTM1:25)
+src(200153263:1B.@entry.@obligation, HTM1:25)
+mod(100350380:0G.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0A)
+mod(100350380:0G.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0A)
+to(100350380:0G.@topic.@pl, 108075287:0U)
+mod(100363260:2I.@entry.@indef, "17%":2E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5068]
+{org:en}
+This would mean sustained heavy investment in infrastructure development and possibly high social and environmental costs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200708840:0D.@entry.@will.@past, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod:02(100250259:1R.@pl, 103569964:1C)
+and:02(113275847:3A.@entry.@pl, 100250259:1R.@pl)
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+and:02(113275847:3A.@entry.@pl, 100250259:1R.@pl)
+aoj(300596639:0I, 100198919:0Y)
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+and:01(302943151:2W.@entry, 301076634:2L)
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+aoj:02(:01, 113275847:3A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:02(:01, 113275847:3A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300462409:0S, 100198919:0Y)
+man:01(300705498:2G, 400300247:27)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5069]
+{org:en}
+Many people fear the adverse effects associated with this expansion of irrigation and claim that diversions to agriculture could be curtailed drastically if appropriate measures are taken.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(:01.@entry, 107942152:07.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:01(303161160:13, 104809642:0V.@def.@pl)
+man:01(202774870:3S.@ability.@past, 400056652:42)
+qua(107942152:07.@topic.@pl, 600000028:02)
+con:01(202774870:3S.@ability.@past, 200523095:56)
+obj:01(100365709:1N, 100695448:20)
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+man:01(202774870:3S.@ability.@past, 400056652:42)
+qua(107942152:07.@topic.@pl, 600000028:02)
+con:01(202774870:3S.@ability.@past, 200523095:56)
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+to:01(100350380:2T.@topic.@pl, 108075287:37)
+aoj:01(300995647:0N, 104809642:0V.@def.@pl)
+to:01(100350380:2T.@topic.@pl, 108075287:37)
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+mod:01(100365709:1N, 600000017:1I)
+obj:01(201780202:0E, 104809642:0V.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5070]
+{org:en}
+What is the scope for reducing the amount of water diverted to agriculture?
+{/org}
+{unl}
+iof(600000048:02.@qfocus, 115669762:0E.@entry.@interrogative.@def)
+gol(201952363:1H, 108075287:1T)
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+pur(115669762:0E.@entry.@interrogative.@def, 200045817:0O.@progress)
+qua(107935504:1B, 100033615:11.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5071]
+{org:en}
+To curtail water demand in agriculture one could try to reduce food demand or increase food supply using the same amount or less water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(200444975:1F.@entry.@ability.@past, 202774870:05)
+obj:02(200045817:1M, 101061333:1Y)
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+mod:02(:01, 113563522:2M)
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+mod:02(113563522:2M, 100021265:2H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5072]
+{org:en}
+Key factors on the food demand side are population growth, consumption patterns, and international trade.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 105858317:06.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(108438067:1H, 101257969:16)
+and:01(105938795:21.@pl, 108438067:1H)
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+mod:01(105938795:21.@pl, 100356367:1P)
+mod(101061333:0Q, 100021265:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5073]
+{org:en}
+The supply side is largely determined by productivity in irrigated and rain-fed areas and water use efficiency.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0T.@entry, 104213626:0D.@topic.@def)
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+agt:01(200189511:29.@entry.@past, 105045208:24)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5074]
+{org:en}
+Population growth has a direct bearing on water demands.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0K.@entry, 108438067:0D.@topic)
+mod(108438067:0D.@topic, 101257969:02)
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+obj(200065370:0K.@entry, 102817031:0X.@indef)
+mod(101061333:1B.@pl, 107935504:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5075]
+{org:en}
+According to the base case scenario, every additional million inhabitants translate into a required expansion of 47 000 hectares of irrigated land and increase of 1230 liters of primary water supply per day to meet basic water needs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200383542:24.@entry, 600000046:02)
+mod(109620078:1S.@topic.@pl, 600000301:13)
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+But increased per capita water use for domestic and industrial purposes as result of improving living standards in developing countries is likely to have a much greater impact on water requirements than population growth.
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+A reduction in meat consumption will lead to a reduction in water demand, especially in developed countries where actual meat and feed grain consumption is high.
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+{org:en}
+However due to changing meat-feed conversion ratios the extent of this impact remains uncertain.
+{/org}
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+Globally, water is not a constraint in food production.
+{/org}
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+Food produced in water abundant places could be exported to water short countries (also coined as "trade in virtual water").
+{/org}
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+For many developing countries striving for food self-sufficiency (like India, China, and Indonesia) economic and political objectives are important, thus trade does not play as large a role.
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+The main scope for reducing water requirements lies in the improvement of land and water productivity in irrigated agriculture ("more crop per drop").
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+To reach the yield increase assumptions in the base case scenario will require major efforts in water management.
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+However, there remains scope in developing countries to substantially raise yields.
+{/org}
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+Improving performance and increasing productivity in irrigated agriculture is an absolute necessity to mitigate water scarcity and related environmental problems.
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+Although improvement in yields and water productivity seems technically feasible, they require substantial investments in infrastructure operation and maintenance, management, institutions, agro-services, and research.
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+These measures might not be easier to achieve or more cost-effective than irrigated area expansion.
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+But from a water-scarcity point of view they deserve much more attention than previously received.
+{/org}
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+The scope for saving water by improving irrigation efficiency is much less than commonly perceived.
+{/org}
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+Efficiency improvements above those projected in the base case scenario will be costly in financial and environmental terms and will yield very limited water savings.
+{/org}
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+In the base case scenario, rain-fed production only increases by three % compared to 1995 levels, a somewhat pessimistic outlook.
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+{org:en}
+This will have positive impacts on local economies and reduce the imports of these countries.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5095]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
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+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5096]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
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+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5097]
+{org:en}
+Diets
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+[W]
+101070187:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5098]
+{org:en}
+Patterns of human dietary intake ranging from meat intensive to more vegetable intensive.
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+{org:en}
+Effective efficiency
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+[S:5100]
+{org:en}
+Factor that relates the total amount of crop evaporation contributed by water supplies to primary water supply.
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+[S:5101]
+{org:en}
+Effective efficiency differs from classical efficiency in that it includes recyclable water.
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+[S:5102]
+{org:en}
+Irrigation efficiency
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+mod(105644527:0D.@entry, 100695448:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5103]
+{org:en}
+Scale dependent indicator of water use efficiency in irrigated agriculture.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:5104]
+{org:en}
+At field and scheme level the 'classical' definition is the amount of delivered water contributing to crop evaporation.
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+[S:5105]
+{org:en}
+At basin level effective efficiency is used.
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+{org:en}
+Meat to feed conversion factor
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+The amount of feed grain that is needed to produce one unit of animal products.
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+{org:en}
+PODIUM model
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+mod(100898804:09.@entry, 103159640:02)
+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+A particular water use projection model used to explore scenarios of future water
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+use based on assumptions of population, diets, agricultural production, and efficiency of HTM1 water use in irrigation.
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+Primary water
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+Equals the total diversions to all sectors, less the amount of water recycled.
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+Productivity in agriculture
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+Agricultural production per unit of land or per unit of water.
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+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+Water use
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+{unl}
+mod(100947128:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
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+A function of population, diets, domestic, and industrial needs, and how effectively water resources are used.
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+mod(100720565:04.@indef, :02)
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+{org:en}
+Water use can be expressed in total water diversions, primary supply and consumed water.
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+{org:en}
+Water use projections
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+mod(104008947:0C.@entry.@pl, 100947128:08)
+mod(100947128:08, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+Models of projected use of water according to various water use scenarios used to explore the future implications of different water supply and demand patterns.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5120]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5121]
+{org:en}
+Keller A. and Keller J.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323335:0G.@entry, 500323066:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5122]
+{org:en}
+Effective efficiency
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300044132:02, 105644527:0C.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5123]
+{org:en}
+A water use concept for allocating freshwater resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(105835747:0E.@entry.@indef, 202234087:0Q.@progress)
+obj(202234087:0Q.@progress, 105154676:1C.@pl)
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+mod(105154676:1C.@pl, 303161011:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5124]
+{org:en}
+Water Resources and Irrigation Division Discussion Paper 22, 15 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua(115669681:1U, "22":1N)
+qua(115669681:1U, "22":1N)
+and:01(100695448:0M.@entry, 105154676:08.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5125]
+{org:en}
+Arlington, Virginia
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500004968:02.@entry, 115398506:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5126]
+{org:en}
+Winrock International.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323961:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5127]
+{org:en}
+Discusses concept of water use efficiency.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774210:02.@entry, 105644527:0X)
+mod(100947128:0T, 107935504:0N)
+mod(100947128:0T, 107935504:0N)
+mod(105644527:0X, 100947128:0T)
+mod(105644527:0X, 105835747:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5128]
+{org:en}
+Keller A., Sakthivadivel R., and Seckler D.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323039:0Z.@entry, 500323147:0D)
+and(500323147:0D, 500323066:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5129]
+{org:en}
+Water Scarcity and the Role of Storage in Development
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(:01.@entry, 100250259:18)
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+and:01(100811355:0X.@entry, 105116953:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5130]
+{org:en}
+IWMI Research Report 39.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106681551:0G.@entry, "39":0N)
+mod(100636921:07, 500323561:02)
+mod(106681551:0G.@entry, 100636921:07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5131]
+{org:en}
+Colombo, Sri Lanka
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500003027:02.@entry, 500003026:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5132]
+{org:en}
+International Water Management Institute. 20 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323601:02.@entry
+[/W]
+qua(115669681:1B.@entry, "20":18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5133]
+{org:en}
+Considers role that storage issues play in shaping water scarcity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200691312:02.@entry, 100722061:0C)
+mod(105116953:1N, 107935504:1H)
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+mod(101060234:0U.@pl, 100811355:0M)
+obj(200142191:19.@progress, 105116953:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5134]
+{org:en}
+Rijsberman F. R., ed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200200397:0K.@entry, 500323285:02.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5135]
+{org:en}
+Forthcoming
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+300184229:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5136]
+{org:en}
+World Water Scenarios
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106756111:0E.@entry.@pl, 107935504:08)
+mod(107935504:08, 105670972:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5137]
+{org:en}
+Analysing Global Water Resources and Use..
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774974:02.@progress, :01:01.@entry)
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+mod:01(105154676:0P.@pl, 107935504:0J)
+aoj:01(301568684:0C, 105154676:0P.@pl)
+and:01(100947128:13.@entry, 105154676:0P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5138]
+{org:en}
+350 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(115669681:06.@entry, "350":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5139]
+{org:en}
+London, UK
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(500008271:02.@entry, 115690858:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5140]
+{org:en}
+Earthscan.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323808:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5141]
+{org:en}
+Presents various outcomes for the world water situation based on different assumptions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200772967:02.@entry, 107292694:0J.@pl)
+mod(113925752:1C.@def, 107935504:16)
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+mod(113925752:1C.@def, 107935504:16)
+aoj(302351064:1M, 113925752:1C.@def)
+aoj(303160904:0B, 107292694:0J.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:1V, 100082870:25.@pl)
+pur(107292694:0J.@pl, 113925752:1C.@def)
+obj(302351064:1M, 100082870:25.@pl)
+obj(302351064:1M, 100082870:25.@pl)
+mod(113925752:1C.@def, 105670972:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5142]
+{org:en}
+Seckler D. and Rock M.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323389:0H.@entry, 500323039:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5143]
+{org:en}
+World Population Growth and Food Demand to 2025.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+to(101061333:0Z.@entry, "2025":19)
+mod:01(108438067:0J, 101257969:08)
+mod:01(108438067:0J, 101257969:08)
+and:01(100021265:0U.@entry, 108438067:0J)
+mod(101061333:0Z.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(101257969:08, 105670972:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5144]
+{org:en}
+Water resources and irrigation division
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100385791:0X.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(105154676:08.@pl, 107935504:02)
+and:01(100695448:0M.@entry, 105154676:08.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5145]
+{org:en}
+Discussion Paper. Arlington Virginia
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106255613:0D.@entry, 107138085:02)
+mod(115398506:0U.@entry, 500004968:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5146]
+{org:en}
+Winrock International.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323961:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5147]
+{org:en}
+Considers links between changes in global food production patterns and demands in relation to water use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200691312:02.@entry, 600000231:29)
+mod(100947128:2U, 107935504:2O)
+and:01(101061333:21.@entry.@pl, 105938795:1O.@pl)
+obj(600000024:0I, 100191142:0Q.@pl)
+mod:01(105938795:1O.@pl, 100522736:1D)
+mod(100947128:2U, 107935504:2O)
+and:01(101061333:21.@entry.@pl, 105938795:1O.@pl)
+obj(600000024:0I, 100191142:0Q.@pl)
+mod:01(105938795:1O.@pl, 100522736:1D)
+aoj(600000024:0I, 103673971:0C.@pl)
+mod:01(105938795:1O.@pl, 100021265:18)
+obj(200691312:02.@entry, 103673971:0C.@pl)
+aoj:01(301568684:11, 105938795:1O.@pl)
+aoj:01(301568684:11, 105938795:1O.@pl)
+obj(100191142:0Q.@pl, :01:01)
+obj(600000231:29, 100947128:2U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5148]
+{org:en}
+Seckler D., Upali A., Molden D., de Silva D., and Barker R.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323441:1G.@entry, 500323085:0Z)
+and(500323067:0E, 500323039:02)
+and(500323067:0E, 500323039:02)
+and(500323086:0O, 500323067:0E)
+and(500323085:0Z, 500323086:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5149]
+{org:en}
+World Water Demand and Supply, 1990 to 2025
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(:01.@entry, :02:02)
+mod:01(107935504:08, 105670972:02)
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+fmt:02("2025":15.@entry, "1990":0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5150]
+{org:en}
+Scenarios and issues
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(101060234:0G.@entry.@pl, 106756111:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5151]
+{org:en}
+IWMI Research Report 19, 40 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106681551:0G.@entry, "19":0N)
+qua(115669681:0U.@entry, "40":0R)
+qua(115669681:0U.@entry, "40":0R)
+mod(100636921:07, 500323561:02)
+mod(106681551:0G.@entry, 100636921:07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5152]
+{org:en}
+Colombo, Sri Lanka
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500003027:02.@entry, 500003026:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5153]
+{org:en}
+International Water Management Institute.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323601:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5154]
+{org:en}
+Considers various scenarios of world water supply and demand relationships under different assumptions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200691312:02.@entry, 106756111:0K.@pl)
+and:01(101061333:1K.@entry, 115669704:13)
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+aoj(300490413:2B, 100082870:2L.@pl)
+and:01(101061333:1K.@entry, 115669704:13)
+mod(113780719:1R.@pl, 600000009:25)
+aoj(300490413:2B, 100082870:2L.@pl)
+aoj(303160904:0C, 106756111:0K.@pl)
+obj(600000009:25, 100082870:2L.@pl)
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+mod:01(115669704:13, 105670972:0X)
+mod:01(115669704:13, 105670972:0X)
+mod(113780719:1R.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5155]
+{org:en}
+GLOBAL AND REGIONAL FRESHWATER RESOURCES
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01, 105154676:0X.@entry.@pl)
+and:01(302408977:0D.@entry, 301568684:02)
+mod(105154676:0X.@entry.@pl, 303161011:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5156]
+{org:en}
+GLOBAL AND REGIONAL FRESHWATER RESOURCES
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01, 105154676:0X.@entry.@pl)
+and:01(302408977:0D.@entry, 301568684:02)
+mod(105154676:0X.@entry.@pl, 303161011:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5157]
+{org:en}
+R. Meissner
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500322993:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5158]
+{org:en}
+Research Associate at the African Water Issues Research Unit at the University of Pretoria, South Africa
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100636921:1G, 101060234:19.@pl)
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+plc(115668785:2J, 500004270:2T)
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+mod(101060234:19.@pl, 107935504:13)
+mod(101060234:19.@pl, 107935504:13)
+mod(105869857:1T.@def, 100636921:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5159]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5160]
+{org:en}
+water paradigm, virtual water, blue water, green water, freshwater resources, global, regional, distribution, future, water needs
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(109367991:3I.@entry.@pl, 103408721:34.@pl)
+and(107935504:12, 107935504:0Q)
+and(301568684:28.@pl, 105154676:1X.@pl)
+and(101083077:2Q.@pl, 302408977:2G.@pl)
+mod(107935504:0Q, 300902157:0I)
+and(107935504:1F, 107935504:12)
+and(107935504:12, 107935504:0Q)
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+and(101083077:2Q.@pl, 302408977:2G.@pl)
+mod(107935504:0Q, 300902157:0I)
+and(107935504:1F, 107935504:12)
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+and(107935504:0Q, 106210171:08)
+mod(105154676:1X.@pl, 303161011:1M)
+mod(109367991:3I.@entry.@pl, 107935504:3C)
+aoj(300364881:0X, 107935504:12)
+and(105154676:1X.@pl, 107935504:1F)
+aoj(300364881:0X, 107935504:12)
+and(105154676:1X.@pl, 107935504:1F)
+and(302408977:2G.@pl, 301568684:28.@pl)
+mod(106210171:08, 107935504:02)
+aoj(300375969:19, 107935504:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5161]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5162]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5163]
+{org:en}
+A Change in the Perception of Water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100191142:04.@entry.@indef, 105708432:0I.@def)
+obj(105708432:0I.@def, 107935504:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5164]
+{org:en}
+Perspectives of Global and Regional Freshwater Resources
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104676308:02.@entry.@pl, 105154676:1D.@pl)
+and:01(302408977:0T.@entry, 301568684:0I)
+and:01(302408977:0T.@entry, 301568684:0I)
+mod(105154676:1D.@pl, 303161011:12)
+aoj(:01, 105154676:1D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5165]
+{org:en}
+Freshwater Quantity, Quality and Distribution Across the Globe and in Regions
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(:01.@entry, 303161011:02)
+obj(600000069:1C, 103440512:1N.@def)
+and:01(104723816:0N, 105108740:0D)
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+and:01(104723816:0N, 105108740:0D)
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+plc(:01.@entry, 105221895:20.@pl)
+aoj(600000069:1C, :01.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5166]
+{org:en}
+Global Water Needs for the Future
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(109367991:0F.@entry.@pl, 103408721:0T.@def)
+mod(109367991:0F.@entry.@pl, 107935504:09)
+aoj(301568684:02, 109367991:0F.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5167]
+{org:en}
+Conclusion
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5168]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5169]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5170]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5171]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+The management of global and regional freshwater resources has changed significantly over the past few decades, in many countries of the developed North and developing South.
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+This is exemplified by the changing water paradigm that brought about a change in our perception of water resources and the life support systems it sustains.
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+Two perspectives in current thinking about global and regional water resources that manifest the changing water paradigm is virtual water and blue and green water.
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+{org:en}
+These views are radical departures from the traditional outlook humans had of water.
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+Virtual water and blue and green water also contain elements of the quantity and distribution of the globe's freshwater resources.
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+
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+The quantity, quality and distribution of the world's freshwater resources are some of the most important aspects regarding the management of water resources on a world-wide scale.
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+How much water there is, the quality of it and where and when it is in abundance and/or scarce at the present moment will depend largely on how we will use water in future.
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+The most important drivers in this equation regarding future water needs are population growth and economic development.
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+These two factors will have an impact on future global and regional freshwater management.
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+Yet, not all regions and states will use water in the future in the same manner.
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+The two variables will have different effects on global and regional freshwater utilisation.
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+
+[S:5184]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
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+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5185]
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+Sustainable economic development hinges on the availability of water resources, especially in the developing world.
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+Where the industrial sector is not well developed, or weak, water consumption in it can be as high as 80 %.
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+This offers support to the socio-political importance of water in the economic development of many regions around the world.
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+The importance of water to these regions is reflected in the vision of the water sector within some regions.
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+For instance, the water vision of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) states that SADC attempts to "attain the sustainable, integrated planning, development, utilisation and management of water resources that contribute to the attainment of SADC's overall objective of an integrated regional economy on the basis of balance, equity and mutual benefit for all member states "..
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5190]
+{org:en}
+Within this vision water is directly linked to the economic development of all SADC member states, which is a good indication of the socio-economic and political importance of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:5191]
+{org:en}
+In other parts of the developing south, it is estimated that more than 1.7 billion people, spread over 80 countries, are suffering from water shortages which further signify the importance of water to humans and the societies they live in.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5192]
+{org:en}
+Basic human consumption, survival and economic well-being of a large part of the population residing within developing and developed regions rests on this scarce resource.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5193]
+{org:en}
+This suggests that there should be enough water to cater to the needs of society and that the water resources should also be of a good quality.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:5194]
+{org:en}
+As one of the most important resources available to all life support systems, and constituting such a system itself, water resources are becoming more and more exploited while the quantity and quality thereof is becoming inextricably limited.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5195]
+{org:en}
+This is due to the fact that a number of constraints and limiting factors, such as population growth, industrialization and urbanization, is taxing global and regional water resources to their limits.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5196]
+{org:en}
+If this sounds very pessimistic, there is however room for optimism.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5197]
+{org:en}
+This idealism lies in the fact that there are different perspectives regarding the global water balance and regional water resources.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5198]
+{org:en}
+These perspectives can offer practical solutions to our water problems and can become one of the major practices of future generations to develop and use the water in the hydrologic cycle in a more sustainable manner.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5199]
+{org:en}
+In this article the different perspectives of the global water balance and regional water resources will be discussed.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5200]
+{org:en}
+Any discussion of future water needs must acknowledge that while it is possible to sketch a picture of the global future, water use is a local activity that affects individuals and small communities as much as it does sovereign states and large commercial enterprises.
+{/org}
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+In this topic some of these issues will be discussed in more detail.
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+Two perspective of global and regional freshwater resources will be discussed in the second part of the topic
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+virtual water and blue and green water.
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+In the third section of the topic global freshwater quantity, quality and distribution will come under the magnifying glass.
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+In the last part, the future needs of the earth's population for freshwater will be discussed.
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+A Change in the Perception of Water
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+From the onset it is important to note that water scarcities are a local, or river basin, phenomenon.
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+The importance of this is quite extreme regarding strategic decision-making, for it allows for a conceptual difference to be developed between water scarcity at a local level, and the search for a solution at the regional or global level.
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+Although there is enough water on earth, the distribution thereof is of such a nature that it is in abundance in some places and in others it can be extremely scarce.
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+Water is therefore both scarce and bountiful over space.
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+Not only that, it can also be limited or ample over time.
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+Some regions of the world might experience periods of adequate rainfall while at others droughts can persist for some time.
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+{org:en}
+For instance, due to the El Ni?±o/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) effect Southern Africa have seen over the past 20 years periods of drought (1981-1985 and 1990-1995) with intervals of sufficient rainfall that provided for most of the water requirements for the economic activities of the region.
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+During such periods of drought many rivers will not be able to supply water to large urban, industrial and agricultural communities.
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+[S:5226]
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+In fact, during the severe drought of the 1930s in South Africa many of the large and important rivers, like the Orange and Vaal Rivers, stopped flowing.
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+Rivers are therefore an important part of the hydrologic cycle and an important source of water for humans.
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+A fundamental characteristic of traditional water resources planning, is that it has regularly and persistently concluded that future water demands will exceed actual water supplies, mainly due to the unchecked advancement of the three drivers.
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+This will be called supply sided management (SSM).
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+In terms of current social science theory, this form of management tends to focus on what has been defined as a first order resource scarcity - i.e. the scarcity of a natural resource such as water.
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+Supply Sided Management was the dominant mode of water development and management in the United States of America (USA) prior to the 1980's, with the Bureau of Reclamation (BoR) and Army Corps of Engineers (ACoE) being the main instruments.
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+Significantly, these organizations spawned a global paradigm due to the fact that they trained many of the hydraulic engineers who subsequently went on to construct the world's largest dams.
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+The main concern wit respect to change in thinking about water resources development is that of sustainable water use.
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+The scale of water mobilization has thus altered from modest scale water management construction endeavours to sustain local and relatively small populations to larger and grander projects for huge (in terms of population and economic productivity) societies.
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+Furthermore the methods mentioned are not yet globally accepted practices and they may not be a permanent solution to our water problems.
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+Notwithstanding these barriers, the new water paradigm is here to remain in addressing unresolved water problems.
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+States have already started with the implementation of some of these measures and interest groups are already advocating the implementation of some of these actions such as in the case of Namibia.
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+Yet, with the new water paradigm, with its emphasis on sustainable water resources development, already being paramount in the thinking about water needs came innovative perspectives about the global water balance and the inventory of regional water resources.
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+Some of the most notable of these are virtual water and the notion of blue and green water.
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+{org:en}
+These two perspectives about the global water balance and regional water resources embodies the notion of sustainable development of water resources.
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+In the next section these perspectives will come under closer scrutiny.
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+[S:5267]
+{org:en}
+Perspectives of Global and Regional Freshwater Resources
+{/org}
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+[S:5268]
+{org:en}
+Virtual Water
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5269]
+{org:en}
+A potential solution to the water problems on a global and regional scale is provided by the perspective of virtual water.
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+
+[S:5270]
+{org:en}
+The concept of virtual water was developed by Prof. Tony Allan at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) at the University of London, after an economist by the name of Fishelson, indicated that the export of citrus fruit produced in Israel was no longer in the national interest of that state.
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+{org:en}
+The exporting of citrus fruit, in the case of Israel, or any other water intensive commodity forms an arid or semi-arid region to one that is water abundant, like North America, constitutes the international trade in water.
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+{org:en}
+This made Allan realise that water policy planners and makers within water scarce economies needed to become aware of the interrelationship between natural resources (water) and sustainable development of such a resource.
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+{org:en}
+Virtual water is the volume of water needed to produce a commodity or service.
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+{org:en}
+In the international political economy (IPE) vast quantities of water are present in the international cereal market.
+{/org}
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+For instance, it takes approximately 1000 tonnes of water to grow one tonne of grain.
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+{org:en}
+This figure presents the virtual water value (VWV) of grain.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Similarly it takes approximately 2 000 tonnes of water to produce one tonne of rice and 1 000 tonnes of water to grow one tonne of wheat.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+To produce nine tonnes of sugar cane requires 1 000 tonnes of water.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5279]
+{org:en}
+From one tonne of sugar cane about 700 kilograms of juice (sap) can be extracted.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+src(200638723:28.@entry.@ability, 115690632:0N)
+bas(400071165:12, "700":18)
+qua(105398609:1P.@topic, 113724582:1C.@pl)
+bas(400071165:12, "700":18)
+qua(105398609:1P.@topic, 113724582:1C.@pl)
+cnt(105398609:1P.@topic, 115038127:1W.@parenthesis)
+qua(115668841:0E, "1":0A)
+obj(200638723:28.@entry.@ability, 105398609:1P.@topic)
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+qua(115690632:0N, 115668841:0E)
+qua(113724582:1C.@pl, 400071165:12)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5280]
+{org:en}
+This 700 kilograms of juice represents the VWV of sugar cane.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200825447:0U.@entry, 105398609:0O.@topic)
+qua(113724582:0B.@pl, "700":07)
+qua(105398609:0O.@topic, 113724582:0B.@pl)
+qua(113724582:0B.@pl, "700":07)
+qua(105398609:0O.@topic, 113724582:0B.@pl)
+mod(500323538:19.@def, 115690632:1G)
+obj(200825447:0U.@entry, 500323538:19.@def)
+mod(113724582:0B.@pl, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5281]
+{org:en}
+Also, approximately 1 200 tonnes of water are needed to produce one tonne of maize.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(301580775:1C.@entry, 400047534:02)
+qua(115668841:1Y, "1":1U)
+obj(201621555:1M, 115690537:27)
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+obj(201621555:1M, 115690537:27)
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+qua(107935504:12.@topic, 115668841:0S.@pl)
+qua(107935504:12.@topic, 115668841:0S.@pl)
+qua(115690537:27, 115668841:1Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5282]
+{org:en}
+All countries have to trade in foodstuffs, commodities and services.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202259005:0O.@entry.@obligation, 108168978:06.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(103076708:19.@pl, 107566340:0X.@pl)
+and:01(103076708:19.@pl, 107566340:0X.@pl)
+and:01(100098625:1P.@entry.@pl, 103076708:19.@pl)
+plc(202259005:0O.@entry.@obligation, :01:01)
+qua(108168978:06.@topic.@pl, 600000011:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5283]
+{org:en}
+This means virtual water embedded in food is crossing borders every day, which makes virtual water such an important aspect of a country's food security.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200708840:07.@entry, 201691798:1E.@progress)
+obj(200012267:2G, 104733118:3I.@indef)
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+aoj(301275562:38, 104733118:3I.@indef)
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+mod(104733118:3I.@indef, 600001411:30)
+gol(201089423:0U, 100021265:16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5284]
+{org:en}
+An analysis of the global economy of water indicates that vast quantities of water are present in the international cereal market.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200923793:19.@entry, 301731351:2H)
+aoj(303161287:1O, 105108740:1T.@pl)
+aoj(301731351:2H, 107935504:27.@topic)
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+plc(301731351:2H, 101097292:3H.@def)
+aoj(301568684:0L, 104893787:0S.@def)
+qua(107935504:27.@topic, 105108740:1T.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5285]
+{org:en}
+This implies that as country's trade in commodities, they are actually importing and exporting water in a virtual sense.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200929839:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+plc(100606370:0X, 103076708:16.@pl)
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+man(:01, 600000023:0K)
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+obj(200929839:07.@entry, :01:01)
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+and:01(201379097:2F.@entry.@progress, 202232722:21.@progress)
+obj(600000023:0K, 100606370:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5286]
+{org:en}
+An example from the Middle East will suffice.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202669789:13.@entry.@will, 105820620:05.@topic.@indef)
+frm(105820620:05.@topic.@indef, 115668722:0M.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5287]
+{org:en}
+Prof. Tony Allan notes that as much water that enters the Middle East region as virtual water in the form of subsidised grain purchases as flows down the Nile annually.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201020005:0J.@entry, 107935504:12)
+mod(105221895:20.@def, 115668722:1O)
+man(600000155:0X, 400516638:0U)
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+obj(600000192:43, 500005655:4C.@def)
+aoj(115693009:02, 500322987:08.@topic)
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+man(200217427:3X, 400081737:4H)
+qua(107935504:12, 600000155:0X)
+mod(100079018:3K.@pl, 104950713:3E)
+gol(201082606:1D, 105221895:20.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5288]
+{org:en}
+He also concludes that hydrological systems are therefore subordinate to the IPE of which they are a part.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200715074:0A.@entry, 600000021:02.@topic)
+bas(300792991:1O, 500323544:27.@def)
+aoj(300792991:1O, 104377057:12.@pl)
+aoj(303161050:0P, 104377057:12.@pl)
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+aoj(300792991:1O, 104377057:12.@pl)
+aoj(303161050:0P, 104377057:12.@pl)
+obj(200715074:0A.@entry, 300792991:1O)
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+man(200715074:0A.@entry, 400047534:05)
+pof(103892891:2V.@indef, 500323544:27.@def)
+pof(103892891:2V.@indef, 500323544:27.@def)
+man(300792991:1O, 400043003:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5289]
+{org:en}
+Global food trade has the capacity to augment water supplies on the scale needed to meet the growing demands of the rising population of semi-arid and arid regions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0K.@entry, 100606370:0E.@topic)
+mod(101061333:2U.@def.@pl, 303070879:2M)
+mod(113563522:1I.@pl, 107935504:1C)
+aoj(301568684:02, 100606370:0E.@topic)
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+mod(101257969:3G.@def, 105221895:4D.@pl)
+aoj(301580775:24, 101902877:1Y.@def)
+mod(100606370:0E.@topic, 100021265:09)
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+and:01(300806991:48.@entry, 303162085:3U)
+mod(101061333:2U.@def.@pl, 101257969:3G.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5290]
+{org:en}
+The trade in virtual water can therefore be seen as a WDM strategy, to supplement water resources where they are scarce.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200662589:1A.@entry.@ability, 100606370:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(202342132:21, 105154676:2I.@pl)
+pur(106249177:1O.@indef, 202342132:21)
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+aoj(300016756:37, 600000020:2Y.@topic)
+gol(200662589:1A.@entry.@ability, 106249177:1O.@indef)
+mod(105154676:2I.@pl, 107935504:2C)
+man(200662589:1A.@entry.@ability, 400043003:0X)
+plc(300016756:37, 105154676:2I.@pl)
+plc(300016756:37, 105154676:2I.@pl)
+mod(106249177:1O.@indef, 500323532:1K)
+plc(100606370:06.@topic.@def, 115669250:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5291]
+{org:en}
+Virtual water is not only present on the world food market.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301731351:0S.@entry, 115669250:02.@topic)
+mod(101097292:1I.@def, 100021265:1D)
+mod(101097292:1I.@def, 100021265:1D)
+man(301731351:0S.@entry, 400535232:0J)
+plc(301731351:0S.@entry, 101097292:1I.@def)
+mod(100021265:1D, 105670972:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5292]
+{org:en}
+Regional markets are also an important source of food commodities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104263614:15.@entry.@indef, 101097292:0B.@topic.@pl)
+mod(101097292:0B.@topic.@pl, 302408977:02)
+aoj(301275562:0V, 104263614:15.@entry.@indef)
+mod(101097292:0B.@topic.@pl, 302408977:02)
+aoj(301275562:0V, 104263614:15.@entry.@indef)
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+mod(104263614:15.@entry.@indef, 103076708:1K.@pl)
+mod(103076708:1K.@pl, 100021265:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5293]
+{org:en}
+Intra-regional trade in food is a very important aspect of regional trade within the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(104733118:1F.@entry.@indef, 600000042:24)
+equ(500323523:3J.@parenthesis, 500323656:2F.@def)
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+man(301275562:15, 400031899:10)
+mod(105221895:3P, 500323656:2F.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5294]
+{org:en}
+Countries in SADC region trade with each other not only as regards to foodstuffs or virtual water, but they also trade with other countries in the global economy.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202259005:0R.@entry, 600000037:2T)
+agt(202259005:37.@should, 600000020:2X)
+obj(400071050:1M, :01)
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+obj(600000037:2T, 202259005:37.@should)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5295]
+{org:en}
+This infers a duality when it comes to trade in virtual water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202775013:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+pur(200341917:0W, 202259005:15)
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+obj(202259005:15, 107935504:1M)
+obj(200341917:0W, 600000016:0T.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5296]
+{org:en}
+On a regional scale the proposed SADC Free Trade Area (FTA) is an example of globalisation on a regional scale, where countries are interdependent on each other concerning their food trade and food security.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(105820620:1W.@entry.@indef, 400536272:02)
+mod(100823316:5K, 600000020:4U.@pl)
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+obj(400535767:4J, 100823316:5K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5297]
+{org:en}
+The SADC FTA is a typical example of trade integration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105820620:0S.@entry.@indef, 500323569:0B.@topic.@def)
+mod(100871418:19, 100606370:13)
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+mod(105820620:0S.@entry.@indef, 100871418:19)
+mod(500323569:0B.@topic.@def, 500323523:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5298]
+{org:en}
+As trade integration grows, so does interdependence.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201619014:0X.@entry, 600000102:02)
+obj(202776457:0N, 100871418:0B)
+obj(600000102:02, 202776457:0N)
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+man(201619014:0X.@entry, 400099868:0U)
+mod(100871418:0B, 100606370:05)
+mod(100871418:0B, 100606370:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5299]
+{org:en}
+Because the countries in SADC are predominantly developing countries, with the agricultural sector dominating economics in certain member states, virtual water is also of great importance to trade on a regional scale.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5300]
+{org:en}
+It can be expected that as trade integration in SADC grows, so to will the interdependence of the member states of the SADC region regarding agricultural commodities and virtual water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5301]
+{org:en}
+The importance of virtual water, as a consequential aspect of political economy, can be narrowed down still further to the national level.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5302]
+{org:en}
+Trade in agricultural commodities is important to a state in two respects
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5303]
+{org:en}
+it allows for the importation of virtual water and it permits the generation of foreign currency to balance out virtual water costs.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5304]
+{org:en}
+On a national level in economies such as those found in Canada, the USA and countries of Central Europe there is an abundance of viable, mainly rainfed agricultural production.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5305]
+{org:en}
+The governments of these grain-producing states often subsidise their farmers, which infers that the virtual water content of that grain is both high in volume, and cheap in price.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5306]
+{org:en}
+The water budget of a country can be balanced in the following ways
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5307]
+{org:en}
+By purchasing water-intensive agricultural commodities from states with a natural surplus.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5308]
+{org:en}
+By re-directing the water-short economy away from a policy of food self-sufficiency towards one of food security.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5309]
+{org:en}
+The world food market is an important source of food supply for many developing countries, especially those states where output is constrained by natural and other factors.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:5310]
+{org:en}
+Developing countries' dependence on trade is growing.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5311]
+{org:en}
+Over the period 1970-90, food consumption grew 10 % faster than production in the developing world.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:5312]
+{org:en}
+With respect to cereals, imports accounted for some 14 % of the domestic consumption of developing states in 1994, up from less than 10 % 20 years earlier.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5313]
+{org:en}
+To import a commodity generally means that it can be procured more cheaply than it can be produced domestically, give or take a few export subsidies and protectionist policies.
+{/org}
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+man(201621555:2Q.@ability, 400321366:2Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5314]
+{org:en}
+Some countries will aim at food self-sufficiency for specific reasons.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5315]
+{org:en}
+It makes better sense to follow a more flexible policy of food self-reliance coupled with that of food self-sufficiency where possible.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5316]
+{org:en}
+This implies that developing states' reliance on trade in foodstuffs on the global market will, in the future, increase exponentially with that of socio-economic development and political stability.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:5317]
+{org:en}
+The perspective of virtual water sheds light on 'alternative' water resources in that it place emphasis on the international trade of commodities, especially, but not exclusively, on food stuffs.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Another perspective regarding visible water resources is that of blue water and green water.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Here the significance is the interaction humans have with nature and the ecological processes within life support systems.
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+{org:en}
+Blue and Green Water
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+In the recent past as well as at present the approach to freshwater resources has centred only on specific aspects, while overlooking others which are equally, or more important, for human development.
+{/org}
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+For instance, the quality problem with respect to freshwater looked only at the pollution problem.
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+There is thus an invisibility regarding freshwater and the water related ecosystem services that is quite important with respect to direct freshwater services.
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+[S:5325]
+{org:en}
+This freshwater resources that is concealed in the soil and involved in the production of plants where it establish a green water vapour flow (evapotranspiration) back to the atmosphere.
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+[S:5326]
+{org:en}
+Yet, water is also discernible as blue water which occurs in rivers and streams, lakes, wetlands, bogs, and also partially in acquifers which trickle back into terrestrial water bodies via springs and wells.
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+{org:en}
+Both green water and blue water makes up large components of the hydrologic system and interacts in such a manner that the one cannot exist without the other, with ecosystems also highly dependent on these type of water resources.
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+{org:en}
+The concept of green water was introduced at an informal workshop organised by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) in 1993 in order to reduce the invisibility of freshwater aspects contained in the water discourse literature.
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+
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+{org:en}
+Most literature on desertification and the interdependence on soil and water ignores the special attention that is paid to invisible water resources and tend more to focus on the visible aspects of soil and water.
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+{org:en}
+The definition of green water originally referred to soil moisture needed for the production of plants.
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+Blue water, on the other hand, concerned the water that passed trough acquifers and rivers.
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+[S:5333]
+{org:en}
+In other words, water seen in the traditional sense.
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+{org:en}
+The FAO accepted the venture in order to shed light on the conventional land/water dichotomy to change it towards the acceptance that land is a system which is transmitted by water and that the use of land is both dependent and impacted by water.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The concepts was slightly modified by the FAO and was used to refer to the vertical and horizontal tributaries in the water balance.
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+{unl}
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+{org:en}
+Green water was therefore referred to as vertical water and blue water as horizontal water.
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+aoj(300375969:02, 107935504:08.@topic)
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+
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+{org:en}
+Green water was seen as the fragment of water that evaporated.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:5338]
+{org:en}
+This subsequently was defined as the water supply for all non-irrigated plants, including forests and woodlands, grasslands and rain-fed crops.
+{/org}
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+[S:5339]
+{org:en}
+The green water section of the flow of global and regional water resources can be summarised as follows.
+{/org}
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+[S:5340]
+{org:en}
+The earth's surface is wetted by precipitation.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5341]
+{org:en}
+The water that falls on the landscape replies with two main water flows which is produced through the apportionment of the falling precipitation at ground level.
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+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:5342]
+{org:en}
+The vertical water vapour flows along the green water branch and involves the production of plants.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5343]
+{org:en}
+Water is sucked up by the roots of plants and is channelled throughout the entire organism.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Of all the water that is taken up by plants, only a small amount is consolidated as raw material in the plant production process and changed into plant matter (fibre) and oxygen.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+The rest of the water balance is released back into the atmosphere through the process of evapotranspiration when stomata unclose to take in other raw material like carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas; see HTM1 The Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources: An Overview HTM2 ) from the air.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Yet, green water does not only involve the evaporation of water via plants.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Water can also evaporate from wet surfaces such as rivers, lakes and human made reservoirs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+This is the non-productive component of green water.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+There is also a productive constituent attached to the green water equation, which involves plant production.
+{/org}
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+aoj(300375969:1L, 100185307:1X.@def)
+obj(301973311:15, 100185307:1X.@def)
+mod(100522736:2S, 100017222:2M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5350]
+{org:en}
+This component is vital for the production of, for instance, agricultural commodities and timber.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300095094:0K.@entry, 600000122:1D)
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+aoj:01(302790222:1R, 103076708:24.@pl)
+obj(600000122:1D, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5351]
+{org:en}
+However, the non-productive route is involved in a number of eco-system services which can also be productive, but in an abstract sense only.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200401538:13.@entry, 600000070:02)
+aoj(300011757:3I, 105651971:3R.@indef)
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+man(301865197:2W.@ability, 400047534:2O)
+obj(200401538:13.@entry, 115690279:0U.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301867189:0F, 115690279:0U.@topic.@def)
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+aoj(301867189:0F, 115690279:0U.@topic.@def)
+plc(301865197:2W.@ability, 105651971:3R.@indef)
+qua(100098625:22.@pl, 600000054:1F)
+man(105651971:3R.@indef, 400535197:3X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5352]
+{org:en}
+This involves the economic valuation, of sort, of some aquatic eco-systems such as wetlands and marches.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200401538:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+aoj(600000029:26, 108368757:1U.@pl)
+aoj(400535961:14, 113305673:0T.@def)
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+aoj(400535961:14, 113305673:0T.@def)
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+aoj(300124077:1M, 108368757:1U.@pl)
+obj(200401538:07.@entry, 113305673:0T.@def)
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+qua(108368757:1U.@pl, 600000034:1H)
+mod(113305673:0T.@def, 300840212:0K)
+and:01(100282840:2R.@entry.@pl, 109477890:2E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5353]
+{org:en}
+The blue water, or horizontal, branch is composed of the water that flows under the earth's surface via acquifers and above the ground through the rivers flowing through the landscape.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201626138:16.@entry, :01:01)
+obj:02(600000045:3R, 109411430:43.@def.@pl)
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+obj:02(600000164:2S, 115690419:2W.@pl)
+mod:02(103462594:3K.@def, 600000045:3R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5354]
+{org:en}
+These flows are driven by gravity which moves the water to lower levels in the landscape and eventually (but not in all cases such as the Okavango River basin in Southern Africa) into seas and oceans.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201026975:0I.@entry, 100329227:08.@topic.@pl)
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+man:03(:01.@entry.@parenthesis, 400535301:2N)
+obj:03(600000051:22, 103640011:29.@def)
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+and:03(:01.@entry.@parenthesis, 400535853:1M)
+mod:01(102801525:4B.@def, 500323588:3W)
+and:03(:01.@entry.@parenthesis, 400535853:1M)
+man:03(301206474:1P, 400099341:62)
+man(200124442:16, :03.@parenthesis)
+aoj:03(600000051:22, 105093890:1V.@pl)
+obj:01(600000068:3K.@entry, 102801525:4B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5355]
+{org:en}
+There is therefore two routes that are taken by the blue water branch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202603699:08.@entry, 115690279:0P.@pl)
+aoj(300370869:1I, 108401248:1T.@def)
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+aoj(300370869:1I, 108401248:1T.@def)
+obj(200523095:15, 115690279:0P.@pl)
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+man(202603699:08.@entry, 400043003:0B)
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+mod(108401248:1T.@def, 107935504:1N)
+agt(200523095:15, 108401248:1T.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5356]
+{org:en}
+ground water and terrestrial water flows.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100329227:10.@entry.@pl, 107935504:08)
+mod(107935504:08, 103462594:02)
+mod(107935504:08, 103462594:02)
+mod(100329227:10.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0U)
+aoj(300124918:0I, 100329227:10.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5357]
+{org:en}
+This branch of (blue) water flows is very important, especially when considering the hydrological based projections of water needs to a growing world population (see HTM1 the impact of demographics and water resources HTM2 ), food production (see HTM3 the impact of El Ni?±o on water resources HTM4 ) and other water related services such as navigation and hydro-power generation (see HTM5 the impact of climate change on freshwater resources, flooding and drought HTM6 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+to(109367991:3G.@pl, :07:07)
+pur:07(:03.@parenthesis, 100522736:6O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5358]
+{org:en}
+The flows of blue water resources represents the availability of water for use to satisfy the needs for socio-economic development in human societies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+pur(100947128:23, 201816431:2A)
+aoj(301258617:3Q, 107966140:3W.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5359]
+{org:en}
+These flows constitute about 40000 cubic kilometres per year ( HTM1 ) which have been subject to manipulations, by humans and other living organisms such as beavers, to make water available where and when it is in demand.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202620587:0E.@entry, 100329227:08.@topic.@pl)
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+aoj:02(600001335:6A, 600000016:64.@topic)
+tim:02(200012267:4X, :01:01.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5360]
+{org:en}
+These controls of blue water are in the form of dams, reservoirs, canals, pipelines, irrigation systems, water purification plants, etc. and constitute a large component of human water services across the entire globe.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(100017222:3I.@pl, 107935504:2Z)
+mod(103440512:5W.@def, 300515380:5P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5361]
+{org:en}
+In spite of the staggering increase in blue water, through large dams and reservoirs, the volume of readily accessible blue water is much smaller than the green water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5362]
+{org:en}
+In fact, it is estimated that the global green water flow is about twice as large as the gross blue water flow i.e. around 125 000 HTM1.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5363]
+{org:en}
+Whereas blue water flows are manipulated and mobilised in a more or less direct fashion, green water flows are indirectly exploited through a number of landscape activities like urbanization, reforestation, deforestation, crop production, influencing the division between blue and green water through infiltration and the uptake of water via plant roots.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5364]
+{org:en}
+It should be noted that green water should not be confused with virtual water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5365]
+{org:en}
+Whereas virtual water accounts for water used in the production of all commodities, green water has to do with the evaporation of water from plants, such as grain, maize, sugar cane timber and a host of other economically and non-economically usable plant species.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5366]
+{org:en}
+The access to safe water, to aquatic ecosystem services including food production (food stuffs and fish) and to economic generation (industrial production etc.) are some of the most important elements in order to realise human livelihood security.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5367]
+{org:en}
+All these activities regarding socio-economic development depend on human interventions with blue as well as green water flows.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5368]
+{org:en}
+Human societies therefore gain directly from both these branches of freshwater.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5369]
+{org:en}
+From the green water portion of the hydrologic system biomass production (food, fibre, fuel wood and timber) is derived, and from the blue water section water dependent societal water uses, which include inter alia water supply, households, irrigation, hydro-electricity, navigation and industries.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:5370]
+{org:en}
+Societies, on the other hand, also benefit indirectly via a number of ecosystem services supplied by both blue water and green water.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5371]
+{org:en}
+Blue and green water are therefore two significant water resources on which socio-economic development rests.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Sustainable development of human societies will, in light of the changing water paradigm, be quite an important issue when it comes to the exploitation of these water resources.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5373]
+{org:en}
+Freshwater Quantity, Quality and Distribution Across the Globe and in Regions
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(:01.@entry, 303161011:02)
+plc(:01.@entry, 105221895:20.@pl)
+aoj(600000069:1C, :01.@entry)
+plc(:01.@entry, 105221895:20.@pl)
+aoj(600000069:1C, :01.@entry)
+and:01(104723816:0N, 105108740:0D)
+and:01(101083077:0Z.@entry, 104723816:0N)
+and(105221895:20.@pl, 600000069:1C)
+and(105221895:20.@pl, 600000069:1C)
+obj(600000069:1C, 103440512:1N.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5374]
+{org:en}
+From outer space, earth is the water planet.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plf(109394007:13.@entry.@def, 115669197:07)
+mod(109394007:13.@entry.@def, 107935504:0X)
+aoj(109394007:13.@entry.@def, 108562067:0K.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5375]
+{org:en}
+There seems to be a hidden irony in the term 'earth' because three-quarters of the earth's surface is covered with water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(202603699:08.@seem.@entry, 200048633:2W)
+mod(104362025:2L.@def, 108562067:2D)
+obj(200048633:2W, 101258579:1X.@pl)
+aoj(302089377:0M, 104715075:0T.@indef)
+qua(104362025:2L.@def, 101258579:1X.@pl)
+mod(104362025:2L.@def, 108562067:2D)
+obj(200048633:2W, 101258579:1X.@pl)
+aoj(302089377:0M, 104715075:0T.@indef)
+qua(104362025:2L.@def, 101258579:1X.@pl)
+plc(104715075:0T.@indef, 105855904:16.@def)
+obj(600000018:33, 107935504:38)
+aoj(202603699:08.@seem.@entry, 104715075:0T.@indef)
+man(200048633:2W, 600000018:33)
+man(200048633:2W, 600000018:33)
+cnt(105855904:16.@def, 108562067:1C.@single_quote)
+qua(101258579:1X.@pl, "3":1R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5376]
+{org:en}
+It looks, as one Apollo astronaut put it, like a "blue marble against the black velvet ". background of outer space.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202665617:05.@entry, 600000016:02)
+agt(201160370:17.@past, 109818022:0X.@topic)
+aoj:01(600000170:24, 103721047:1X.@entry)
+mod(102769075:30.@indef, :01.@single_quote)
+mod(109818022:0X.@topic, 500006186:0Q)
+aoj:01(300114797:2G, 104525038:2M.@def)
+agt(201160370:17.@past, 109818022:0X.@topic)
+aoj:01(600000170:24, 103721047:1X.@entry)
+mod(102769075:30.@indef, :01.@single_quote)
+mod(109818022:0X.@topic, 500006186:0Q)
+aoj:01(300114797:2G, 104525038:2M.@def)
+man(202665617:05.@entry, 600000008:0J)
+qua(109818022:0X.@topic, "1":0M)
+obj:01(600000170:24, 104525038:2M.@def)
+obj(202665617:05.@entry, 102769075:30.@indef)
+obj(201160370:17.@past, 600000016:1B)
+aoj:01(300370869:1S, 103721047:1X.@entry)
+obj(201160370:17.@past, 600000016:1B)
+aoj:01(300370869:1S, 103721047:1X.@entry)
+mod(102769075:30.@indef, 115669197:3E)
+obj(600000008:0J.@entry, 201160370:17.@past)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5377]
+{org:en}
+Life and life support systems on earth are possible only because of the precise ranges of temperature and pressure found in the atmosphere of our living planet.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301821266:19.@entry, 104377057:0O.@topic.@pl)
+mod(109394007:4B, 600000005:40)
+aoj(301837744:22, 104053218:2A.@def.@pl)
+and:01(100006269:0B.@entry, 100006269:02)
+obj(600000012:1N, 104053218:2A.@def.@pl)
+mod(104377057:0O.@topic.@pl, 100971463:0G)
+plc(200715239:39, 108499057:3M.@def)
+mod(109394007:4B, 600000005:40)
+aoj(301837744:22, 104053218:2A.@def.@pl)
+and:01(100006269:0B.@entry, 100006269:02)
+obj(600000012:1N, 104053218:2A.@def.@pl)
+mod(104377057:0O.@topic.@pl, 100971463:0G)
+plc(200715239:39, 108499057:3M.@def)
+man(301821266:19.@entry, 400535197:1I)
+plc(104377057:0O.@topic.@pl, 108562067:0Z)
+and:02(100113113:30.@entry, 105011790:2K)
+rsn(301821266:19.@entry, 600000012:1N)
+aoj(300005839:44, 109394007:4B)
+obj(200715239:39, :02)
+aoj(300005839:44, 109394007:4B)
+obj(200715239:39, :02)
+mod(104053218:2A.@def.@pl, :02)
+mod(100971463:0G, :01)
+mod(108499057:3M.@def, 109394007:4B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5378]
+{org:en}
+Accordingly, the life forms found on earth cannot exist if it were not for a number of substances found in the earth/atmosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(202603699:1G.@entry.@ability.@not, 600000199:21.@past)
+qua(100019613:2H.@pl, 600000054:25)
+plc(200715239:0U, 108562067:13)
+obj(200715239:0U, 103384535:0O.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000025:3A, 108499057:3B)
+obj(600000199:21.@past, 100019613:2H.@pl)
+qua(100019613:2H.@pl, 600000054:25)
+plc(200715239:0U, 108562067:13)
+obj(200715239:0U, 103384535:0O.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000025:3A, 108499057:3B)
+obj(600000199:21.@past, 100019613:2H.@pl)
+aoj(202603699:1G.@entry.@ability.@not, 103384535:0O.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(600000025:3A, 108562067:35.@def)
+man(600000199:21.@past, 400024073:1X)
+man(202603699:1G.@entry.@ability.@not, 400063089:02)
+plc(200715239:2S, 108562067:35.@def)
+aoj(600000199:21.@past, 600000016:1P.@topic)
+plc(200715239:2S, 108562067:35.@def)
+aoj(600000199:21.@past, 600000016:1P.@topic)
+mod(103384535:0O.@topic.@def.@pl, 100006269:0J)
+obj(200715239:2S, 100019613:2H.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5379]
+{org:en}
+These elements are highly interdependent and consists of fire, air, earth, and water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202774237:1B.@entry, 300726445:0S)
+and:01(104727214:1T, 100986938:1N)
+and:01(107935504:29.@entry, 108562067:1Y)
+mod(105868954:08.@topic.@pl, 600000022:02.@pl)
+and:01(104727214:1T, 100986938:1N)
+and:01(107935504:29.@entry, 108562067:1Y)
+mod(105868954:08.@topic.@pl, 600000022:02.@pl)
+obj(202774237:1B.@entry, :01:01)
+man(300726445:0S, 400089267:0L)
+aoj(202774237:1B.@entry, 105868954:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300726445:0S, 105868954:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300726445:0S, 105868954:08.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(108562067:1Y, 104727214:1T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5380]
+{org:en}
+Together with the precise ranges of temperature and pressure, these elements, form the backbone of life on our planet.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200144850:27.@entry, 600000113:02)
+and:01(100113113:1I.@entry, 105011790:12)
+mod(109394007:34, 600000005:30)
+mod(102768433:2G.@def, 100006269:2S)
+mod(104053218:0S.@def.@pl, :01)
+and:01(100113113:1I.@entry, 105011790:12)
+mod(109394007:34, 600000005:30)
+mod(102768433:2G.@def, 100006269:2S)
+mod(104053218:0S.@def.@pl, :01)
+obj(200144850:27.@entry, 102768433:2G.@def)
+obj(600000113:02, 104053218:0S.@def.@pl)
+agt(200144850:27.@entry, 105868954:1Y.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105868954:1Y.@topic.@pl, 600000017:1S)
+mod(105868954:1Y.@topic.@pl, 600000017:1S)
+plc(100006269:2S, 109394007:34)
+aoj(301837744:0K, 104053218:0S.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5381]
+{org:en}
+Without the precise variables in an interdependent state of change, life would not have been possible.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(301821266:2N.@entry.@will.@past.@not.@complete, 600000043:02)
+mod(100024720:1H.@indef, 100191142:1Q)
+plc(105857459:0M.@def.@pl, 100024720:1H.@indef)
+mod(100024720:1H.@indef, 100191142:1Q)
+plc(105857459:0M.@def.@pl, 100024720:1H.@indef)
+obj(600000043:02, 105857459:0M.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301821266:2N.@entry.@will.@past.@not.@complete, 100006269:1Y.@topic)
+aoj(300726445:12, 100024720:1H.@indef)
+aoj(300726445:12, 100024720:1H.@indef)
+aoj(301837744:0E, 105857459:0M.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5382]
+{org:en}
+Consequently, our planet would have had the same characteristics as the moon and Mars - lifeless, desolate and inhospitable places.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200065370:12.@entry.@complete, 400062857:02)
+and:02(301232507:2S, 300097768:2I)
+obj(600000061:1V, :01)
+aoj(600000061:1V, 104731497:1F.@def.@pl)
+aoj(:02, 100721431:3I.@pl)
+and:02(301232507:2S, 300097768:2I)
+obj(600000061:1V, :01)
+aoj(600000061:1V, 104731497:1F.@def.@pl)
+aoj(:02, 100721431:3I.@pl)
+obj(200065370:12.@entry.@complete, 104731497:1F.@def.@pl)
+and:01(115694029:2B.@entry.@def, 109358226:22.@def)
+aoj(200065370:12.@entry.@complete, 109394007:0K)
+mod(109394007:0K.@entry, 600000005:0G)
+cnt(:01, 100721431:3I.@pl)
+mod(109394007:0K.@entry, 600000005:0G)
+cnt(:01, 100721431:3I.@pl)
+aoj(300355611:1A, 104731497:1F.@def.@pl)
+and:02(301242489:35.@entry, 301232507:2S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5383]
+{org:en}
+Although water is present on the surface of these heavenly bodies, other minerals or resources are absent, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide (see HTM1 The Impact of Climate change on Water Resources:An Overview HTM2 ), which gives the Moon and Mars their characteristic desert landscapes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300165171:2T.@entry, 600000038:02)
+obj(600000038:02, 301731351:0K)
+obj:03(107338552:4D.@colon.@def, 100191142:4V)
+mod(114836127:3R, :02)
+or:01(114662574:23.@pl, 115693830:1G.@pl)
+and:04(115694029:6U.@entry.@def, 109358226:6L.@def)
+agt(200108604:6B, 114836127:3R)
+mod(104362025:0Z.@def, :01)
+obj(200108604:6B, 103640011:7R.@pl)
+cnt:03(107338552:4D.@colon.@def, 106469223:5O.@indef)
+obj(600000038:02, 301731351:0K)
+obj:03(107338552:4D.@colon.@def, 100191142:4V)
+mod(114836127:3R, :02)
+or:01(114662574:23.@pl, 115693830:1G.@pl)
+and:04(115694029:6U.@entry.@def, 109358226:6L.@def)
+agt(200108604:6B, 114836127:3R)
+mod(104362025:0Z.@def, :01)
+obj(200108604:6B, 103640011:7R.@pl)
+cnt:03(107338552:4D.@colon.@def, 106469223:5O.@indef)
+mod(103640011:7R.@pl, 108505573:7K)
+obj(600000068:31, 114836127:3R)
+plc(301731351:0K, 104362025:0Z.@def)
+mod:03(105154676:5B.@colon.@pl, 107935504:55)
+obj:03(200662589:40.@entry, 107338552:4D.@colon.@def)
+mod:01(115693830:1G.@pl, 600000017:1A)
+aoj(300356926:75, 103640011:7R.@pl)
+man(300165171:2T.@entry, 600000068:31)
+aoj(301731351:0K, 107935504:0B.@topic)
+mod:03(100191142:4V, 114519366:4N)
+and:02(102961851:3K.@entry, 114648100:39)
+aoj(301731351:0K, 107935504:0B.@topic)
+mod:03(100191142:4V, 114519366:4N)
+and:02(102961851:3K.@entry, 114648100:39)
+mod:01(114662574:23.@pl, 600000031:1X)
+mod(103640011:7R.@pl, 600000020:6Z.@pl)
+pur(:03.@parenthesis, 114836127:3R)
+or:01(105154676:2F.@entry.@pl, 114662574:23.@pl)
+gol(200108604:6B, :04)
+plc:03(107338552:4D.@colon.@def, 105154676:5B.@colon.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5384]
+{org:en}
+Distribution and Quantity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105108740:0J.@entry, 101083077:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5385]
+{org:en}
+An extraordinarily feature of water on the planet is that not all water is fresh, and fit for human consumption and the other activities on which we depend for sustainable socio-economic development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 103325769:0L.@topic.@indef)
+aoj:02(302806261:4I, 100250259:59)
+mod:01(100407535:3K.@entry.@def.@pl, 600000031:3E)
+plc(107935504:0W, 109394007:19.@def)
+obj:02(303162567:2G.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(103325769:0L.@topic.@indef, 107935504:0W)
+aoj:02(202663848:47, 600000005:44)
+aoj:02(302806261:4I, 100250259:59)
+mod:01(100407535:3K.@entry.@def.@pl, 600000031:3E)
+plc(107935504:0W, 109394007:19.@def)
+obj:02(303162567:2G.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(103325769:0L.@topic.@indef, 107935504:0W)
+aoj:02(202663848:47, 600000005:44)
+and:02(303162567:2G.@entry, 300205295:25)
+qua(107935504:1W.@topic, 600000011:1S.@not)
+obj:02(202663848:47, :01)
+aoj(:02.@entry, 107935504:1W.@topic)
+aoj:02(303161054:4U, 100250259:59)
+aoj:01(301258617:2O, 100356367:2U)
+aoj:02(303161054:4U, 100250259:59)
+aoj:01(301258617:2O, 100356367:2U)
+and:01(100407535:3K.@entry.@def.@pl, 100356367:2U.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303163234:05, 103325769:0L.@topic.@indef)
+pur:02(202663848:47, 100250259:59)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5386]
+{org:en}
+The total reserve of water on earth stands at around 1 360 million cubic kilometres ( HTM1 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202775153:12.@entry, 104652438:0C.@topic.@def)
+bas(600000129:1C, "1000000":1P)
+aoj(300657198:1X, 113659760:23.@pl)
+qua(104652438:0C.@topic.@def, 303160907:06)
+bas(600000129:1C, "1000000":1P)
+aoj(300657198:1X, 113659760:23.@pl)
+qua(104652438:0C.@topic.@def, 303160907:06)
+cnt(113659760:23.@pl, HTM1:2G.@parenthesis)
+obj(104652438:0C.@topic.@def, 107935504:0N)
+obj(202775153:12.@entry, 113659760:23.@pl)
+qua("1000000":1P, "1360":1J)
+qua("1000000":1P, "1360":1J)
+man(300657198:1X, 600000129:1C)
+plc(107935504:0N, 108562067:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5387]
+{org:en}
+Of this vast amount, 97 % is stored in the oceans.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202281093:11.@entry, "97%":0Q.@topic)
+mod(100033615:0I.@topic, 600000017:08)
+mod(100033615:0I.@topic, 600000017:08)
+pof("97%":0Q.@topic, 100033615:0I)
+plc(202281093:11.@entry, 109376198:1F.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303161287:0D, 100033615:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5388]
+{org:en}
+Fresh water makes up the other three percent or 37 million HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200040928:0D.@entry, 107935504:07.@topic)
+mod:01(115689109:12.@def, 600000031:0Q)
+qua:01(HTM1:1O.@entry, "1000000":1G)
+mod:01(115689109:12.@def, 600000031:0Q)
+qua:01(HTM1:1O.@entry, "1000000":1G)
+or:01(HTM1:1O.@entry, 115689109:12.@def)
+aoj(300205295:02, 107935504:07.@topic)
+man(200040928:0D.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(115689109:12.@def, "3":0W)
+mod:01(115689109:12.@def, "3":0W)
+qua:01("1000000":1G, "37":1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5389]
+{org:en}
+Of this residual, 75 % is locked up in glaciers and icebergs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201348452:0R.@entry, "75%":0K.@topic)
+pof("75%":0K.@topic, 113292989:0A)
+pof("75%":0K.@topic, 113292989:0A)
+and:01(109308572:1H.@entry.@pl, 109289331:14.@pl)
+plc(201348452:0R.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(113292989:0A, 600000017:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5390]
+{org:en}
+Aquifers store another 8 million HTM1 of fresh water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202281093:0B.@entry, 109201998:02.@topic.@pl)
+qua(HTM1:0Z, "1000000":0R)
+aoj(300205295:17, 107935504:1D)
+qua(HTM1:0Z, "1000000":0R)
+aoj(300205295:17, 107935504:1D)
+qua(107935504:1D, HTM1:0Z)
+obj(202281093:0B.@entry, 107935504:1D)
+qua("1000000":0R, "8":0P)
+qua("1000000":0R, "8":0P)
+mod(HTM1:0Z, 600000066:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5391]
+{org:en}
+Only 200 000 HTM1 of the 1 360 million HTM2 can be found in rivers, lakes and wetlands.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202775107:1H.@entry.@ability, HTM2:15.@topic.@def)
+qua(HTM2:15.@topic.@def, "1000000":0X)
+and:01(109328904:1Y.@pl, 109411430:1Q.@pl)
+qua(HTM1:0F, "200000":07)
+qua(HTM2:15.@topic.@def, "1000000":0X)
+and:01(109328904:1Y.@pl, 109411430:1Q.@pl)
+qua(HTM1:0F, "200000":07)
+and:01(109477890:28.@entry.@pl, 109328904:1Y.@pl)
+mod(HTM1:0F, 303161004:02)
+plc(202775107:1H.@entry.@ability, :01:01)
+qua("1000000":0X, "1360":0R)
+qua("1000000":0X, "1360":0R)
+qua(HTM2:15.@topic.@def, HTM1:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5392]
+{org:en}
+We can therefore see that, although water is a common element to be found in every sector of the biosphere, that only part of that reserve can be used to keep humans alive and our complex socio-economic societies from going.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200662589:0J.@entry.@ability, 201158572:44.@ability)
+aoj(105868954:1K.@indef, 107935504:12.@topic)
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+mod(100562643:1C.@topic, 301258617:16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5407]
+{org:en}
+In other words, our water related activities have an impact on the quantity and quality (discussed in more detail below) of water resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5408]
+{org:en}
+From a political science perspective, terms like state sovereignty and government control can only be applied to a certain section of the entire hydrologic cycle.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5409]
+{org:en}
+The reason for this is that water falls under government control and state sovereignty only while it is on the territory of a given state entity, which is furthermore a temporary phase in the development of that water resource.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:02(100001740:3W.@indef, 100024720:3Q)
+obj:02(600000004:2M, 105999134:35.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5410]
+{org:en}
+In spite of that, a country can still utilise the water under its control even if it is not on its territory anymore.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774712:14.@entry.@ability, 600000137:24)
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+obj(600000137:24, 105999134:2T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5411]
+{org:en}
+Examples of these non-territorial uses of water would be the desalinisation of sea water and, in theory, cloud seeding.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(302408611:0O.@not, 100947128:10.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5412]
+{org:en}
+Nonetheless, the momentary condition of terrestrial water can be explained by looking at the behaviour of water after it had precipitated as rain, hail or snow over state territories.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200939277:1V.@entry.@ability, 400535900:02)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5413]
+{org:en}
+It will
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(:08.@entry.@will, 600000016:02.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5414]
+{org:en}
+After a certain duration either flow out of the territory into a river that is under the sovereign and governmental control of a given state
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200217427:0Y.@entry, 600000002:02)
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+obj(600000002:02, 105051249:0I.@indef)
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+obj(600000002:02, 105051249:0I.@indef)
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+and:01(301814711:2V.@entry, 300792641:2H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5415]
+{org:en}
+Be absorbed into an aquifer which can also be under sovereign and governmental control
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(201540232:05.@entry, 109201998:0M.@indef)
+and:01(301814711:1W.@entry, 300792641:1I)
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+mod(100803617:29, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5416]
+{org:en}
+Evaporate back into the atmosphere or
+{/org}
+{unl}
+or(:0R.@entry, 200366858:02)
+man(200366858:02, 600000218:0C)
+gol(200366858:02, 108499057:0Q.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5417]
+{org:en}
+Be collected into a lake, marsh or wetland that is also under the same control.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(201384439:05.@entry, :01)
+obj(600000009:1L, 100803617:20.@def)
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+or:01(109477890:11.@entry.@indef, 109347779:0S.@indef)
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+aoj(300355611:1V, 100803617:20.@def)
+man(600000009:1L, 400047534:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5418]
+{org:en}
+In order for humans to utilise this small amount of water it is necessary to build water supply projects to capture the water, before it flows into the ocean.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300343552:1T.@entry, 600000062:3K)
+obj(202774712:0P, 107935504:1H)
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+pur(115698436:0F.@pl, 202774712:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5419]
+{org:en}
+After such a scheme has been constructed there will be no reassurance that the water will remain in a fixed position.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5420]
+{org:en}
+It can still percolate into the ground or be lost due to evaporation by the sun's heat.
+{/org}
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+agt(201457954:0F.@ability, 600000016:02.@topic)
+ins(113572436:1N, 105725527:2C.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5421]
+{org:en}
+These water supply schemes can take a number of shapes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(113563522:0E, 107935504:08)
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+mod(105905348:0L.@topic.@pl, 113563522:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5422]
+{org:en}
+It will be either a large dam, to produce hydro-electricity (the Ruacana Dam on the Kunene River shared by Namibia and Angola), or to supply agriculture, urban and industrial areas with water (the Calueque Scheme in Angola on the Kunene River).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:03(302052333:4H, 302790222:43)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5423]
+{org:en}
+Alternatively it can involve the construction of a network of large dams with related infrastructure to transfer water from one basin to another where the water is in short supply - the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200555240:2Y, 107935504:37)
+aoj(300527870:1S, 101323493:1Y.@pl)
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+aoj(200401538:0N.@entry.@ability, 600000016:0G.@topic)
+src(200555240:2Y, 102801525:3M)
+mod(103820474:1H.@indef, 101323493:1Y.@pl)
+src(200555240:2Y, 102801525:3M)
+mod(103820474:1H.@indef, 101323493:1Y.@pl)
+aoj(500323576:5B.@def, 113563522:4Y)
+obj(200401538:0N.@entry.@ability, 100873381:0Z.@def)
+plc(113563522:4Y, 600000116:3V)
+aoj(301971237:28, 103569964:2G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5424]
+{org:en}
+It can furthermore be in the form of a pipeline, with pump stations to transport the water against the pull of gravity to centra with the greatest demand - the proposed Okavango Pipeline in Namibia is an example.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000154:0R.@entry.@ability, 600000016:05.@topic)
+mod(103946325:57.@topic.@def, 500323885:4Y)
+obj(201449974:28, 107935504:2M.@def)
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+man(301278818:43, 400536271:6S)
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+obj(600000018:3U, 101061333:4C.@def)
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+mod(103946325:57.@topic.@def, 500323885:4Y)
+obj(201449974:28, 107935504:2M.@def)
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+obj(600000018:3U, 101061333:4C.@def)
+gol(201449974:28, 105273684:3N.@pl)
+obj(200875394:4P.@past, 103946325:57.@topic.@def)
+man(600000154:0R.@entry.@ability, 400029367:0C)
+obj(100114431:34.@def, 107512147:3C)
+man(201449974:28, 600000018:3U)
+plc(103946325:57.@topic.@def, 500002940:5J)
+man(600000154:0R.@entry.@ability, 600000018:1M)
+obj(600000129:2S, 100114431:34.@def)
+mod(104306080:1W.@pl, 104021798:1R)
+obj(600000129:2S, 100114431:34.@def)
+mod(104306080:1W.@pl, 104021798:1R)
+aoj(105820620:5X.@entry.@indef, 103946325:57.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000018:1M, 104306080:1W.@pl)
+aoj(301278818:43, 101061333:4C.@def)
+man(201449974:28, 600000129:2S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5425]
+{org:en}
+Such a project can also involve an aquifer abstraction network, utilising groundwater resources (Libya's man-made river, Namibia's Karstveld groundwater supply project, and Israel's schemes that pump water from the Westbank are examples).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200401538:0Q.@entry.@ability, 105910453:09.@topic.@indef)
+mod:01(109411430:3B.@topic.@pl, 500004083:2U)
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+mod(100002137:19, 109201998:11)
+mod:01(105910453:4L.@topic.@pl, 113563522:4E)
+man(200401538:0Q.@entry.@ability, 400047534:0L)
+obj:01(200788057:5K, 107935504:5P)
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+agt:01(200788057:5K, 105905348:57.@entry.@pl)
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+src:01(200788057:5K, 500324355:64.@def)
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+mod:01(115669379:42, 500323854:3S)
+man(200401538:0Q.@entry.@ability, 202774712:1U.@progress)
+aoj:01(301573568:32, 109411430:3B)
+mod:01(105905348:57.@entry.@pl.@topic, 500003371:4Y)
+obj(202774712:1U.@progress, 105154676:2G.@pl)
+aoj:01(301573568:32, 109411430:3B)
+mod:01(105905348:57.@entry.@pl.@topic, 500003371:4Y)
+obj(202774712:1U.@progress, 105154676:2G.@pl)
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+and:01(105905348:57.@entry.@pl.@topic, 105910453:4L.@topic.@pl)
+[W]
+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5426]
+{org:en}
+In this respect, humans are an integral part of the hydrologic cycle, intervening in it and moving water, so to speak, against its will to where it is needed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(103892891:16.@entry.@indef, 600000360:02)
+gol:01(303161737:1Z.@progress, 600000016:2E)
+mod(107341038:1S.@def, 303161193:1H)
+mod(103892891:16.@entry.@indef, 107341038:1S.@def)
+mod(105652593:3O, 600000016:3K)
+and:01(200124442:2L.@entry.@progress, 303161737:1Z.@progress)
+gol:01(303161737:1Z.@progress, 600000016:2E)
+mod(107341038:1S.@def, 303161193:1H)
+mod(103892891:16.@entry.@indef, 107341038:1S.@def)
+mod(105652593:3O, 600000016:3K)
+and:01(200124442:2L.@entry.@progress, 303161737:1Z.@progress)
+agt(:01, 103892891:16.@entry.@indef)
+plc(201189113:48, 105652593:3O)
+man(:01, 600000985:2Z)
+aoj(103892891:16.@entry.@indef, 115698436:0J.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000129:3C, 105652593:3O)
+man(:01, 600000129:3C)
+obj(600000129:3C, 105652593:3O)
+man(:01, 600000129:3C)
+aoj(300515870:0X, 103892891:16.@entry.@indef)
+obj(201189113:48, 600000016:42)
+obj:01(200124442:2L.@entry.@progress, 107935504:2S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5427]
+{org:en}
+It is in these cases that the quantity and distribution of water resources come to play an important role in socio-economic development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(400536057:08.@entry, 200341917:25.@topic.@should)
+aoj(301275562:2K, 100722061:2T.@indef)
+scn(200013328:2D, 100250259:3G)
+and:01(101083077:19.@entry.@def, 105108740:0W.@def)
+aoj(301275562:2K, 100722061:2T.@indef)
+scn(200013328:2D, 100250259:3G)
+and:01(101083077:19.@entry.@def, 105108740:0W.@def)
+gol(200341917:25.@topic.@should, 200013328:2D)
+obj(:01, 105154676:1V.@pl)
+obj(200341917:25.@topic.@should, :01:01)
+aoj(303161054:31, 100250259:3G)
+aoj(303161054:31, 100250259:3G)
+obj(200013328:2D, 100722061:2T.@indef)
+mod(105154676:1V.@pl, 107935504:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5428]
+{org:en}
+It is argued that the current global water use is about 4 500 HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200772189:08.@entry, HTM1:1R)
+aoj(301568684:0W, 100947128:19.@topic.@def)
+bas(400071165:1G, "4500":1M)
+aoj(301568684:0W, 100947128:19.@topic.@def)
+bas(400071165:1G, "4500":1M)
+qua(HTM1:1R, 400071165:1G)
+aoj(HTM1:1R, 100947128:19.@topic.@def)
+mod(100947128:19.@topic.@def, 107935504:13)
+mod(100947128:19.@topic.@def, 107935504:13)
+mod(100947128:19.@topic.@def, 300666058:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5429]
+{org:en}
+Notwithstanding, the portion of available fresh water seems to be adequate to supply water to a growing demand.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202198234:1J.@entry, 400536068:02)
+mod(107935504:2E, 113563522:27)
+ben(300051045:1V, 101061333:2X.@indef)
+aoj(300183053:0Y, 107935504:1D)
+mod(107935504:2E, 113563522:27)
+ben(300051045:1V, 101061333:2X.@indef)
+aoj(300183053:0Y, 107935504:1D)
+pur(202198234:1J.@entry, 300051045:1V)
+mod(115699459:0N.@topic.@def, 107935504:1D)
+aoj(202198234:1J.@entry, 115699459:0N.@topic.@def)
+mod(101061333:2X.@indef, 303070879:2P)
+mod(101061333:2X.@indef, 303070879:2P)
+ben(300051045:1V, 107935504:2E)
+aoj(300205295:18, 107935504:1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5430]
+{org:en}
+There is a catch however.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, 100138956:0D.@indef)
+man(100138956:0D.@indef, 600000070:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5431]
+{org:en}
+Fresh water supplies are not equally distributed between the world's populations and across the terrestrial expansion of the globe.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202201644:12.@entry, 113563522:0D.@topic.@pl)
+mod(113563522:0D.@topic.@pl, 107935504:07)
+obj:01(100365709:31.@def, 103440512:3I.@def)
+and:01(600000165:2E.@entry, 600000010:1E)
+mod:01(101257969:1Y.@def.@pl, 105670972:1Q)
+mod(113563522:0D.@topic.@pl, 107935504:07)
+obj:01(100365709:31.@def, 103440512:3I.@def)
+and:01(600000165:2E.@entry, 600000010:1E)
+mod:01(101257969:1Y.@def.@pl, 105670972:1Q)
+man(202201644:12.@entry, 400022131:0U.@not)
+obj:01(600000010:1E, 101257969:1Y.@def.@pl)
+man(202201644:12.@entry, :01)
+aoj:01(300124918:2P, 100365709:31.@def)
+aoj:01(300124918:2P, 100365709:31.@def)
+obj:01(600000165:2E.@entry, 100365709:31.@def)
+aoj(300205295:02, 113563522:0D.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5432]
+{org:en}
+For instance, per capita water availability is the highest in Latin America and North America, while Africa, Asia, and Europe have far less water per capita.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(600000122:02.@entry, 600000004:2P)
+aoj(200065370:3K.@should, :02)
+man(300705498:1H, 400536271:4X)
+and:02(115690115:3D.@entry, 115690876:33)
+plc(:5J.@def, :01:01)
+qua(107935504:3Y, 400099868:3T)
+mod(115668897:0X.@topic, 107935504:0R)
+aoj(200065370:3K.@should, :02)
+man(300705498:1H, 400536271:4X)
+and:02(115690115:3D.@entry, 115690876:33)
+plc(:5J.@def, :01:01)
+qua(107935504:3Y, 400099868:3T)
+mod(115668897:0X.@topic, 107935504:0R)
+aoj(:5J.@def, 115668897:0X.@topic)
+aoj(400501291:44, 107935504:3Y)
+mod(115668897:0X.@topic, 400259994:0G)
+obj(600000122:02.@entry, :5J.@def)
+obj(200065370:3K.@should, 107935504:3Y)
+and:01(115691114:2A.@entry, 500004375:1S)
+obj(200065370:3K.@should, 107935504:3Y)
+and:01(115691114:2A.@entry, 500004375:1S)
+and:02(115690876:33, 500005179:2V)
+aoj(300705498:1H, :5J.@def)
+man(400099868:3T, 600000161:3P)
+obj(600000004:2P, 200065370:3K.@should)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5433]
+{org:en}
+The world average of water availability is in the order of 7 420 cubic meters ( HTM1 ) per capita, while Africa's water accessibility is in the region of 6 140 HTM2 per capita.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(600000332:19.@entry, 105221895:41.@def)
+aoj(105221895:41.@def, 115669420:3D.@topic)
+qua(103753077:20.@pl, "7420":1R)
+mod(107935504:37, 500005179:2Y)
+man(103753077:20.@pl, 400074201:2G)
+qua(HTM2:4H, "6140":4D)
+mod(105856979:0C.@topic.@def, 105670972:06)
+aoj(105221895:41.@def, 115669420:3D.@topic)
+qua(103753077:20.@pl, "7420":1R)
+mod(107935504:37, 500005179:2Y)
+man(103753077:20.@pl, 400074201:2G)
+qua(HTM2:4H, "6140":4D)
+mod(105856979:0C.@topic.@def, 105670972:06)
+bas(600000332:19.@entry, 103753077:20.@pl)
+mod(105221895:41.@def, HTM2:4H)
+mod(105856979:0C.@topic.@def, 115668897:0T)
+qua(600000332:19.@entry, 105856979:0C.@topic.@def)
+man(105221895:41.@def, 400074201:4M)
+aoj(300657198:1V, 103753077:20.@pl)
+man(105221895:41.@def, 400074201:4M)
+aoj(300657198:1V, 103753077:20.@pl)
+cnt(103753077:20.@pl, HTM1:29.@parenthesis)
+mod(115669420:3D.@topic, 107935504:37)
+mod(115668897:0T, 107935504:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5434]
+{org:en}
+Fresh water is not only poorly distributed across continents but also between countries, regions within countries, and across seasons.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202201644:0W.@entry, 107935504:07.@topic)
+plc:01(108168978:27.@pl, 105221895:2I.@pl)
+obj(600000165:18, 109254614:1F.@pl)
+man(202201644:0W.@entry, 400535397:0P)
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+man(202201644:0W.@entry, 400535397:0P)
+aoj(300205295:02, 107935504:07.@topic)
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+man(202201644:0W.@entry, 600000165:18)
+obj:01(600000006:2Q, 108168978:2X.@pl)
+obj:01(600000165:3C.@entry, 115236475:3J.@pl)
+man(202201644:0W.@entry, :01)
+aoj:01(600000006:2Q, 105221895:2I.@pl)
+and:01(600000165:3C.@entry, 600000010:1Z)
+aoj:01(600000006:2Q, 105221895:2I.@pl)
+and:01(600000165:3C.@entry, 600000010:1Z)
+man(400535397:0P, 400535232:0G)
+obj:01(600000010:1Z, 108168978:27.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5435]
+{org:en}
+Canada, for instance, has water resources in excess of 120 000 HTM1 per capita per year, South Africa, on the other hand, has only 1 260 HTM2 per capita per year, Namibia's renewable freshwater reserve stands at 240 HTM3 per capita per annum, while Botswana has an availability of 780 HTM4 per capita per annum.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(400043003:0D, 500003493:05.@entry)
+aoj(202775153:63.@entry, 104652438:5V.@topic)
+aoj(200065370:3P.@entry, 500004270:2S.@topic)
+obj(200065370:7R, 115668897:7Y.@indef)
+obj(400099341:1B, HTM1:1V)
+mod(104652438:5V.@topic, 500002940:50)
+aoj(400501291:48, HTM2:43)
+obj(200065370:0R, 105154676:11.@pl)
+aoj(400501291:6M, HTM3:6H)
+man(200065370:3P.@entry, 400535197:3T)
+aoj(400501291:8N, HTM4:8I)
+qua(HTM1:1V, "120000":1O)
+aoj(202775153:63.@entry, 104652438:5V.@topic)
+aoj(200065370:3P.@entry, 500004270:2S.@topic)
+obj(200065370:7R, 115668897:7Y.@indef)
+obj(400099341:1B, HTM1:1V)
+mod(104652438:5V.@topic, 500002940:50)
+aoj(400501291:48, HTM2:43)
+obj(200065370:0R, 105154676:11.@pl)
+aoj(400501291:6M, HTM3:6H)
+man(200065370:3P.@entry, 400535197:3T)
+aoj(400501291:8N, HTM4:8I)
+qua(HTM1:1V, "120000":1O)
+obj(600000004:7C, 200065370:7R)
+dur(202775153:63.@entry, 600000004:7C)
+man(200065370:0R, 400099341:1B)
+aoj(600000985:6X, HTM3:6H)
+obj(200065370:3P.@entry, HTM2:43)
+aoj(600000985:8Y, HTM4:8I)
+aoj(400501291:20, HTM1:1V)
+mod(104652438:5V.@topic, 303161011:5K)
+obj(600000025:4J, 115201505:4N)
+obj(400043003:0D, 200065370:0R)
+obj(202775153:63.@entry, HTM3:6H)
+man(200065370:3P.@entry, 600000146:36)
+mod(115668897:7Y.@indef, HTM4:8I)
+aoj(600000025:2B, HTM1:1V)
+obj(202775153:63.@entry, HTM3:6H)
+man(200065370:3P.@entry, 600000146:36)
+mod(115668897:7Y.@indef, HTM4:8I)
+aoj(600000025:2B, HTM1:1V)
+mod(104652438:5V.@topic, 300925820:5A)
+qua(HTM2:43, "1260":3Y)
+mod(105154676:11.@pl, 107935504:0V)
+qua(HTM3:6H, "240":6D)
+aoj(600000025:4J, HTM2:43)
+mod(HTM4:8I, "780":8E)
+obj(600000025:2B, 115201505:2F)
+aoj(200065370:7R, 500003639:7I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5436]
+{org:en}
+This variable apportionment of water resources is also felt in regions within countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200105958:1L.@entry, 115669638:0G.@topic)
+mod(115669638:0G.@topic, 105154676:13.@pl)
+aoj(600000006:21, 105221895:1T.@pl)
+mod(105154676:13.@pl, 107935504:0X)
+mod(115669638:0G.@topic, 105154676:13.@pl)
+aoj(600000006:21, 105221895:1T.@pl)
+mod(105154676:13.@pl, 107935504:0X)
+man(200105958:1L.@entry, 400047534:1G)
+aoj(301028796:07, 115669638:0G.@topic)
+plc(200105958:1L.@entry, 105221895:1T.@pl)
+mod(115669638:0G.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(115669638:0G.@topic, 600000017:02)
+obj(600000006:21, 108168978:28.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5437]
+{org:en}
+For instance, although India has adequate average water availability of 2 500 HTM1 per capita per year, the federal state of Rajasthan has a yearly access of only 550 HTM2 per capita.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000122:02.@entry, 200065370:3T)
+mod(115668897:1M, 107935504:1G)
+aoj(301106129:32, 100024720:3A.@topic.@def)
+mod(100281132:46.@indef, HTM2:4P)
+man(115668897:1M, 400074201:2D)
+obj(200065370:3T, 100281132:46.@indef)
+obj(200065370:0V, 115668897:1M)
+qua(HTM2:4P, "550":4L)
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:5438]
+{org:en}
+With respect to water distribution across seasons, Bangladesh suffers annually from monsoon flooding which is followed by severe dry seasons with water shortages occurring during such periods.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Water is not only irregularly distributed over time and space it is also a reality regarding different socio-economic groups within a society.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:5440]
+{org:en}
+In general, rural households have less access to water than urban families, especially in the developing world.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:5441]
+{org:en}
+For instance, in Botswana the percentage of the rural population with access to safe water is about 53 %, while 100 % of the urban population has access to safe water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5442]
+{org:en}
+In Angola only 15 % of the rural population has access to safe water, while 69 % of the urban population gets fresh water supplies.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:5443]
+{org:en}
+In Lesotho there is an inverse situation of access to safe water between the rural and urban population.
+{/org}
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+and:01(302052333:2H.@entry, 302050452:27)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5444]
+{org:en}
+About 64 % of the rural population has access, while only 14 % of the urban population has available water supplies.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:5445]
+{org:en}
+The case of Lesotho, at least in the developing world, is, however, the exception and not the rule.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Water is therefore not only ill distributed between geographical regions and climatological seasons, but also between different socio-economic sectors within states.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:5447]
+{org:en}
+It is for this reason that states implement water supply projects and water related policies, in order to make water available to as large a portion of society as possible and to stimulate socio-economic development.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Water scarcities can become a problem when there is a limited volume of water available in proportion with the size of the population and the level of socio-economic development.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+A state that has 1 000 to 1 600 HTM1 per capita per year of water availability can be categorised as water stressed.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5450]
+{org:en}
+Major problems with respect to the supply of water can be experienced by such states in times of drought.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5451]
+{org:en}
+Where water availability is less than 1 000 HTM1 per person per year, states are classified as water scarce.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5452]
+{org:en}
+When water availability falls below this level, due to a number of factors, the scarcity of water can be a crippling limitation on socio-economic development, environmental quality and the distribution of people.
+{/org}
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+People might migrate to other more water rich regions in order to escape the debilitating effects of such dire water scarcities.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+Within the next 25 years water shortages will start showing a dramatic increase in a number of regions and states across the entire world.
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+{org:en}
+By 2025 it is estimated that between 46 to 52 states, out of a total of about 190, with an estimated combined population of about three billion people will reach the stage of water stress.
+{/org}
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+
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+This will mean that this large population will have between 1 000 and 1 600 HTM1 per capita of water to support their basic needs and economic activities.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:5457]
+{org:en}
+What is also of importance in this equation is the quality of these water resources, in that if water is highly polluted, it can contribute to water scarcities due to a drop in freshwater quantities.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5458]
+{org:en}
+In the next section we will take a closer look at the quality of the planet's water resources and the source which can degrade the quality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5459]
+{org:en}
+The Quality of Global and Regional Freshwater Resources
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5460]
+{org:en}
+One of the most pressing problems concerning the world's freshwater resources is the pollution thereof.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5461]
+{org:en}
+The pollution of freshwater resources can be caused by a number of anthropogenic activities that have a debilitating effect on the quality of this crucial resource.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5462]
+{org:en}
+The most notable sources of freshwater quality degradation are
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5463]
+{org:en}
+Industrialization, which causes ever increasing levels of effluents being discharged into freshwater resources.
+{/org}
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+Inadequately treated or untreated urban, industrial and agricultural sewage.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Chemicals being released into freshwater sources from irrigated agricultural areas.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+Wastes from mining activities.
+{/org}
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+obj(201125724:0E.@progress, 100407535:0L.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Thermal pollution from coal fired and nuclear power plants.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+Not only is there a number of pollution sources of freshwater, but also a large variety of contaminants.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+These include, among others
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5470]
+{org:en}
+Cleaners, like soap and solvents, found in industries and households with which we wash ourselves, our clothes, motor vehicles, industrial commodities, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:03(102728440:37.@pl, 600000005:33)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Pesticides, used mainly in agriculture but also for domestic gardening activities.
+{/org}
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+mod(100407535:21.@pl, 600000132:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5472]
+{org:en}
+Discarded petroleum products, like oil and petrol (gas).
+{/org}
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+and:01(115695830:19.@entry, 103843092:11)
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+aoj(200691665:0W, 103748886:0M.@entry.@pl)
+cnt(:01, 114481080:1H.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5473]
+{org:en}
+Heavy metals, like lead, zinc, mercury and a host of others.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(600000063:1I.@entry, 105014308:0W)
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+and:01(114661977:0Q, 101256270:0K)
+qua:01(600000063:1I.@entry, 400535997:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5474]
+{org:en}
+Fertilizers and other plant nutrients used widely in agriculture and our gardens.
+{/org}
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+mod:02(103417345:23.@entry.@pl, 600000005:1Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5475]
+{org:en}
+Oxygen exhausting elements, for instance, wastes from food processing plants, abattoirs and paper and pulp factories.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:02(100017222:20.@pl, 100021265:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5476]
+{org:en}
+Agents causing illnesses like cholera, hepatitis, typhoid fever and dysentery.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201645601:09.@progress, 109190918:02.@entry.@pl)
+and:01(115668845:1G, 114130354:15)
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+and:01(114129999:1Y.@entry, 115668845:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5477]
+{org:en}
+These source and elements of freshwater pollution can cause severe damage to aquatic life support systems.
+{/org}
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+mod:01(104263614:08.@topic.@pl, 600000022:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5478]
+{org:en}
+One of the most severe cases of the collapse of such a system can be found in Central Asia - the Aral Sea.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(102974697:0P.@pl, 107361128:12.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5479]
+{org:en}
+The Aral Sea is today one of the worst environmental disasters which was caused by irrigation and the subsequent release of agricultural chemicals.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(100210940:37.@entry.@def, 100695448:2D.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5480]
+{org:en}
+The Aral Sea is a unique ecosystem which is fed by two rivers without one flowing out of it.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000096:2C, 600000016:2J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5481]
+{org:en}
+The water balance of the Aral Sea is kept in equilibrium with the high evaporation rate of the in flowing water from the Amudar'ya and Syrdar'ya Rivers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201065877:12.@entry, 102777100:0B.@topic.@def)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5482]
+{org:en}
+In the early 1970s the Soviet government implemented a scheme to divert the two rivers to irrigate over 18 million hectares of cotton and rice.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(107804323:3W.@entry, 103115180:3L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5483]
+{org:en}
+This caused the Aral Sea to shrink in size by three quarters of its original size.
+{/org}
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+qua(101258579:1I.@pl, "3":1C)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5484]
+{org:en}
+What resulted was that most of the fish species in the Sea became extinct and the fishing industry collapsed.
+{/org}
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+obj(200340704:07, 600000048:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5485]
+{org:en}
+Yet, from a water quality perspective the disaster was also severe.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(400027795:02.@entry, 301129185:1Q.@past)
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+mod(104676308:0S.@indef, 107935504:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+The salinity level of the Aral Sea's waters tripled and salt-dust storms swept across the area of the exposed sea bed.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5487]
+{org:en}
+Due to the falling water table the sewage system of many of the communities living around the Aral Sea also failed and typhoid rates rose thirty-fold.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300099290:26.@progress, 107941729:1U.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5488]
+{org:en}
+Subsequently nine out of ten children were diagnosed as being permanently ill.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua(109917593:12.@topic.@pl, "9":0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5489]
+{org:en}
+In the early 1990s there was even an outbreak of bubonic plague.
+{/org}
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+mod(106843520:0J.@def, "1990":0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5490]
+{org:en}
+The example of the Aral Sea raises the fact that water quantity and quality are inextricably linked.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(202774319:2N, 400373855:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+It also suggests that an economic system can collapse when there is a significant reduction in the quantity and quality of an aquatic ecosystem.
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+The pollution of freshwater resources have a severe impact on socio-economic development, as shown by the example of the Aral Sea disaster.
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+Unsavoury community and household sanitary conditions, in combination with unsafe drinking water, are sources of malnutrition and disease, especially among children.
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+A low quality of freshwater resources can therefore be a source of significant risks to human health and welfare.
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+These risks can come from a number of water related practises.
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+For instance, where untreated or partially treated waste water is used for irrigation purposes underground and surface water resources can be contaminated with water borne diseases, with dire effects on people using these freshwater resources for their daily water allowance.
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+Effluents discharged from factories and households end up in rivers and streams which have severe impacts for people and communities living downstream of the source of pollution.
+{/org}
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+This suggests that the degradation of the water quality of some areas are not confined to that locality.
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+When states in the upper reaches of an international river basin pollute the water available to downstream riparians, international friction between sovereign states can be a consequence.
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+An example from the Danube River system in Eastern Europe will suffice to illustrate this phenomenon.
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+Pollution of water resources and the subsequent lowering of the water quality is therefore not only a local phenomenon which has an effect on people's access to safe water.
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+Across the entire planet many people do not have access to safe drinking water.
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+In fact, as many as 1 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water, with a further 1.7 billion, or more, living without adequate sanitation facilities.
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+{org:en}
+;;Because of the large number of people not having access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities, the prevalence of diarrhoea in developing states is more that 1 billion cases per year.Because of the large number of people not having access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities, the prevalence of diarrhoea in developing states is more than 1 billion cases per year.
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+It is estimated that safe drinking water supplies combined with sufficient sanitation facilities could result in 2 million fewer deaths from diarrhoea among children per year.
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+frm(100219575:3M.@pl, 115692086:3Y)
+mod(113563522:16.@pl, 107935504:10)
+obj(202774178:2W.@ability.@past, "1000000":38)
+aoj(300066933:0N, 113563522:16.@pl)
+aoj(600000064:48, 115692086:3Y)
+mod(115689574:2F, 100254415:24)
+man(202774178:2W.@ability.@past, 100219575:3M.@pl)
+obj(202309008:1F, 113563522:16.@pl)
+man(600000106:3G, 400099341:6L)
+aoj(302335828:1T, 115689574:2F)
+aoj(202774178:2W.@ability.@past, 113563522:16.@pl)
+obj(600000025:4N, 115201505:4R)
+qua(100219575:3M.@pl, 600000106:3G)
+obj(600000025:4N, 115201505:4R)
+qua(100219575:3M.@pl, 600000106:3G)
+gol(202309008:1F, 115689574:2F)
+qua("1000000":38, "2":36)
+aoj(303155687:0S, 113563522:16.@pl)
+obj(600000064:48, 109917593:4E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5506]
+{org:en}
+The assessment of the quality of the planet's freshwater resources should be done in tandem with the economic conditions within states and regions if we want to get the full picture of water quantity, quality and distribution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(201619014:27.@entry.@should.@past, 200709205:4B.@should)
+mod:02(105108740:5D, 107935504:57)
+mod(105154676:1N.@def.@pl, 109394007:13)
+mod(105798863:34.@def.@pl, 300840212:2V)
+mod(103931044:4W.@def, :02)
+man(201619014:27.@entry.@should.@past, 600000810:2C)
+obj(200709205:4B.@should, 200120796:4J)
+obj(105146055:06.@topic.@def, 104723816:0O.@def)
+mod:02(105108740:5D, 107935504:57)
+mod(105154676:1N.@def.@pl, 109394007:13)
+mod(105798863:34.@def.@pl, 300840212:2V)
+mod(103931044:4W.@def, :02)
+man(201619014:27.@entry.@should.@past, 600000810:2C)
+obj(200709205:4B.@should, 200120796:4J)
+obj(105146055:06.@topic.@def, 104723816:0O.@def)
+and:02(104723816:5N, 105108740:5D)
+man(201619014:27.@entry.@should.@past, 600000042:3F)
+agt(200709205:4B.@should, 600000005:48)
+and:01(105221895:3X.@entry.@pl, 100024720:3M.@pl)
+and:02(101083077:5Z.@entry, 104723816:5N)
+obj(201619014:27.@entry.@should.@past, 105146055:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(105154676:1N.@def.@pl, 303161011:1C)
+obj(600000042:3F, :01)
+mod(105154676:1N.@def.@pl, 303161011:1C)
+obj(600000042:3F, :01)
+aoj(300106020:4R, 103931044:4W.@def)
+obj(600000810:2C, 105798863:34.@def.@pl)
+obj(200120796:4J, 103931044:4W.@def)
+mod(104723816:0O.@def, 105154676:1N.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5507]
+{org:en}
+The gist of the quality of freshwater resources can be summarised in the following assessment from Akthar Hameed Khan, director of the Orangi Pilot Project in Pakistan when he noted that
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202752695:1L.@entry.@ability, 115669627:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(201020005:54.@past, 600000030:5A)
+tim(110014939:3J, 600000033:4W)
+mod(105146055:2D.@def, 300127815:23)
+mod(105154676:14.@pl, 303161011:0T)
+obj(600000033:4W, 201020005:54.@past)
+obj(201020005:54.@past, 600000030:5A)
+tim(110014939:3J, 600000033:4W)
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+mod(105154676:14.@pl, 303161011:0T)
+obj(600000033:4W, 201020005:54.@past)
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+mod(104723816:0I.@def, 105154676:14.@pl)
+plc(500323887:3Z.@def, 500004160:4N)
+plc(202752695:1L.@entry.@ability, 105146055:2D.@def)
+mod(115669627:06.@topic.@def, 104723816:0I.@def)
+mod(110014939:3J, 500323887:3Z.@def)
+mod(115669627:06.@topic.@def, 104723816:0I.@def)
+mod(110014939:3J, 500323887:3Z.@def)
+aoj(110014939:3J, 500323073:2W)
+agt(201020005:54.@past, 600000021:51.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5508]
+{org:en}
+Access to safe water and adequate sanitation is the foundation of development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103387016:1I.@entry.@def, 100281132:02.@topic)
+aoj:01(300066933:0C, 107935504:0H)
+and:01(100254415:10.@entry, 107935504:0H)
+aoj:01(300066933:0C, 107935504:0H)
+and:01(100254415:10.@entry, 107935504:0H)
+to(100281132:02.@topic, :01:01)
+obj(103387016:1I.@entry.@def, 100250259:1W)
+aoj:01(300051045:0R, 100254415:10.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5509]
+{org:en}
+For when we have a medieval level of sanitation, you have a medieval level of disease, and no country can advance without a healthy population
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200158222:30.@entry.@ability, 200065370:1J)
+aoj(301537448:1Q, 105093890:1Z.@indef)
+mod(108168978:2O, 600001330:2L)
+aoj(301537448:0L, 105093890:0U.@indef)
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+aoj(301537448:1Q, 105093890:1Z.@indef)
+mod(108168978:2O, 600001330:2L)
+aoj(301537448:0L, 105093890:0U.@indef)
+obj(600000043:38, 101257969:3Q.@indef)
+obj(200065370:0E.@should, 105093890:0U.@indef)
+obj(200065370:1J, 105093890:1Z.@indef)
+man(200158222:30.@entry.@ability, 600000043:38)
+aoj(200065370:0E.@should, 600000005:0B)
+aoj(200065370:1J, 400121135:1F.@topic)
+obj(200158222:30.@entry.@ability, 108168978:2O)
+pur(200065370:0E.@should, 600000318:06)
+and(200065370:1J, 200065370:0E.@should)
+pur(200065370:0E.@should, 600000318:06)
+and(200065370:1J, 200065370:0E.@should)
+aoj(301170243:3I, 101257969:3Q.@indef)
+mod(105093890:0U.@indef, 100254415:13)
+mod(105093890:1Z.@indef, 114070360:28)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5510]
+{org:en}
+This dictum contains a perspective that the management and use of water will not remain static.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:0E.@entry, 115693593:07.@topic)
+obj(:01, 107935504:1W)
+obj(202637592:2B.@will.@not, :01:01)
+obj(:01, 107935504:1W)
+obj(202637592:2B.@will.@not, :01:01)
+cnt(104676308:0P.@indef, 202637592:2B.@will.@not)
+mod(115693593:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+obj(202701210:0E.@entry, 104676308:0P.@indef)
+and:01(100947128:1P.@entry.@def, 101133281:1A.@def)
+and:01(100947128:1P.@entry.@def, 101133281:1A.@def)
+gol(202637592:2B.@will.@not, 300348018:2I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5511]
+{org:en}
+One of the most important aspects of freshwater quantity, quality, distribution, utilisation and management is that it will always be dynamic.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 600000027:02.@topic)
+and:01(104723816:1O, 105108740:1E)
+aoj(301275562:0I, 104733118:0S.@pl)
+pof(600000027:02.@topic, 104733118:0S.@pl)
+and:01(114580476:2B, 101083077:1X)
+and:01(104723816:1O, 105108740:1E)
+aoj(301275562:0I, 104733118:0S.@pl)
+pof(600000027:02.@topic, 104733118:0S.@pl)
+and:01(114580476:2B, 101083077:1X)
+man:02(300808191:3S.@entry.@will, 400019339:3I)
+and:01(101133281:2R.@entry, 114580476:2B)
+aoj:02(300808191:3S.@entry.@will, 600000016:3A.@topic)
+mod:01(105108740:1E, 303161011:13)
+man(301275562:0I, 400536271:0D)
+mod:01(105108740:1E, 303161011:13)
+man(301275562:0I, 400536271:0D)
+mod(104733118:0S.@pl, :01)
+and:01(101083077:1X, 104723816:1O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5512]
+{org:en}
+This dynamism is manifested in the future freshwater needs of the earth's population.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200423075:0J.@entry, 104635482:07.@topic)
+mod(101257969:22.@def, 108562067:1U)
+mod(109367991:1H.@def.@pl, 301294975:0Z)
+mod(101257969:22.@def, 108562067:1U)
+mod(109367991:1H.@def.@pl, 301294975:0Z)
+obj(109367991:1H.@def.@pl, 101257969:22.@def)
+scn(200423075:0J.@entry, 109367991:1H.@def.@pl)
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+mod(104635482:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(109367991:1H.@def.@pl, 303161011:16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5513]
+{org:en}
+In the next section this topic will be discussed in more detail.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(202774210:15.@entry.@will, 104164989:0E.@def)
+aoj(303161072:09, 104164989:0E.@def)
+qua(105817845:1N, 400099341:1I)
+aoj(303161072:09, 104164989:0E.@def)
+qua(105817845:1N, 400099341:1I)
+plc(202774210:15.@entry.@will, 105817845:1N)
+obj(202774210:15.@entry.@will, 105814291:0R.@topic)
+mod(105814291:0R.@topic, 600000017:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5514]
+{org:en}
+Global Water Needs for the Future
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(109367991:0F.@entry, 103408721:0S.@def)
+mod(109367991:0F.@entry, 107935504:09)
+aoj(301568684:02, 109367991:0F.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5515]
+{org:en}
+Water needs, though continuous, are not constant.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300583239:16.@entry.@not, 109367991:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(109367991:08.@topic.@pl, 107935504:02)
+mod(109367991:08.@topic.@pl, 107935504:02)
+obj(600000215:0F, 300594413:0M)
+con(300583239:16.@entry.@not, 600000215:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5516]
+{org:en}
+They are driven by factors such as population growth and economic development
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201026975:0B.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+mod:01(100250259:1U.@entry, 300840212:1M)
+obj(600000068:0S, :01)
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+obj(600000068:0S, :01)
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+man(201026975:0B.@entry, 600000068:0S)
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+mod:01(108438067:1B, 101257969:10)
+and:01(100250259:1U.@entry, 108438067:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5517]
+{org:en}
+two very powerful drivers of water use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(100947128:11, 103244047:0K.@entry.@pl)
+man(301825671:0B, 400031899:06)
+man(301825671:0B, 400031899:06)
+aoj(301825671:0B, 103244047:0K.@entry.@pl)
+qua(103244047:0K.@entry.@pl, "2":02)
+mod(100947128:11, 107935504:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5518]
+{org:en}
+Large populations with growing productive capacities are known to use considerable amounts of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200594337:1N.@entry, 101257969:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:0K, 101257969:08.@topic.@pl)
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+aoj(600000019:0K, 101257969:08.@topic.@pl)
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+aoj(300527870:02, 101257969:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300527870:02, 101257969:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300624026:20, 100033615:2D.@pl)
+aoj(301865197:0X, 100720951:18.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5519]
+{org:en}
+It is clear that populations do not grow or become significantly productive without a related rise in demand for water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300428404:08.@entry, :01)
+man:01(301865197:1V, 400006259:1H)
+man:01(200149583:1A.@entry.@topic, 600000043:26)
+aoj:01(301971237:2G, 100324384:2O.@indef)
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+man:01(200149583:1A.@entry.@topic, 600000043:26)
+aoj:01(301971237:2G, 100324384:2O.@indef)
+or:01(200149583:1A.@entry.@topic, 200094460:12.@should.@emphasis.@not.@topic)
+obj:01(100324384:2O.@indef, 101061333:2V)
+obj(:01, 101257969:0J.@pl)
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+obj:01(600000043:26, 100324384:2O.@indef)
+gol:01(200149583:1A.@entry.@topic, 301865197:1V)
+obj:01(101061333:2V, 107935504:36)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5520]
+{org:en}
+This observation draws yet another distinction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200097029:0J.@entry, 100879759:07.@topic)
+mod(104749572:10, 600000066:0S)
+mod(104749572:10, 600000066:0S)
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+obj(200097029:0J.@entry, 104749572:10)
+mod(100879759:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5521]
+{org:en}
+between those societies which are growing and productive and those which are not.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000010:02.@entry, :01:01)
+gol:01(200094460:13.@progress, 301865197:1F)
+obj:01(200094460:13.@progress, 107966140:0G.@pl)
+gol:01(200094460:13.@progress, 301865197:1F)
+obj:01(200094460:13.@progress, 107966140:0G.@pl)
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+and:01(600000022:1Y.@entry.@pl, 107966140:0G.@pl)
+mod:01(107966140:0G.@pl, 600000050:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5522]
+{org:en}
+While these two groups have much in common, it is useful to treat them separately since their water needs are quite different in many respects.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(302495922:1G.@entry, 600000055:2C)
+qua(100031264:0I.@pl, "2":0E)
+obj(600000004:02, 200065370:0P.@should)
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+man(200078760:1Q, 400535413:21)
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+man(302495922:1G.@entry, 600000004:02)
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+aoj(200065370:0P.@should, 100031264:0I.@pl)
+mod(109367991:2U.@topic.@pl, 600000041:2I.@pl)
+obj(200078760:1Q, 600000020:1W)
+man(300490413:3A, 400018577:34)
+mod(100031264:0I.@pl, 600000017:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5523]
+{org:en}
+For instance, societies reliant on agriculture as a source of income use large amounts of water as a primary input whereas societies with an advanced industrial capacity and an economy based on services allocate freshwater resources more carefully and usually more efficiently
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000122:02.@entry, 201158572:1Z)
+and:02(400235843:7F.@entry, 400153568:6O)
+obj(303161672:0Q, 108075287:11)
+obj(302351064:57, 100098625:5G.@pl)
+mod(100033615:29.@pl, 107935504:2K)
+obj(600000019:3R, :01)
+agt(202234087:5P.@should, 107966140:3H.@pl)
+man(201158572:1Z, 600000023:2Q)
+man:02(400153568:6O, 400099341:6J)
+mod(104263614:1I.@indef, 113255145:1S)
+mod(103573154:33.@indef, 300699521:2V)
+and:02(400235843:7F.@entry, 400153568:6O)
+obj(303161672:0Q, 108075287:11)
+obj(302351064:57, 100098625:5G.@pl)
+mod(100033615:29.@pl, 107935504:2K)
+obj(600000019:3R, :01)
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+mod(104263614:1I.@indef, 113255145:1S)
+mod(103573154:33.@indef, 300699521:2V)
+aoj:01(300412171:3Z, 100720951:4J.@indef)
+mod(105154676:69.@pl, 303161011:5Y)
+agt(201158572:1Z, 107966140:0G.@topic.@pl)
+man:02(400099341:7A, 400535718:72)
+obj(600000032:1D, 104263614:1I.@indef)
+obj(600000023:2Q, 103573154:33.@indef)
+and:01(104893787:4Z.@entry.@indef, 100720951:4J.@indef)
+obj(202234087:5P.@should, 105154676:69.@pl)
+man(201158572:1Z, 600000179:39)
+man:02(400235843:7F.@entry, 400099341:7A)
+man(108075287:11, 600000032:1D)
+aoj(300527870:23, 100033615:29.@pl)
+man:02(400235843:7F.@entry, 400099341:7A)
+man(108075287:11, 600000032:1D)
+aoj(300527870:23, 100033615:29.@pl)
+aoj(302351064:57, :01)
+man(202234087:5P.@should, :02)
+obj(201158572:1Z, 100033615:29.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:3R, 107966140:3H.@pl)
+obj(600000179:39, 202234087:5P.@should)
+aoj(303161672:0Q, 107966140:0G.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:01(301188648:48, 100720951:4J.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5524]
+{org:en}
+thus while their absolute water needs are greater, water forms a smaller part of the total resources used.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200144850:1N.@entry, 600000004:07)
+aoj(301278818:18, 109367991:0Y.@topic.@pl)
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+Many researchers use the terms "blue water ". and "green water ". to explain these differences.
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+Dams are built to store blue water and control it for distribution through controlled channels.
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+Green water has been defined as the water supply for all non-irrigated vegetation, including forests and woodlands, grasslands and rain-fed crops.
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+These basic differences are important since they allow more useful detail in this sketch of global water needs in the future.
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+Writing about the future is seldom free of subjective views.
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+In the case of water, most stated views fall into two broad categories
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+those who predict that water is bound to become even more scarce thus limiting growth and becoming a source of conflict and misery, and those who believe that society and the environment will adapt to changes and that water scarcity is unlikely to be of global catastrophic proportions.
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+A good argument can be made for both views since the human capacity for ingenuity is equal only to its talent for destruction.
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+This article will explore the future drivers of global water resources.
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+In the first section the current drivers of water resource use will be looked at.
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+The second part will be devoted to present global water needs, with the third section of the article looking at future trends in water use.
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+In the last part of the article a conclusion will be drawn.
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+There are specific circumstances in which the amount of water used by a community rises and falls.
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+Sometimes when more is available, more will be used.
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+In this respect water is like many other resources.
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+If it is perceived to be plentiful, and it is useful, then it is unlikely to be used sparingly.
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+When very little water is available, care is usually taken to make good use of existing stocks and provision is made to secure a continuous supply.
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+mod(104321534:2I.@pl, 301731786:29)
+man(200523095:1J, 600000033:02)
+obj(202349706:3E, 113563522:3Y.@indef)
+mod(107935504:0J.@topic, 300855670:0C)
+man(200523095:1J, 400535718:1B)
+gol(200012267:36.@entry, 202349706:3E)
+aoj(300183053:0S, 107935504:0J.@topic)
+pur(200523095:1J, 202775709:1X)
+obj(200012267:36.@entry, 101057200:2T)
+obj(600000033:02, 300183053:0S)
+obj(200523095:1J, 100267522:13.@topic)
+obj(600000033:02, 300183053:0S)
+obj(200523095:1J, 100267522:13.@topic)
+aoj(300594413:3N, 113563522:3Y.@indef)
+man(300855670:0C, 400031899:07)
+obj(202775709:1X, 104321534:2I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5544]
+{org:en}
+However, irrespective of how much is available, human populations and the environments that surround them require a minimum amount of fresh water to function.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774169:37, 600000275:0B)
+aoj(300183053:13, 600000277:0R)
+pur(202774169:37, 201525666:4D)
+agt:01(201467370:2P, 108567235:27.@entry.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300205295:3Z, 107935504:44)
+aoj(300183053:13, 600000277:0R)
+pur(202774169:37, 201525666:4D)
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+aoj(300205295:3Z, 107935504:44)
+and:01(108567235:27.@entry.@def.@pl, 101257969:1N.@pl.@def)
+qua(107935504:44, 100033615:3P.@indef)
+aoj(202774169:37, :01.@entry)
+obj(600000275:0B, 600000277:0R)
+obj(202774169:37, 107935504:44)
+obj(600000275:0B, 600000277:0R)
+obj(202774169:37, 107935504:44)
+aoj:01(301258617:1H, 101257969:1N.@pl)
+mod(100033615:3P.@indef, 303161105:3H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5545]
+{org:en}
+As a result, it is necessary for communities to intervene in the natural course of events to ensure a steady supply of fresh water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300343552:0L.@entry, 600000159:02)
+aoj(300205295:3D, 107935504:3I)
+mod(100038262:23.@def, 100029378:2D.@pl)
+pur(200340846:1E, 202774937:2N)
+mod(113563522:33.@indef, 107935504:3I)
+aoj(300205295:3D, 107935504:3I)
+mod(100038262:23.@def, 100029378:2D.@pl)
+pur(200340846:1E, 202774937:2N)
+mod(113563522:33.@indef, 107935504:3I)
+pur(300343552:0L.@entry, 107941729:0Z.@pl)
+obj(202774937:2N, 113563522:33.@indef)
+aoj(300343552:0L.@entry, 200340846:1E)
+aoj(301335708:1V, 100038262:23.@def)
+aoj(301335708:1V, 100038262:23.@def)
+plc(200340846:1E, 100038262:23.@def)
+aoj(300919445:2W, 113563522:33.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5546]
+{org:en}
+The healthy growth of a population and the expansion of its economic activities, both of which require water, are generally regarded as essential to the attainment of a better life for the community.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202133185:3P.@entry, 600000220:2I.@topic)
+and:01(100365709:1G.@entry.@def, 108438067:0H.@def)
+pur(100006269:55.@indef, 107941729:5I.@def)
+aoj:01(301170243:09, 108438067:0H.@def)
+man(202133185:3P.@entry, 400041954:3F)
+aoj:01(300840212:1X, 100407535:26.@pl)
+obj(202774169:2W, 107935504:34)
+and:01(100365709:1G.@entry.@def, 108438067:0H.@def)
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+aoj:01(301170243:09, 108438067:0H.@def)
+man(202133185:3P.@entry, 400041954:3F)
+aoj:01(300840212:1X, 100407535:26.@pl)
+obj(202774169:2W, 107935504:34)
+gol(202133185:3P.@entry, 300900616:41)
+mod:01(100407535:26.@pl, 600000016:1T)
+aoj(202774169:2W, 600000220:2I.@topic)
+ben(202133185:3P.@entry, 100048656:4I.@def)
+obj:01(100365709:1G.@entry.@def, 100407535:26.@pl)
+aoj(300067379:4Y, 100006269:55.@indef)
+obj:01(100365709:1G.@entry.@def, 100407535:26.@pl)
+aoj(300067379:4Y, 100006269:55.@indef)
+mod(100048656:4I.@def, 100006269:55.@indef)
+obj:01(108438067:0H.@def, 101257969:0T.@indef)
+mod(600000220:2I.@topic, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5547]
+{org:en}
+As a result they are encouraged by national and regional development institutions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200771341:0N.@entry, 600000159:02)
+and:01(302408977:1E.@entry, 301105840:11)
+aoj(:01, 103574555:1Z.@pl)
+and:01(302408977:1E.@entry, 301105840:11)
+aoj(:01, 103574555:1Z.@pl)
+agt(200771341:0N.@entry, 103574555:1Z.@pl)
+obj(200771341:0N.@entry, 600000020:0E.@topic)
+mod(103574555:1Z.@pl, 100250259:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5548]
+{org:en}
+The lesson here is that in order to foresee or control future water use, it is necessary to understand the water resource demands of economic expansion and rising populations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:03.@entry, 100729285:06.@def)
+mod:02(100365709:40.@pl, 300840212:3R)
+mod:03(101061333:3G.@def.@pl, :02)
+mod:03(100947128:1Y, 107935504:1S)
+aoj:03(300343552:29.@entry, 200588888:2M)
+or:01(200663160:1D.@entry, 202775222:12)
+and:02(101257969:4L.@entry.@pl, 100365709:40.@pl)
+mod:02(100365709:40.@pl, 300840212:3R)
+mod:03(101061333:3G.@def.@pl, :02)
+mod:03(100947128:1Y, 107935504:1S)
+aoj:03(300343552:29.@entry, 200588888:2M)
+or:01(200663160:1D.@entry, 202775222:12)
+and:02(101257969:4L.@entry.@pl, 100365709:40.@pl)
+man:03(300343552:29.@entry, 600000044:0Q)
+obj:03(:01, 100947128:1Y)
+mod:03(105154676:37, 107935504:31)
+man(:03.@entry, 400108479:0D)
+obj:03(600000044:0Q, :01)
+mod:03(101061333:3G.@def.@pl, 105154676:37)
+obj:03(600000044:0Q, :01)
+mod:03(101061333:3G.@def.@pl, 105154676:37)
+obj:03(200588888:2M, 101061333:3G.@def.@pl)
+mod:03(100947128:1Y, 301294975:1L)
+aoj:02(301642843:4E, 101257969:4L.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5549]
+{org:en}
+Economic expansion can be further broken down into industrial development and irrigated agriculture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200030647:10.@entry.@ability, 100365709:0B.@topic)
+aoj:01(301188648:1K, 100250259:1V)
+and:01(108075287:2L.@entry, 100250259:1V)
+aoj:01(301188648:1K, 100250259:1V)
+and:01(108075287:2L.@entry, 100250259:1V)
+man(200030647:10.@entry.@ability, 600000168:0S)
+gol(200030647:10.@entry.@ability, :01.@entry)
+mod(100365709:0B.@topic, 300840212:02)
+mod(100365709:0B.@topic, 300840212:02)
+obj:01(200079951:2B.@past, 108075287:2L.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5550]
+{org:en}
+Population Growth
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(108438067:0D.@entry, 101257969:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5551]
+{org:en}
+In 1900 the world population was 1.6 billion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim("1000000000":13.@past.@entry, "1900":05)
+qua("1000000000":13.@past.@entry, "1.6":0Z)
+qua("1000000000":13.@past.@entry, "1.6":0Z)
+mod(101257969:0K.@def, 303161269:0E)
+qua(101257969:0K.@def, "1000000000":13.@past.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5552]
+{org:en}
+In the next 95 years it increased to over 6 billion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200153263:0Q.@entry.@past, 115201505:0H.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303161072:09, 115201505:0H.@def.@pl)
+mod("1000000000":1A, 600001405:13)
+aoj(303161072:09, 115201505:0H.@def.@pl)
+mod("1000000000":1A, 600001405:13)
+gol(200153263:0Q.@entry.@past, "1000000000":1A)
+obj(200153263:0Q.@entry.@past, 600000016:0N.@topic)
+qua(115201505:0H.@def.@pl, "95":0E)
+qua(115201505:0H.@def.@pl, "95":0E)
+qua("1000000000":1A, "6":18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5553]
+{org:en}
+This huge increase has had a significant effect on the amount of freshwater withdrawn or diverted from normal runoff.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0P.@entry.@complete, 100363260:0C.@topic)
+mod(100363260:0C.@topic, 303161154:07)
+obj(:01, 115689095:1V)
+aoj(300625055:0V, 104809642:17.@indef)
+aoj:01(301593649:2X, 100183357:34)
+mod(100363260:0C.@topic, 303161154:07)
+obj(:01, 115689095:1V)
+aoj(300625055:0V, 104809642:17.@indef)
+aoj:01(301593649:2X, 100183357:34)
+obj(104809642:17.@indef, 100033615:1L.@def)
+src:01(201952363:2J.@entry, 100183357:34)
+obj(200065370:0P.@entry.@complete, 104809642:17.@indef)
+or:01(201952363:2J.@entry, 201994442:26)
+or:01(201952363:2J.@entry, 201994442:26)
+mod(100033615:1L.@def, 115689095:1V)
+mod(100363260:0C.@topic, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5554]
+{org:en}
+As populations grow, more people interact with water in some way or another than ever before.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202376958:0Z.@entry, 600000039:02)
+man(600000373:2G, 600000249:2B)
+man(202376958:0Z.@entry, 600000644:1J)
+obj(200094460:0H.@should, 101257969:05.@pl)
+man(600000373:2G, 600000249:2B)
+man(202376958:0Z.@entry, 600000644:1J)
+obj(200094460:0H.@should, 101257969:05.@pl)
+bas(202376958:0Z.@entry, 600000373:2G)
+obj(600000039:02, 200094460:0H.@should)
+obj(202376958:0Z.@entry, 107942152:0S.@topic)
+qua(107942152:0S.@topic, 400099341:0N)
+qua(107942152:0S.@topic, 400099341:0N)
+ptn(202376958:0Z.@entry, 107935504:1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5555]
+{org:en}
+Large communities need more water for washing and cleaning and require still more for electricity supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202774169:1T.@entry, 201189113:0K)
+aoj(300527870:02, 107941729:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(201189113:0K, 107941729:08.@topic.@pl)
+man(202774169:1T.@entry, 400150671:21)
+qua(107935504:0U, 400099341:0P)
+aoj(300527870:02, 107941729:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(201189113:0K, 107941729:08.@topic.@pl)
+man(202774169:1T.@entry, 400150671:21)
+qua(107935504:0U, 400099341:0P)
+pur(202774169:1T.@entry, 113563522:2S)
+obj(201189113:0K, 107935504:0U)
+agt(202774169:1T.@entry, 107941729:08.@topic.@pl)
+pur(201189113:0K, :01:01)
+pur(201189113:0K, :01:01)
+mod(113563522:2S, 107514600:2G)
+and:01(100251013:1G.@entry, 115691952:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5556]
+{org:en}
+The list of human activities that involve water is long and becoming longer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200149583:1Q.@entry.@progress, 300015589:1H)
+mod(106481320:06.@def, 100407535:0K.@pl)
+man(300015589:1Z, 400099341:2O)
+obj(200401538:10, 107935504:18)
+mod(106481320:06.@def, 100407535:0K.@pl)
+man(300015589:1Z, 400099341:2O)
+obj(200401538:10, 107935504:18)
+gol(200149583:1Q.@entry.@progress, 300015589:1Z)
+aoj(301258617:0E, 100407535:0K.@pl)
+obj(200149583:1Q.@entry.@progress, 106481320:06.@def)
+aoj(200401538:10, 100407535:0K.@pl)
+aoj(200401538:10, 100407535:0K.@pl)
+aoj(300015589:1H, 106481320:06.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5557]
+{org:en}
+More efficient use of water can reduce the total somewhat but population growth will remain a key determinant of future water needs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200045817:0Y.@entry.@ability, 600000037:1O)
+mod(105692419:2S.@indef, 109367991:3K.@pl)
+aoj(300839619:07, 100947128:0H.@topic)
+obj(200045817:0Y.@entry.@ability, 104353803:19.@def)
+mod(109367991:3K.@pl, 107935504:3E)
+obj(202637592:2F.@will, 108438067:23)
+mod(105692419:2S.@indef, 109367991:3K.@pl)
+aoj(300839619:07, 100947128:0H.@topic)
+obj(200045817:0Y.@entry.@ability, 104353803:19.@def)
+mod(109367991:3K.@pl, 107935504:3E)
+obj(202637592:2F.@will, 108438067:23)
+man(200045817:0Y.@entry.@ability, 400535327:1F)
+mod(109367991:3K.@pl, 301294975:37)
+obj(600000037:1O, 202637592:2F.@will)
+agt(200045817:0Y.@entry.@ability, 100947128:0H.@topic)
+mod(105692419:2S.@indef, 303161027:2O)
+man(300839619:07, 400099341:02)
+mod(105692419:2S.@indef, 303161027:2O)
+man(300839619:07, 400099341:02)
+obj(100947128:0H.@topic, 107935504:0O)
+mod(108438067:23, 101257969:1S)
+gol(202637592:2F.@will, 105692419:2S.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5558]
+{org:en}
+As populations grow, more food needs to be produced.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201189113:0X.@entry, 600000102:02)
+obj(200094460:0H.@should, 101257969:05.@pl)
+qua(100021265:0S.@topic, 400099341:0N)
+obj(200094460:0H.@should, 101257969:05.@pl)
+qua(100021265:0S.@topic, 400099341:0N)
+obj(201189113:0X.@entry, 201621555:19)
+aoj(201189113:0X.@entry, 100021265:0S.@topic)
+obj(600000102:02, 200094460:0H.@should)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5559]
+{org:en}
+At present, large amounts of water are withdrawn from the cycle to irrigate the extra crops.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201994442:15.@entry, 400535308:02)
+mod(103134496:2G.@def.@pl, 300048858:2A)
+src(201994442:15.@entry, 107341038:1O.@def)
+mod(103134496:2G.@def.@pl, 300048858:2A)
+src(201994442:15.@entry, 107341038:1O.@def)
+pur(201994442:15.@entry, 200079951:1X)
+aoj(300527870:0E, 100033615:0K.@topic.@pl)
+obj(201994442:15.@entry, 100033615:0K.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100033615:0K.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0V)
+mod(100033615:0K.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0V)
+obj(200079951:1X, 103134496:2G.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5560]
+{org:en}
+Food security is thus dependent on irrigation which is in turn dependent on the availability and management of water (for a broader discussion on population and water resources see HTM1 The Impact of Demography on Global Warming on Sea-level Rise HTM2 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300556174:0O.@entry, 100823316:07.@topic)
+mod:03(100324384:6M, 105132340:6C)
+pur:03(200662589:4Z.@entry, 107138085:3Q.@indef)
+obj(300556174:1T, :01)
+and:02(107935504:4J.@entry, 101257969:44)
+agt(:03.@parenthesis, 100695448:11)
+man:03(300286837:3I, 400099341:7D)
+and:01(101133281:2R.@entry.@def, 115668897:2A.@def)
+mod:03(100324384:6M, 105132340:6C)
+pur:03(200662589:4Z.@entry, 107138085:3Q.@indef)
+obj(300556174:1T, :01)
+and:02(107935504:4J.@entry, 101257969:44)
+agt(:03.@parenthesis, 100695448:11)
+man:03(300286837:3I, 400099341:7D)
+and:01(101133281:2R.@entry.@def, 115668897:2A.@def)
+aoj:03(301568684:5U, 115696304:61)
+man(300556174:0O.@entry, 400121135:0J)
+aoj:03(300286837:3I, 107138085:3Q.@indef)
+obj(:01, 107935504:35)
+plc:03(115696304:61, 100324384:6M)
+obj(300556174:0O.@entry, 100695448:11)
+mod(100823316:07.@topic, 100021265:02)
+obj:03(107138085:3Q.@indef, 105154676:4P.@pl)
+man(300556174:1T, 600000208:1L)
+mod(100823316:07.@topic, 100021265:02)
+obj:03(107138085:3Q.@indef, 105154676:4P.@pl)
+man(300556174:1T, 600000208:1L)
+plc:03(106152125:5G.@def, 115696304:61)
+aoj(300556174:1T, 100695448:11)
+mod:03(105154676:4P.@pl, :02)
+rsn:03(200662589:4Z.@entry, 106152125:5G.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5561]
+{org:en}
+Accurate Data
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300021766:02, 108462320:0B.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5562]
+{org:en}
+Reliable data is a problem in all fields and that of water planning is no exception.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(600000293:21.@entry, 105687338:0L.@indef)
+aoj(105687338:0L.@indef, 108462320:0B.@topic)
+mod(600000030:1B.@topic, 100928371:1P)
+aoj(300724081:02, 108462320:0B.@topic)
+aoj(105687338:0L.@indef, 108462320:0B.@topic)
+mod(600000030:1B.@topic, 100928371:1P)
+aoj(300724081:02, 108462320:0B.@topic)
+obj(600000293:21.@entry, 105707269:24)
+qua(101097119:10.@pl, 600000011:0W)
+aoj(600000293:21.@entry, 600000030:1B.@topic)
+plc(105687338:0L.@indef, 101097119:10.@pl)
+plc(105687338:0L.@indef, 101097119:10.@pl)
+mod(100928371:1P, 107935504:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5563]
+{org:en}
+Some assessments are quite easy while others are very complex.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300015097:0T.@entry, 105146055:07.@topic.@pl)
+man(302176178:1K, 400031899:1F)
+obj(600000004:0Y, 302176178:1K)
+man(302176178:1K, 400031899:1F)
+obj(600000004:0Y, 302176178:1K)
+man(300015097:0T.@entry, 400018577:0N)
+dur(300015097:0T.@entry, 600000004:0Y)
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+aoj(302176178:1K, 600000063:14.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5564]
+{org:en}
+For example, one can combine population figures and the amount of run-off in a particular river basin or a particular continent.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:02(108518940:2N.@indef, 300311044:2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5565]
+{org:en}
+The result is the amount of water available per person at a given time.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100028270:1W.@indef, 300028280:1Q)
+aoj(300183053:10, 107935504:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5566]
+{org:en}
+As populations increase, less water is available per person.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300183053:15.@entry, 600000102:02)
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+obj(200153263:0H.@should, 101257969:05.@pl)
+qua(107935504:0W.@topic, 400099868:0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5567]
+{org:en}
+It is interesting that South America and Africa have had steep declines while Europe and North and Central America have declined less dramatically.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5568]
+{org:en}
+Of course, other factors such as climate and pollution are also at play here but the broad picture is clear.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300428404:2W.@entry.@contrast, 103931044:2L.@topic.@def)
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+obj(600000029:0R, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5569]
+{org:en}
+More people use more water and affect the quality of the water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua(107935504:0N, 400099341:0I)
+agt(201158572:0E, 107942152:07.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5570]
+{org:en}
+Table 1
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "1":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5571]
+{org:en}
+Other calculations are far less easy.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300015097:0Y.@entry, 100868910:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100868910:08.@topic.@pl, 600000031:02)
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+man(400099868:0T, 600000161:0P)
+man(300015097:0Y.@entry, 400099868:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5572]
+{org:en}
+Governments have consistently failed to analyse the details of water use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200172909:0W.@entry.@complete, 101124794:02.@topic.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5573]
+{org:en}
+What is it used for?
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(201158572:0D.@entry.@interrogative.@past, 600000048:02.@qfocus)
+obj(201158572:0D.@entry.@interrogative.@past, 600000016:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5574]
+{org:en}
+And how much is required to meet certain demands?
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5575]
+{org:en}
+These are complex questions that depend on social values, and political and economic conditions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:02(202663848:0Z, 104979425:1G.@pl)
+aoj:02(202663848:0Z, 106783768:0K.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5576]
+{org:en}
+An important distinction to make here is that generally, population growth in poor countries or those in the process of industrialization (here referred to as 'developing') is faster than in richer, ('developed') countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5577]
+{org:en}
+The result of this is that developing countries (such as many in Africa) will use water resources at a faster rate than many developed European states.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5578]
+{org:en}
+As population growth declines, whether as a result of educated choice or through disease, the need for water too will decline.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5579]
+{org:en}
+Economic Development
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300840212:02, 100250259:0B.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5580]
+{org:en}
+It has been estimated that the twin factors of economic growth and population growth may lead to the use of more than 70 % of accessible run-off by 2025.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5581]
+{org:en}
+This statement implies that at sometime in the future, demand will exceed supply and the system of water supply will break down into chaos and calamity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5582]
+{org:en}
+Another view is that as water becomes more scarce, it will be used more efficiently.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 100881649:0A.@topic)
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+obj:01(200149583:0W, 107935504:0Q)
+man:01(400235843:22, 400099341:1X)
+mod(100881649:0A.@topic, 600000066:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5583]
+{org:en}
+It is envisioned that technology will come to the rescue and allow huge economic expansion without exhausting all freshwater resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+agt(200723545:1R.@will, 100949619:0O)
+obj(600000043:2L, 200075421:2T.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5584]
+{org:en}
+These two views are generally referred to as Malthusian and Cornucopian.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+gol(202774311:0W.@entry, :01)
+mod(100881649:0C.@topic.@pl, 600000022:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5585]
+{org:en}
+The Malthusian view is that growth is limited and that if things continue as they are, society will eventually deplete its store of resources of freshwater.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{org:en}
+The Aral Sea in Central Asia is a good example of how the pursuit of economic gains while disregarding environmental principle can end in catastrophe.
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+The Aral Sea is fed by the region's two largest rivers
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+the Amu-Darya and the Syr-Darya.
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+In the 1960s, the Soviet Union leadership chose to divert water from the two rivers feeding the Aral Sea to a system of irrigation canals.
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+The canals were used to develop the regional economy.
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+The Sea is in danger of one day drying up altogether and the limited water supplies are no longer sufficient to sustain the populations that depend on it.
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+The economic gains derived from the agriculture fed by the canals makes the Aral Sea problem more difficult to solve.
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+Stopping the diversion and allowing the water to flow instead into the Sea is not a popular option since the region relies on the economic benefits of, for example, the cotton crops.
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+While measures to save the Sea have been discussed, the will to implement them is lacking.
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+It has been suggested that a Siberian river could be diverted south to supply more water to Central Asia but this has proved politically difficult.
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+The Aral Sea example (discussed in a previous section) is a powerful argument supporting the view that the water resources will eventually be exploited beyond repair.
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+It is a simple argument, and very appealing
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+demand is increasing and the supply is fixed, therefore a crisis looms.
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+This is, however, balanced by an alternative, Cornucopian. viewpoint.
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+The Cornucopians argue that severe global shortages are unlikely to happen for a number of reasons.
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+The first of these is that societies constantly produce new ideas and with them, new technologies.
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+New ideas, such as an increased concern by the general public for the environment, may affect the demand.
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+The growth of the environmental lobby in international and domestic politics may have proceeded in fits and starts but it has had a powerful impact on government decisions regarding the use of natural resources.
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+New technologies are not a cure-all but they have allowed huge advances in the more efficient use of water as well as how water is recycled and treated.
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+Scientifically enhanced crops grown using new techniques use less water to produce more food.
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+More progress can still be made on this front.
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+A second reason that the global water crisis is unlikely to occur is that supplies might be increased.
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+It may seem that all supplies have been utilised but there are still freshwater sources that are unutilized.
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+The Zambezi River and its basin in Africa is one example.
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+If the water in the Zambezi were to be properly filtered and made accessible it could provide water to those who need it.
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+Unfortunately, resources can only be properly utilized in an environment of good policy choices, adequate administration and infrastructure and the rule of law.
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+Without these, the flow of the Zambezi water will not be accessible for domestic, industrial or agricultural use.
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+New technology, like pumps and pipes, brings progress but brings with it the risk that those using it will become dependent on outside support.
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+A diesel water pump, for example, can be very helpful with irrigation but it must be maintained and repaired.
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+When judging whether a certain project is sustainable, the following criteria, proposed by a number of water experts, could be used
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+A basic water requirement will be guaranteed to all humans to maintain human health
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+A basic water requirement will be guaranteed to restore and maintain the health of ecosystems.
+{/org}
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+Water quality will be maintained to meet certain minimum standards.
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+Human actions will not impair the long-term renewability of freshwater stocks and flows.
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+Data on water resources availability, use and quality will be collected and made accessible to all parties.
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+Institutional mechanisms will be set up to prevent and resolve conflicts over water.
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+Water planning and decision-making will be democratic, ensuring representation of all affected parties and fostering direct participation of affected interests.
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+When considering future global water needs, the criteria listed above are a useful guide to which projects should be undertaken and which should be reconsidered.
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+Present Global Water Needs
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+The growth of the world's population and of many state's economies has meant that current water consumption is higher than it has ever been.
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+Some states, such as the USA, reached a peak of water withdrawal in the 1980s and have since declined.
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+Others, mainly developing states, are expanding their water infrastructure to enable more water to be stored and more to be used.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5641]
+{org:en}
+By the last decade of the HTM1 century, freshwater withdrawals had reached 3 580 HTM2.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:5642]
+{org:en}
+At the start of the century, global freshwater withdrawals amounted to approximately one sixth of the current figure.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+These figures should be explained.
+{/org}
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+Some of this water is withdrawn (taken for storage or use) but not actually used.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:5645]
+{org:en}
+Instead, some of it is returned directly to the source after use.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:5646]
+{org:en}
+In other cases, water is reused and recirculated, often for industrial purposes.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5647]
+{org:en}
+The term 'gross water use', is used to describe the total amount of water used, even if some of it has been reused several times.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5648]
+{org:en}
+Another useful term is 'water consumption' which refers to water that has been used in such a way that it cannot be immediately reused.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:5649]
+{org:en}
+Evaporation and contamination are two ways that water is 'consumed'.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5650]
+{org:en}
+Once it has evaporated, it has to fall as rain before it re-enters the supply of freshwater from which the withdrawals take place.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5651]
+{org:en}
+Another interesting point about global water use figures is that they are substantially lower than predicted.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:5652]
+{org:en}
+A couple of decades ago, it was thought that water use in 2000 would be around the 7 000 HTM1 yr mark.
+{/org}
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+man(600000148:0L, 115204983:0D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5653]
+{org:en}
+That prediction, like so many others, has been proved incorrect because of a new approach to water by some of the biggest users
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5654]
+{org:en}
+the developed states in Western Europe and the USA.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:5655]
+{org:en}
+While some developing states may continue with unsustainable water withdrawal and consumption, many states have changed their water use because of environmental concerns and because of the high economic cost that new water projects entail.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5656]
+{org:en}
+Current Agricultural Water Use
+{/org}
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+aoj(302790222:0A, 100947128:0T.@entry)
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+
+[S:5657]
+{org:en}
+Agriculture, the cultivation of crops and the keeping of domestic animals for food, fibre or power, enabled primitive people to settle down in communities which grew as their agricultural efficiency increased.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5658]
+{org:en}
+By the start of the HTM1 century, agriculture, perhaps not surprisingly, utilizes by far the most water when compared to other uses.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5659]
+{org:en}
+Not only does agriculture require massive amounts of freshwater withdrawals, it also uses most of that water very inefficiently.
+{/org}
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+Pipes and canals with leaks and cracks lose much of the water before it reaches the crops.
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+Once it reaches the farmer and the crops, the water is sometimes used indiscriminately and without care.
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+{org:en}
+Many fields are flooded to water plants which would grow just as well with a few well placed drops.
+{/org}
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+It has been estimated by water analysts that the overall efficiency of current agricultural water use is only about 40 %.
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+{org:en}
+Some of the water that is lost does, of course, return to underground aquifers or rivers to be reused but it still means that over half the water diverted for crops does not produce any food.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Clearly, water can be used more efficiently in this sector.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Groundwater, water that occurs naturally in underground aquifers, is often used for irrigation in conjunction with surface water.
+{/org}
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+[S:5667]
+{org:en}
+This involves pumping the water to the surface through tubewells.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+These have had a big impact in states such as Bangladesh where underground water has been used to irrigate many millions of hectares.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+As with other sources of freshwater, groundwater needs to be understood and explored in order to be effectively used.
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+One problem is that some aquifers have been emptied at a faster rate than they are refilled.
+{/org}
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+[S:5671]
+{org:en}
+Developing states generally rely on agriculture for a large part of their gross domestic product (GDP), they are dependent on irrigation to supplement natural rainfall and often have large rural populations.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Agricultural water use in developing states is often based on traditional thinking about water, not all of which is sustainable.
+{/org}
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+The idea that water should be bought and sold and that it should be calculated as a cost is not widely accepted by those who see it as an unregulated resource.
+{/org}
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+For example, Guinea Bissau's economy depends heavily on peanuts, cashews nuts, corn and beans.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Agriculture supplies jobs to 77 % of the labour force in Guinea Bissau.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Irrigation and water supply for crops are clearly crucial to the economy.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5677]
+{org:en}
+The amount of irrigated area has risen in both developed and developing states.
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+One example of this is the Narmada project in India.
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+These sorts of projects are being undertaken and debated in many states all over the globe.
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+While large dams and reservoirs will be important for agriculture for many years to come, their usefulness is no longer taken for granted.
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+{org:en}
+Industrial Water Use
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+This varies from motor vehicle production and electronic components manufacturing to textiles and packaging.
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+Electricity generation is especially important to modern economies and this requires large amounts of water.
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+Hydroelectric power, using flowing water to turn turbines, has helped many states to reduce their dependence on coal-fired plants or nuclear power generation.
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+As can be seen in the table below, industrial water use is highest in high income states.
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+[S:5706]
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+This is because their industries are usually highly developed and because most of their work force is focused on industrial processes or on services instead of agriculture.
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+Middle income states have higher incomes than low income states precisely because they have moved away from agriculture and are undergoing the process known as industrialization.
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+
+[S:5708]
+{org:en}
+Table 2
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5709]
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+When water is used as part of an economic activity, the demand for water depends on two things
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+[S:5710]
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+what is being produced and how efficiently it is produced.
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+[S:5711]
+{org:en}
+Making fertiliser and making steel requires different amounts of water which is used in different ways.
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+[S:5712]
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+Some states have large supplies of freshwater and can afford to build industries which require large amounts of water since it is relatively inexpensive.
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+[S:5713]
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+States which are arid often focus on economic activities that require less water or simply invent industrial processes that use water more efficiently.
+{/org}
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+Water used for cooling is a good example of how the same water is recycled and thus used efficiently.
+{/org}
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+In the United States in the 1930s, between 60 and 100 tons of water was used to produce one ton of steel.
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+Pollution of water is often closely related to industrial use.
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+It is usually the case that industries seeking profit irresponsibly use water recklessly.
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+The resulting pollution means that the water cannot be reused and very often harms other sources of water.
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+Treatment of polluted water to allow it to be reused is costly and time consuming.
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+It is also true that a responsible, well-informed industrial sector is a valuable asset and can play a big role in reducing the amount of freshwater use and making it more efficient.
+{/org}
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+States have usually used financial fines or taxes to control pollution.
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+{org:en}
+These have been effective in many cases where the problem is contained and easily assessed.
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+{org:en}
+Other means are necessary when the problem involves more than one sovereign state.
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+{org:en}
+Water pollution often needs to be addressed by several states whose water resources are shared or interlinked.
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+The Danube, which flows through Central and Eastern Europe, is regarded as mildly polluted.
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+The pollution affects Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria via rivers such as the Tisza which flows through the region.
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+It was noted in 1991 that in Romania, 85 percent of the main rivers were unfit to drink from.
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+Romania's water problems, mainly due to bad industrial practices, has impacted negatively on the several states in the region and has had to be addressed by intergovernmental bodies.
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+[S:5735]
+{org:en}
+Domestic Water Use
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+This refers specifically to drinking water, demand by private homes, water outlets at commercial establishments, public services and municipal supplies.
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+{org:en}
+washing machines, toilets, baths, and gardens are important outlets for domestic water use.
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+The design of household appliances that use water determine, to an extent, how much water is used.
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+A toilet that is designed to use 25 litres per flush, installed in 10 000 households, determines the level of demand.
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+Appliances such as washing machines and dishwashers are more common in households in developed states.
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+The spread of these over the past 50 years has had an effect on water demand.
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+On the one hand it has made it possible for water to be used indirectly - without the direct presence of a human.
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+Washing machines and garden sprinklers switch on and off using timers.
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+Washing machines can be set to more economic cycles and gardens can be watered at times when the water will be most effective.
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+Lush green lawns, seen as desirable by many, are often only made possible by large freshwater withdrawals.
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+Large residential communities in arid parts of the USA use a large percentage of water to maintain urban landscapes and areas such as golf courses.
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+In some parts of the USA, as much as half of all domestic water demand is from these projects.
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+Despite many changes, existing irrigated areas will remain the largest users of freshwater for many years to come.
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+The rate of increase of irrigated areas has slowed, particularly in high-income states.
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+Low and middle income states are likely to continue to develop their agricultural sectors since it is an important part of their income.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5755]
+{org:en}
+Once again, technology and the spread of knowledge will very likely help to increase the amount of water that is used effectively.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{org:en}
+Developed states will most likely become increasingly ecologically aware.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Strong environmental groups within government and civil society will effectively contest the established policy on water use and storage.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5758]
+{org:en}
+This will very likely lead to ambitious programmes that encourage industry to use its cash resources to rehabilitate spoiled wetland environments and promote the recycling of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5759]
+{org:en}
+A well-educated public will probably demand products that are manufactured using sustainable techniques, water being an important component.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(201653442:1V, 201158572:28.@progress)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5760]
+{org:en}
+International, civil society groups focused on environmental matters are likely to continue to act through the very powerful media to highlight water policy issues where they are seen as contentious.
+{/org}
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+plc(200662589:50, 101060234:4E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5761]
+{org:en}
+It is generally hoped that the anticipated rise in demand for domestic water use will be covered by more efficiency in the agricultural sector.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5762]
+{org:en}
+Domestic demand, increasingly, will be for high quality water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(107935504:1M.@entry.@will, 101061333:0B.@topic)
+mod(107935504:1M.@entry.@will, 104723816:1E)
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+man(107935504:1M.@entry.@will, 400059854:0J)
+mod(101061333:0B.@topic, 301036754:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5763]
+{org:en}
+A regular supply of clean water is a major factor in ensuring good public health of citizens.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(113923779:24, 109923673:2E.@pl)
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+mod(113923779:24, 300493297:1X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5764]
+{org:en}
+If they live in democratic states, they are likely to demand this, because of the entrenched right to life in a clean environment and have access to clean resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc:01(100006269:2U, 108567235:3A.@indef)
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+aoj(300486539:0I, 100024720:0S.@pl)
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+aoj(300099290:0A, 600000020:05.@topic)
+obj:01(100351000:2L.@def, 100006269:2U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5765]
+{org:en}
+If this demand is to be met it will have to be properly paid for.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(101061333:0A, 600000017:05)
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+aoj(202774466:12.@entry.@will, 600000016:0U.@topic)
+obj(201079480:0Q.@will, 101061333:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5766]
+{org:en}
+Future domestic water supplies are less likely to be subsidised in ways that distorts the actual cost of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300645169:14.@entry, 113563522:0O.@topic)
+mod(113563522:0O.@topic, 107935504:0I)
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+mod(113563522:0O.@topic, 107935504:0I)
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+mod(113275847:2O.@def, 300043765:2H)
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+mod(113275847:2O.@def, 107935504:2W)
+agt(202775095:24, 100172710:1U.@pl)
+aoj(301036754:09, 113563522:0O.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5767]
+{org:en}
+Large projects that do not deliver specific, sustainable benefits will be resisted by those citizens that can.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201115916:29.@entry.@will, 105910453:08.@topic)
+aoj(300527870:02, 105910453:08.@topic)
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+agt(201115916:29.@entry.@will, 109923673:2R.@pl)
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+obj(200989602:0S.@emphasis.@not, 105142641:1T)
+agt(200989602:0S.@emphasis.@not, 105910453:08.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5768]
+{org:en}
+Conclusion
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5769]
+{org:en}
+Planet earth would not have supported life if it were not for the presence of water and a combination of a number of elements in the earth/atmosphere environment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5770]
+{org:en}
+Water is quite important in every ecosystem and human society.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(107966140:1K.@entry, 301258617:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5771]
+{org:en}
+If water would not have existed, in combination with other factors and elements, earth would have looked like the moon and Mars.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000174:0Z, :01)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5772]
+{org:en}
+Although water is one of the most common elements on earth, not all the water is suitable for direct human consumption and the economic activities that support our societies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(301020885:2B.@entry, 600000038:02)
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+Virtual water and blue and green water can therefore help in the sustainable utilization of the earth's water resources because they are a quantum leap forward away from the traditional supply sided notions of water resources in states, regions and the entire globe.
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+Economic development, for instance, if not implemented in a sustainable manner can lead to disastrous ecological consequences such as the Aral Sea ecological calamity.
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+At present some states are using less water while in other countries, most notably those of the developing world are increasing their water consumption.
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+For this reason, the agricultural sector is the highest water consumer in developing countries, with industry being the largest consumer in high income states.
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+Future global water needs will depend on how developed and developing societies tackle the challenge of distributing scarce resources to their citizens.
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+Political conditions, economic success or failure, social re-arrangements and climatic changes will all have an impact on future global water needs.
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+mod:02(100939628:1Y.@pl.@topic, 303163662:1V)
+mod(109367991:47.@pl, 107935504:41)
+mod:02(100939628:1Y.@pl.@topic, 303163662:1V)
+mod(109367991:47.@pl, 107935504:41)
+mod(109367991:47.@pl, 301294975:3N)
+or:01(100066397:1B.@entry.@topic.@pl, 100063652:10.@topic.@pl)
+and:02(100939628:1Y.@pl.@topic, :01.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5786]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5787]
+{org:en}
+Glossary, Abbreviations and Symbols
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105765415:0U.@entry.@pl, 100359135:0C.@pl)
+and(100359135:0C.@pl, 106420781:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5788]
+{org:en}
+Access to safe water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+to(100281132:02.@entry, 107935504:0H)
+aoj(300066933:0C, 107935504:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5789]
+{org:en}
+The percentage of the population of a state or region with reasonable access to an adequate supply of treated or uncontaminated water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(113817526:06.@entry.@def, 101257969:0O.@def)
+aoj(301907711:37, 107935504:3M)
+obj(100281132:20, 113563522:2M.@indef)
+or:01(105221895:1D.@entry.@indef, 100024720:14.@indef)
+aoj(300051045:2D, 113563522:2M.@indef)
+aoj(301907711:37, 107935504:3M)
+obj(100281132:20, 113563522:2M.@indef)
+or:01(105221895:1D.@entry.@indef, 100024720:14.@indef)
+aoj(300051045:2D, 113563522:2M.@indef)
+aoj(600000019:1K, :01)
+obj(113563522:2M.@indef, 107935504:3M)
+mod(101257969:0O.@def, :01)
+or(301907711:37, 200078760:2W.@past)
+aoj(301926229:1P, 100281132:20)
+or(301907711:37, 200078760:2W.@past)
+aoj(301926229:1P, 100281132:20)
+obj(600000019:1K, 100281132:20)
+obj(200078760:2W.@past, 107935504:3M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5790]
+{org:en}
+Pollution
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+114516743:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5791]
+{org:en}
+It is a substance that produces a defective change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of the natural environment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+mod:02(104731497:2L.@def.@pl, 108567235:3G.@def)
+plc:02(100191142:1A.@indef, 104731497:2L.@def.@pl)
+or:01(302692624:1Y, 300627004:1O)
+mod:02(104731497:2L.@def.@pl, 108567235:3G.@def)
+plc:02(100191142:1A.@indef, 104731497:2L.@def.@pl)
+or:01(302692624:1Y, 300627004:1O)
+obj:02(201621555:0P, 100191142:1A.@indef)
+or:01(301405904:2A.@entry, 302692624:1Y)
+agt:02(201621555:0P, 100019613:0A.@entry.@indef)
+aoj:02(:01, 104731497:2L.@def.@pl)
+aoj:02(:01, 104731497:2L.@def.@pl)
+aoj:02(301597240:10, 100191142:1A.@indef)
+aoj:02(301335708:38, 108567235:3G.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5792]
+{org:en}
+Population growth rate
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(113325010:0J.@entry, 108438067:0D)
+mod(108438067:0D, 101257969:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5793]
+{org:en}
+The rate at which a population is increasing (or decreasing) in a given year due to natural increase and net migration, expressed as a percentage of the base population.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200940384:3E.@entry.@past, 113325010:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(115201505:22.@indef, 300028280:1W)
+plc(200153263:10.@progress, 113325010:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(101257969:0M, 113637376:0K)
+mod(113817526:3T.@indef, 101257969:4G.@def)
+mod:01(101123095:33.@entry, 301582461:2Z)
+tim(200153263:10.@progress, 115201505:22.@indef)
+mod(115201505:22.@indef, 300028280:1W)
+plc(200153263:10.@progress, 113325010:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(101257969:0M, 113637376:0K)
+mod(113817526:3T.@indef, 101257969:4G.@def)
+mod:01(101123095:33.@entry, 301582461:2Z)
+tim(200153263:10.@progress, 115201505:22.@indef)
+obj(600000023:3O, 113817526:3T.@indef)
+and:01(101123095:33.@entry, 100363260:2M)
+rsn(200153263:10.@progress, 600000001:27)
+man(200940384:3E.@entry.@past, 600000023:3O)
+obj(600000001:27, :01)
+obj(200153263:10.@progress, 101257969:0M)
+obj(600000001:27, :01)
+obj(200153263:10.@progress, 101257969:0M)
+mod(101257969:4G.@def, 301117362:4B)
+aoj:01(301335708:2E, 100363260:2M)
+or(200151689:1F.@parenthesis.@progress, 200153263:10.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5794]
+{org:en}
+Sustainable Development
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302806261:02, 100250259:0E.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5795]
+{org:en}
+This involves development that is both economical and environmentally sound in order for the needs of the world's current population is met, without retarding the development of future generations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200401538:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(101257969:3F.@def, 105670972:2Z)
+man(:01, 600000074:0Z)
+obj(100250259:4K.@def, 100849982:55.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 100250259:0G)
+obj(600000043:3Y, 200438752:46.@progress)
+obj(600000267:25, 109367991:2M.@def.@pl)
+mod(101257969:3F.@def, 105670972:2Z)
+man(:01, 600000074:0Z)
+obj(100250259:4K.@def, 100849982:55.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 100250259:0G)
+obj(600000043:3Y, 200438752:46.@progress)
+obj(600000267:25, 109367991:2M.@def.@pl)
+aoj(201079480:3T, 100250259:0G)
+man(201079480:3T, 600000043:3Y)
+man:01(300523786:1Z.@entry, 400329635:1J)
+obj(200401538:07.@entry, 100250259:0G)
+mod(101257969:3F.@def, 300666058:37)
+and:01(300523786:1Z.@entry, 302421364:14)
+mod(101257969:3F.@def, 300666058:37)
+and:01(300523786:1Z.@entry, 302421364:14)
+mod(100849982:55.@pl, 301294975:4Z)
+man(:01, 600000267:25)
+obj(200438752:46.@progress, 100250259:4K.@def)
+mod(109367991:2M.@def.@pl, 101257969:3F.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5796]
+{org:en}
+Virtual water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107935504:0A.@entry, 300902157:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5797]
+{org:en}
+Virtual water is the volume of water needed for the production of a commodity or service.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104990220:0N.@entry.@def, 107935504:0A.@topic)
+mod(100098625:29.@indef, 103076708:1Y)
+aoj(301580775:13, 107935504:0X)
+mod(100098625:29.@indef, 103076708:1Y)
+aoj(301580775:13, 107935504:0X)
+pur(107935504:0X, 100522736:1I.@def)
+mod(104990220:0N.@entry.@def, 107935504:0X)
+mod(107935504:0A.@topic, 300902157:02)
+mod(107935504:0A.@topic, 300902157:02)
+obj(100522736:1I.@def, 100098625:29.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5798]
+{org:en}
+It takes about 1 000 tonnes of water in order to grow one tonne of grain.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200523095:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+bas(400071165:0B, "1000":0H)
+qua(107935504:0W, 115668841:0M.@pl)
+qua(104950713:1W, 115668841:1N)
+bas(400071165:0B, "1000":0H)
+qua(107935504:0W, 115668841:0M.@pl)
+qua(104950713:1W, 115668841:1N)
+obj(200523095:05.@entry, 107935504:0W)
+obj(200094460:1E, 104950713:1W)
+man(200523095:05.@entry, 600000044:12)
+obj(600000044:12, 200094460:1E)
+obj(600000044:12, 200094460:1E)
+qua(115668841:0M.@pl, 400071165:0B)
+qua(115668841:1N, "1":1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5799]
+{org:en}
+This 1 000 tonnes of water represents the virtual water value (VWV) of grain.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200825447:0T.@entry, 115668841:0D.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104979425:1M.@def, 107935504:1G)
+equ(500323538:1T.@parenthesis, 104979425:1M.@def)
+qua(115668841:0D.@topic.@pl, "1000":09)
+mod(104979425:1M.@def, 107935504:1G)
+equ(500323538:1T.@parenthesis, 104979425:1M.@def)
+qua(115668841:0D.@topic.@pl, "1000":09)
+mod(104979425:1M.@def, 104950713:21)
+mod(115668841:0D.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+obj(200825447:0T.@entry, 104979425:1M.@def)
+qua(107935504:0N, 115668841:0D.@topic.@pl)
+qua(107935504:0N, 115668841:0D.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104979425:1M.@def, 300902157:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5800]
+{org:en}
+Virtual water can also be found in hydro-electricity which composes the volume of water needed to produce a given unit of hydro-electric power.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(111467202:12.@entry.@ability.@pl, 107935504:0A.@topic)
+obj(200108604:31.@past, 105869857:37.@indef)
+mod(104990220:22.@def, 107935504:2C)
+aoj(201626138:1P, 111467202:12.@entry.@ability.@pl)
+obj(201621555:2R, 105869857:37.@indef)
+obj(200108604:31.@past, 105869857:37.@indef)
+mod(104990220:22.@def, 107935504:2C)
+aoj(201626138:1P, 111467202:12.@entry.@ability.@pl)
+obj(201621555:2R, 105869857:37.@indef)
+obj(200715239:0S.@past, 111467202:12.@entry.@ability.@pl)
+mod(107935504:0A.@topic, 300902157:02)
+aoj(301580775:2I, 107935504:2C)
+man(111467202:12.@entry.@ability.@pl, 400047534:0K)
+mod(105190804:3U, 303162235:3F)
+pur(107935504:2C, 201621555:2R)
+mod(105190804:3U, 303162235:3F)
+pur(107935504:2C, 201621555:2R)
+obj(201626138:1P, 104990220:22.@def)
+mod(105869857:37.@indef, 105190804:3U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5801]
+{org:en}
+Water paradigm
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106210171:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5802]
+{org:en}
+It is an intellectual framework, composed of interrelated values, theories and assumptions, within which the search for knowledge about water and/or water related problems or issues is conducted.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103391770:0O.@entry.@indef, 600000016:02.@topic)
+obj(100637354:33.@def, 100023271:3E)
+and:01(100082870:29.@entry.@pl, 105952979:1W.@pl)
+obj:03(301971237:4D, :02)
+aoj(201626138:0Z, :01)
+or:03(101060234:4X.@entry.@pl, 105687338:4L.@pl)
+man(201732921:57, 600000042:7M)
+obj(100637354:33.@def, 100023271:3E)
+and:01(100082870:29.@entry.@pl, 105952979:1W.@pl)
+obj:03(301971237:4D, :02)
+aoj(201626138:0Z, :01)
+or:03(101060234:4X.@entry.@pl, 105687338:4L.@pl)
+man(201732921:57, 600000042:7M)
+aoj(301332386:0B, 103391770:0O.@entry.@indef)
+obj(600000013:3O, :03)
+aoj:01(303161340:1B, 104979425:1O.@pl)
+obj(201626138:0Z, 103391770:0O.@entry.@indef)
+aoj(600000013:3O, 100023271:3E)
+and:01(105952979:1W.@pl, 104979425:1O.@pl)
+aoj(600000013:3O, 100023271:3E)
+and:01(105952979:1W.@pl, 104979425:1O.@pl)
+obj(600000042:7M, :01)
+aoj:03(301971237:4D, 105687338:4L.@pl)
+obj(201732921:57, 100637354:33.@def)
+a/o:02(107935504:47.@entry, 107935504:3U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5803]
+{org:en}
+A new water paradigm would therefore challenge conventional wisdom regarding the development and use of water resources within a community, region within a state, a state and/or the entire world.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200808162:13.@entry.@will.@past, 106210171:0E.@topic.@indef)
+mod(105154676:34.@pl, 107935504:2Y)
+man(200808162:13.@entry.@will.@past, 400043003:0T)
+mod:02(100024720:4J.@indef.@def, 100024720:4D)
+man(200808162:13.@entry.@will.@past, 600000194:1X)
+obj(600000042:45, :02)
+obj(:01, 105154676:34.@pl)
+mod(105154676:34.@pl, 107935504:2Y)
+man(200808162:13.@entry.@will.@past, 400043003:0T)
+mod:02(100024720:4J.@indef.@def, 100024720:4D)
+man(200808162:13.@entry.@will.@past, 600000194:1X)
+obj(600000042:45, :02)
+obj(:01, 105154676:34.@pl)
+man(200808162:13.@entry.@will.@past, 600000042:3E)
+plc(107941729:3N.@indef, 105221895:3Y)
+obj(600000194:1X, :01)
+mod(106210171:0E.@topic.@indef, 107935504:08)
+man(200808162:13.@entry.@will.@past, 600000042:45)
+obj(600000042:3E, 107941729:3N.@indef)
+aoj(300605516:1D, 104890112:1Q)
+obj(600000042:3E, 107941729:3N.@indef)
+aoj(300605516:1D, 104890112:1Q)
+aoj(300024996:04, 106210171:0E.@topic.@indef)
+obj(200808162:13.@entry.@will.@past, 104890112:1Q)
+aoj:02(300515380:52, 105670972:59.@entry.@def)
+and:01(100947128:2R.@entry.@def, 100250259:2B.@def)
+a/o:02(105670972:59.@entry.@def, 100024720:4J.@indef.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5804]
+{org:en}
+Army Corps of Engineers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(108212527:07.@entry, 110057714:0G.@pl)
+mod(108212527:07.@entry, 108183290:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5805]
+{org:en}
+Bureau of Reclamation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115699462:02.@entry, 100093354:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5806]
+{org:en}
+El Ni?±o/Southern Oscillation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000025:09, 500007983:02.@entry)
+aoj(301605081:0A, 107345166:0J)
+obj(600000025:09, 107345166:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5807]
+{org:en}
+Food and Agricultural Organization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(101008378:0O.@entry, 100021265:02)
+aoj(302790222:0B, 101008378:0O.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5808]
+{org:en}
+Free Trade Area.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5809]
+{org:en}
+Gross Domestic Product.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103748886:0H.@entry, 300987974:02)
+mod(103748886:0H.@entry, 301036754:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5810]
+{org:en}
+International Political Economy.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301568375:02, 104893787:0Q.@entry)
+aoj(301814385:0G, 104893787:0Q.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5811]
+{org:en}
+World Conservation Union.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323536:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5812]
+{org:en}
+Southern African Development Community.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323656:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5813]
+{org:en}
+School of Oriental and African Studies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104146050:02.@entry, 104345028:0X.@pl)
+and:01(302941790:0P.@entry, 300825807:0C)
+aoj(:01, 104345028:0X.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5814]
+{org:en}
+Supply Sided Management.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101133281:0F.@entry, 113563522:02)
+aoj(303161313:09, 101133281:0F.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5815]
+{org:en}
+United States of America.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323547:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5816]
+{org:en}
+Virtual Water Value.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104979425:0G.@entry, 300902157:02)
+mod(104979425:0G.@entry, 107935504:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5817]
+{org:en}
+Water Demand Management.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101133281:0F.@entry, 101061333:08)
+mod(101061333:08, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5818]
+{org:en}
+Water Master Plan.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103954199:0F.@entry, 107935504:02)
+mod(103954199:0F.@entry, 303158756:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5819]
+{org:en}
+Water Resource Management Project.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105910453:0S.@entry, 101133281:0H)
+mod(105154676:08, 107935504:02)
+mod(101133281:0H, 105154676:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5820]
+{org:en}
+Water Supply Management.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101133281:0F.@entry, 113563522:08)
+mod(113563522:08, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5821]
+{org:en}
+Working for Water Programme.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(104601473:02.@entry, 115690273:0K)
+mod(115690273:0K, 107935504:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5822]
+{org:en}
+Cubic kilometres.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300657198:02, 113659760:08.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5823]
+{org:en}
+Cubic kilometres per year.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000025:0J, 113659760:08.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000025:0J, 115201505:0N)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5824]
+{org:en}
+Cubic metres.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300657198:02, 103753077:08.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5825]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5826]
+{org:en}
+Adams W.M.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323173:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5827]
+{org:en}
+Wasting the Rain
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200093775:02.@entry.@progress, 105045208:0E.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5828]
+{org:en}
+Rivers, People and Planning in Africa.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(:01.@entry, 500005179:0X)
+and:01(107942152:0A, 109411430:02.@pl)
+and:01(100928371:0L.@entry, 107942152:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5829]
+{org:en}
+London
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500008271:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5830]
+{org:en}
+Earthscan Publications.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101101958:0C.@entry.@pl, 500323808:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5831]
+{org:en}
+Practical examples of water projects are discussed critically
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5832]
+{org:en}
+River development plans are evaluated.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(115693588:08.@topic.@pl, 109411430:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5833]
+{org:en}
+Allan, T.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323160:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5834]
+{org:en}
+The Middle East Water Question
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106783768:0O.@entry.@def, 107935504:0I)
+mod(107935504:0I, 115668722:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5835]
+{org:en}
+Hydropolitics and the Global Economy
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+mod(100611972:07.@pl, 303160971:02)
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:5836]
+{org:en}
+382 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(115669681:06.@entry, "382":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5837]
+{org:en}
+London
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500008271:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5838]
+{org:en}
+I.B. Tauris Publishers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323834:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5839]
+{org:en}
+This book provides and in-depth look at the role of water in the HTM1 economies of the states of the Middle East and North Africa region.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:5840]
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+Falkenmark, M. Gordon, L and Folke, C.
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+[S:5841]
+{org:en}
+Water in the Landscape - Functions and Values
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+[S:5843]
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+Chapter 2
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+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5844]
+{org:en}
+Food and Agricultural Organization
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+and(101008378:0O.@entry, 100021265:02)
+aoj(302790222:0B, 101008378:0O.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:5845]
+{org:en}
+Geneva.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500004419:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5846]
+{org:en}
+This chapter takes a closer look at the concepts of blue and green water and the interaction between the two regarding a number of interrelated aquatic and economic functions and values in society.
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+{unl}
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+and:02(300840212:4E.@entry, 300124077:42)
+obj:04(600000024:2N, "2":2Z.@def)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5847]
+{org:en}
+Gleick P.H.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323051:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5848]
+{org:en}
+The World's Water
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+mod(107935504:0E.@entry.@def, 105670972:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5849]
+{org:en}
+The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:5850]
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+307 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(115669681:06.@entry, "307":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5851]
+{org:en}
+Washington, D.C., Covelo, California
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323548:02.@entry, 500323625:0K)
+plc(500323625:0K, 500004530:0S)
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+[/S]
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+[S:5852]
+{org:en}
+Island Press.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100627013:09.@entry, 103587318:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5853]
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+This report on freshwater resources across the globe, which is published every second year, gives a comprehensive study on different aspects of freshwater resources across the globe.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:5854]
+{org:en}
+Lundqvist J. HTM1 et al.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(600001335:0L.@entry, 500323005:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5855]
+{org:en}
+Adapting to Growing Water Scarcity
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105116953:0S, 107935504:0M)
+mod(105116953:0S, 303070879:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5856]
+{org:en}
+Ecological and Social Challenges.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107191569:0O.@entry.@pl, :01)
+and:01(301076634:0H.@entry, 302906478:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5857]
+{org:en}
+Report prepared for the Food and Agricultural Organisation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301095085:09, 106681551:02.@entry)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5858]
+{org:en}
+This suggests a new way of thinking about water supplies, classifies water and identifies challenges for future water needs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(:01.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
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+mod:01(100172710:0M.@indef, 105770926:0T)
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+
+[S:5859]
+{org:en}
+Ponting C.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323230:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5860]
+{org:en}
+Progress and Barbarism
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115667595:0F.@entry, 100249501:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5861]
+{org:en}
+The World in the Twentieth Century
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(105670972:06.@entry.@def, 115205532:0T.@def)
+mod(115205532:0T.@def, "20":0J)
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+
+[S:5862]
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+561 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(115669681:06.@entry, "561":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5863]
+{org:en}
+London, Sydney, Auckland, Parktown
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500008271:02.@entry, 500003549:0A)
+plc(500004145:0I, 500324233:0S)
+plc(500003549:0A, 500004145:0I)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5864]
+{org:en}
+Chatto & Windus.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324029:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5865]
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+This book outlines the history of the twentieth century by looking at the various processes, dimensions and the problems associated with human live on our planet during this period.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5866]
+{org:en}
+Rosegrant M.W.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323400:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5867]
+{org:en}
+Water Resources in the Twenty-First Century
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(105154676:08.@entry.@pl, 115205532:12.@def)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5868]
+{org:en}
+Challenges and Implications for Action
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(:01.@entry, 100037396:0Y)
+and:01(107238102:0H.@entry.@pl, 107191569:02.@pl)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5869]
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+27 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(115669681:05.@entry, "27":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5870]
+{org:en}
+Washington D.C.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323548:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5871]
+{org:en}
+International Food Policy Research Institute.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324115:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5872]
+{org:en}
+This book provides useful information on the problems facing the water sector and the economic sectors dependent on this precious resource.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5873]
+{org:en}
+Turton A.R.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500322998:02.@entry
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+{org:en}
+GLOBAL WATER NEEDS FOR THE FUTURE
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5903]
+{org:en}
+GLOBAL WATER NEEDS FOR THE FUTURE
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5904]
+{org:en}
+R. Meissner
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323459:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5905]
+{org:en}
+Research Associate at the African Water Issues Research Unit (AWIRU) at the University of Pretoria (UP), SouthAfrica
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5906]
+{org:en}
+A. Snyders
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323186:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5907]
+{org:en}
+Publications Co-ordinator at the Institute for Security Studies, SouthAfrica
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(109963914:0F.@entry, 108407330:0Z.@def)
+mod(104345028:1M.@pl, 100823316:1D)
+mod(104345028:1M.@pl, 100823316:1D)
+pur(108407330:0Z.@def, 104345028:1M.@pl)
+mod(109963914:0F.@entry, 101101958:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5908]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5909]
+{org:en}
+aquifers, drivers, sustainability, blue water, green water, water demand, water supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and(115690062:11, 105029594:0L)
+and(115690062:11, 105029594:0L)
+and(107935504:1J, 115690062:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5910]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5911]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5912]
+{org:en}
+Drivers of Water Use
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103244047:02.@entry.@pl, 100947128:0J)
+mod(100947128:0J, 107935504:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5913]
+{org:en}
+Present Global Water Needs
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(109367991:0N.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0H)
+aoj(301568684:0A, 109367991:0N.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5914]
+{org:en}
+Future Trends
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689677:09.@entry, 301294975:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5915]
+{org:en}
+Conclusion
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5916]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5917]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5918]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5919]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5920]
+{org:en}
+Summary
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+{unl}
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5921]
+{org:en}
+The awareness that water and water planning is significant for human development and the environment has come little by little.
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+{org:en}
+While it is often acknowledged that water is an important resource, it has seldom been placed high on the agenda at national and international fora.
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+{org:en}
+The realisation and acceptance that water should be used prudently and monitored vigilantly is an essential step toward a more prosperous future.
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+
+[S:5924]
+{org:en}
+Global awareness of sustainable water practices is growing but, once again, positive global trends may disguise disturbing local practices
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:5925]
+{org:en}
+each community must attend to its own unique freshwater systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5926]
+{org:en}
+While developing states may even abuse national resources in an attempt to develop, this cannot be sustained.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5927]
+{org:en}
+The political process often favours a short term solution and it can be expected that future attempts to alleviate water shortages will be no different.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:5928]
+{org:en}
+It is easier to divert water to a politically important area from another than to carefully identify a process that will allow both to grow.
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:5929]
+{org:en}
+It has been said that water flows towards power and money even if that means flowing uphill.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5930]
+{org:en}
+To this may be added that water can only flow, uphill or downhill, where it has been conserved.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5931]
+{org:en}
+Like many other resources, water is part of the global power system and has been abused in the past.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Water remains unique, however, as an essential of life, the future of which cannot be ignored.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:5933]
+{org:en}
+Despite the mishaps of the past and the muddles of the present, the opportunity exists for the careful study and planning of future global water needs
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5934]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5935]
+{org:en}
+Any discussion of future water needs must acknowledge that while it is possible to sketch a picture of the global future, water use is a local activity that affects individuals and small communities as much as it does sovereign states and large commercial enterprises.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5936]
+{org:en}
+Global averages are only useful when they allow a better understanding of individual and community use of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5937]
+{org:en}
+That water is unevenly available is a principle that will guide this analysis of future water needs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(100634276:1Z, 600000017:1U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5938]
+{org:en}
+One community may have more water than it can use while another may have so little water that its survival is at stake.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+bas(200065370:0K.@entry.@may, 201158572:1C.@ability)
+cnt(107935504:2D, 202603699:31)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5939]
+{org:en}
+While humans and ecosystems can tolerate and sometimes depend on an uneven supply of water, there is generally a continuous and growing demand for water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5940]
+{org:en}
+It can be said that the flow of water through the biosphere is like the flow of blood through a body.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5941]
+{org:en}
+The relationship between the constant demand for water and the uneven supply is crucial.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300583239:0V, 101061333:14.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5942]
+{org:en}
+If well-managed, it can help society in its search for a better life.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100637354:1A, 600000311:16)
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+obj(100637354:1A, 100006269:1U.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5943]
+{org:en}
+If water needs are not carefully matched to the supply, disaster becomes unavoidable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(109367991:0B, 107935504:05)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5944]
+{org:en}
+Need and demand must conform to supply and access.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5945]
+{org:en}
+At the outset it is important to distinguish between water that is naturally available and that which is made accessible in one way or another for use by a community.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5946]
+{org:en}
+Geographical differences and seasonal changes are perhaps the most obvious factors that affect the amount of water naturally available to a particular community.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5947]
+{org:en}
+Whatever else changes in the future, these factors will still affect the rhythm of future water needs.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5948]
+{org:en}
+Communities also make use of additional water that does not occur naturally but must be made available through engineered means.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5949]
+{org:en}
+Dams, pipelines and canals are the most well-known of these.
+{/org}
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+[S:5950]
+{org:en}
+Water needs, though continuous, are not constant.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+They are driven by factors such as population growth and economic development
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+two very powerful drivers of water use.
+{/org}
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+[S:5953]
+{org:en}
+Large populations with growing productive capacities are known to use considerable amounts of water.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+It is clear that populations do not grow or become significantly productive without a related rise in demand for water.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+This observation draws yet another distinction
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+between those societies which are growing and productive and those which are not.
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+{org:en}
+While these two groups have much in common, it is useful to treat them separately since their water needs are quite different in many respects.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:5958]
+{org:en}
+For instance, societies reliant on agriculture as a source of income use large amounts of water as a primary input whereas societies with an advanced industrial capacity and an economy based on services allocate freshwater resources more carefully and usually more efficiently
+{/org}
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+
+[S:5959]
+{org:en}
+thus while their absolute water needs are greater, water forms a smaller part of the total resources used.
+{/org}
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+[S:5960]
+{org:en}
+While all communities do need water, it soon becomes apparent that different types of water are needed.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:5961]
+{org:en}
+Many researchers use the terms "blue water" and "green water" to explain these differences.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:5962]
+{org:en}
+Blue water refers to that which is available in streams, lakes and underground aquifers.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:5963]
+{org:en}
+Dams are built to store blue water and control it for distribution through controlled channels.
+{/org}
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+[S:5964]
+{org:en}
+Green water has been defined as the water supply for all non-irrigated vegetation, including forests and woodlands, grasslands and rain-fed crops.
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+[S:5965]
+{org:en}
+These basic differences are important since they allow more useful detail in this sketch of global water needs in the future.
+{/org}
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+[S:5966]
+{org:en}
+Writing about the future is seldom free of subjective views.
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+{org:en}
+In the case of water, most stated views fall into two broad categories
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+{/unl}
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+[S:5968]
+{org:en}
+those who predict that water is bound to become even more scarce thus limiting growth and becoming a source of conflict and misery, and those who believe that society and the environment will adapt to changes and that water scarcity is unlikely to be of global catastrophic proportions.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+A good argument can be made for both views since the human capacity for ingenuity is equal only to its talent for destruction.
+{/org}
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+This article will explore the future drivers of global water resources.
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+{org:en}
+In the first section the current drivers of water resource use will be looked at.
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+The second part will be devoted to present global water needs, with the third section of the article looking at future trends in water use.
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+In the last part of the article a conclusion will be drawn.
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+{org:en}
+Drivers of Water Use
+{/org}
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+There are specific circumstances in which the amount of water used by a community rises and falls.
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+{org:en}
+Sometimes when more is available, more will be used.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:5977]
+{org:en}
+In this respect water is like many other resources.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+If it is perceived to be plentiful, and it is useful, then it is unlikely to be used sparingly.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+When very little water is available, care is usually taken to make good use of existing stocks and provision is made to secure a continuous supply.
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+
+[S:5980]
+{org:en}
+However, irrespective of how much is available, human populations and the environments that surround them require a minimum amount of fresh water to function.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+As a result, it is necessary for communities to intervene in the natural course of events to ensure a steady supply of fresh water.
+{/org}
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+[S:5982]
+{org:en}
+The healthy growth of a population and the expansion of its economic activities, both of which require water, are generally regarded as essential to the attainment of a better life for the community.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:5983]
+{org:en}
+As a result they are encouraged by national and regional development institutions.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5984]
+{org:en}
+The lesson here is that in order to foresee or control future water use, it is necessary to understand the water resource demands of economic expansion and rising populations.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Economic expansion can be further broken down into industrial development and irrigated agriculture.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5986]
+{org:en}
+Over the centuries, humans have found water useful for far more than the essentials of drinking and growing food.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+Rivers often form the boundary between many sovereign states and acquire an importance beyond their practical use.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5988]
+{org:en}
+Trade and the transport of goods and people occurs along and upon stretches of water.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:5989]
+{org:en}
+Water is used in many recreation activities and is also central to many religious ceremonies.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+The movement of water has also been harnessed and used to increase the power of humans over their environment.
+{/org}
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+Population growth
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+In 1900 the world population was 1.6 billion.
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+In the next 95 years it increased to over 6 billion.
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+This huge increase has had a significant effect on the amount of freshwater withdrawn or diverted from normal runoff.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+As populations grow, more people interact with water in some way or another than ever before.
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+
+[S:5996]
+{org:en}
+Large communities need more water for washing and cleaning and require still more for electricity supply.
+{/org}
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+and:01(100251013:1G.@entry, 115691952:14)
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+[S:5997]
+{org:en}
+The list of human activities that involve water is long and becoming longer.
+{/org}
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+[S:5998]
+{org:en}
+More efficient use of water can reduce the total somewhat but population growth will remain a key determinant of future water needs.
+{/org}
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+[S:5999]
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+As populations grow, more food needs to be produced.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:6000]
+{org:en}
+At present, large amounts of water are withdrawn from the cycle to irrigate the extra crops.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua(107935504:0V.@topic, 100033615:0K.@pl)
+obj(200079951:1X, 103134496:2G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6001]
+{org:en}
+Food security is thus dependent on irrigation which is in turn dependent on the availability and management of water (for a broader discussion on population and water resources see HTM1 The Impact of Demography on Global and Regional Water Resources HTM2 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:04(200662589:4Z.@entry, 107338552:5C.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6002]
+{org:en}
+Accurate data
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300021766:02, 108462320:0B.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6003]
+{org:en}
+Reliable data is a problem in all fields and that of water planning is no exception.
+{/org}
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+mod(100928371:1P, 107935504:1J)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6004]
+{org:en}
+Some assessments are quite easy while others are very complex.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6005]
+{org:en}
+For example, one can combine population figures and the amount of run-off in a particular river basin or a particular continent.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:6006]
+{org:en}
+The result is the amount of water available per person at a given time (see HTM1 table 1 HTM2 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(104379243:2B, "1":2H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6007]
+{org:en}
+As populations increase, less water is available per person.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200153263:0H.@should, 101257969:05.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6008]
+{org:en}
+It is interesting that South America and Africa have had steep declines while Europe and North and Central America have declined less dramatically.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(400138945:3S, 400099868:3N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6009]
+{org:en}
+Of course, other factors such as climate and pollution are also at play here but the broad picture is clear.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(600000260:1U.@entry, 600000037:27)
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+obj(600000037:27, 300428404:2W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6010]
+{org:en}
+More people use more water and affect the quality of the water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200019448:0X.@entry, 201158572:0E)
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+qua(107935504:0N, 400099341:0I)
+agt(201158572:0E, 107942152:07.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6011]
+{org:en}
+Table 1
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "1":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6012]
+{org:en}
+Per capita water availability by region (1950-2000) in thousand cubic meters
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+Other calculations are far less easy.
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+Governments have consistently failed to analyse the details of water use.
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+What is it used for?
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+And how much is required to meet certain demands?
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+These are complex questions that depend on social values, and political and economic conditions.
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+[S:6018]
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+An important distinction to make here is that generally, population growth in poor countries or those in the process of industrialization (here referred to as ‘developing’) is faster than in richer, (‘developed’) countries.
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+The result of this is that developing countries (such as many in Africa) will use water resources at a faster rate than many developed European states.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+As population growth declines, whether as a result of educated choice or through disease, the need for water too will decline.
+{/org}
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+[S:6021]
+{org:en}
+Economic development
+{/org}
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+[S:6022]
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+It has been estimated that the twin factors of economic growth and population growth may lead to the use of more than 70% of accessible run-off by 2025.
+{/org}
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+[S:6023]
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+This statement implies that at sometime in the future, demand will exceed supply and the system of water supply will break down into chaos and calamity.
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+[S:6024]
+{org:en}
+Another view is that as water becomes more scarce, it will be used more efficiently.
+{/org}
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+[S:6025]
+{org:en}
+It is envisioned that technology will come to the rescue and allow huge economic expansion without exhausting all freshwater resources.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+These two views are generally referred to as Malthusian and Cornucopian.
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+[S:6027]
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+The Malthusian view is that growth is limited and that if things continue as they are, society will eventually deplete its store of resources of freshwater.
+{/org}
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+Supporters of this view often point to the numerous ecological and environmental disasters as evidence that natural resources are often squandered and destroyed.
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+Indeed, extensive pollution, high populations, crowded cities and irresponsible industrialization often seem to point to impending disaster.
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+The Aral Sea in Central Asia is a good example of how the pursuit of economic gains while disregarding environmental principle can end in catastrophe.
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+The Aral Sea is fed by the region? two largest rivers
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(300527870:16, 400536271:1N)
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+aoj(300527870:16, 109411430:1E.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6032]
+{org:en}
+the Amu-Darya and the Syr-Darya.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323930:0O.@entry.@def, 500323772:06.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6033]
+{org:en}
+It was the world’s fourth largest lake and the populations living on its shores made use of its fish stocks for food and to earn a living.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202774734:2F.@entry.@past, 109328904:10.@past.@def)
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+aoj(300527870:0S, 109328904:10.@past.@def)
+plc(300099290:1P.@progress, 104204468:23.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6034]
+{org:en}
+In the 1960s, the Soviet Union leadership chose to divert water from the two rivers feeding the Aral Sea to a system of irrigation canals.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200674607:18.@entry.@past, 106843520:0D.@def)
+mod(102947212:3P.@pl, 100695448:3E)
+aoj(200189511:2E.@progress, 109411430:27.@def.@pl)
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+obj(104377057:34.@indef, 102947212:3P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6035]
+{org:en}
+The canals were used to develop the regional economy.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:0I.@entry.@past, 102947212:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(104893787:1B.@def, 302408977:12)
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+obj(200234057:0Q, 104893787:1B.@def)
+pur(201158572:0I.@entry.@past, 200234057:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6036]
+{org:en}
+The population grew from 13.6 million in 1959 to 37.8 million in 1989.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200094460:0H.@entry.@past, 101257969:06.@topic.@def)
+qua("1000000":0W, "13.6":0R)
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+qua("1000000":0W, "13.6":0R)
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+qua("1000000":1K, "37.8":1F)
+src(200094460:0H.@entry.@past, "1000000":0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6037]
+{org:en}
+Making use of the canals, industrial production, the generation of electricity and the production of cotton increased significantly.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774734:02.@entry.@progress, :01:01)
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+and:01(100522736:2H.@entry.@def, 100849982:1J.@def)
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+obj:01(100849982:1J.@def, 107514600:1X)
+man:01(200153263:32, 400006259:3C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6038]
+{org:en}
+The freshwater in the region is now of a very low quality because of untreated human waste, industrial pollution and toxic chemicals in agricultural run-off.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj:01(301188648:2M, 114516743:2X)
+and:01(114806838:3H.@entry.@pl, 114516743:2X.@pl)
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+plc(115689095:06.@topic.@def, 105221895:0O.@def)
+aoj:01(302790222:3U, 100183357:47)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6039]
+{org:en}
+The Sea is in danger of one day drying up altogether and the limited water supplies are no longer sufficient to sustain the populations that depend on it.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(303161285:2S.@entry, 600000256:0D)
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+aoj(600000256:0D, 109426788:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6040]
+{org:en}
+The economic gains derived from the agriculture fed by the canals makes the Aral Sea problem more difficult to solve.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200012267:1W.@entry, 113254805:0F.@topic.@def.@pl)
+met(200189511:1E, 102947212:1P.@def.@pl)
+man(300744916:2S, 400099341:2N)
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+obj(200251615:0L, 113254805:0F.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200251615:0L, 113254805:0F.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300744916:2S, 200634906:35)
+obj(200189511:1E, 108075287:12.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6041]
+{org:en}
+Stopping the diversion and allowing the water to flow instead into the Sea is not a popular option since the region relies on the economic benefits of, for example, the cotton crops.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(105790944:2M.@entry.@not.@indef, 600000055:2T)
+aoj(202774350:3A, 105221895:33.@def)
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+obj(600000055:2T, 202774350:3A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6042]
+{org:en}
+While measures to save the Sea have been discussed, the will to implement them is lacking.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300927832:2C.@entry, 600000004:02)
+obj(202774210:17.@should.@complete, 100174412:08.@pl)
+obj(202408965:1U, 600000020:24)
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+obj(202408965:1U, 600000020:24)
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+pur(100174412:08.@pl, 200549552:0K)
+obj(600000004:02, 202774210:17.@should.@complete)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6043]
+{org:en}
+It has been suggested that a Siberian river could be diverted south to supply more water to Central Asia but this has proved politically difficult.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200930368:0E.@entry.@complete, 201952363:1J.@ability)
+obj(200664788:3C.@complete, 600000022:33)
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+man(201952363:1J.@ability, 600000325:1S)
+obj(600000037:2Z, 200664788:3C.@complete)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6044]
+{org:en}
+In this case, the short-term economic gains were pursued despite the looming ecological disaster.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202000868:1F.@entry.@past, 600000186:02)
+aoj(302906478:27, 100217499:2I)
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+mod(113254805:14.@topic.@def.@pl, 303162340:0K)
+obj(201672384:1Z.@progress.@def, 100217499:2I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6045]
+{org:en}
+Box 1
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100135148:02.@entry, "1":06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6046]
+{org:en}
+Fact box on Aral Sea
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(100135148:07.@entry, 500323527:0E)
+mod(100135148:07.@entry, 105817396:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6047]
+{org:en}
+The Aral Sea example is a powerful argument supporting the view that the water resources will eventually be exploited beyond repair.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105857781:11.@entry.@indef, 105820620:0F.@topic.@def)
+mod(105820620:0F.@topic.@def, 500323527:06)
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+obj(201720773:1A.@progress, 100881649:1P.@def)
+obj(600000261:3C, 100266806:3J)
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+obj(201162754:32.@will, 105154676:29.@def.@pl)
+obj(201720773:1A.@progress, 100881649:1P.@def)
+obj(600000261:3C, 100266806:3J)
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+man(201162754:32.@will, 400535301:2O)
+cnt(100881649:1P.@def, 201162754:32.@will)
+mod(105154676:29.@def.@pl, 107935504:23)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6048]
+{org:en}
+It is a simple argument, and very appealing
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300170358:10.@entry, 105857781:0H.@indef)
+aoj(105857781:0H.@indef, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj(105857781:0H.@indef, 600000016:02.@topic)
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+aoj(300170358:10.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj(301793812:0A, 105857781:0H.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6049]
+{org:en}
+demand is increasing and the supply is fixed, therefore a crisis looms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:01.@entry, 600000169:1C)
+obj(201672384:1V, 107417644:1O.@indef)
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+obj(201672384:1V, 107417644:1O.@indef)
+obj:01(200153263:0C.@progress, 101061333:02.@topic)
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+and:01(300347707:15.@entry, 200153263:0C.@progress)
+obj(600000169:1C, 201672384:1V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6050]
+{org:en}
+This is, however, balanced by an alternative, Cornucopian. viewpoint.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202264967:0K.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
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+man(202264967:0K.@entry, 600000070:0B)
+aoj(303161955:1C, 115691630:1O.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6051]
+{org:en}
+The Cornucopians argue that severe global shortages are unlikely to happen for a number of reasons.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200772189:0J.@entry, 115689467:18.@pl)
+aoj(301568684:11, 115689467:18.@pl)
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+mod(115689467:18.@pl, 600000226:0P)
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+pur(200339934:1Y.@will, 105651680:2L.@pl)
+aoj(301129185:0U, 115689467:18.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6052]
+{org:en}
+The first of these is that societies constantly produce new ideas and with them, new technologies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+New technologies are not a cure-all but they have allowed huge advances in the more efficient use of water as well as how water is recycled and treated.
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+Scientifically enhanced crops grown using new techniques use less water to produce more food.
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+More progress can still be made on the this front.
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+A second reason that the global water crisis is unlikely to occur is that supplies might be increased.
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+It may seem that all supplies have been utilised but there are still freshwater sources that are unutilized.
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+The Zambezi River and its basin in Africa is one example.
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+If the water in the Zambezi were to be properly filtered and made accessible it could provide water to those who need it.
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+Without these, the flow of the Zambezi water will not be accessible for domestic, industrial or agricultural use.
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+New technology, like pumps and pipes, brings progress but brings with it the risk that those using it will become dependent on outside support.
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+A diesel water pump, for example, can be very helpful with irrigation but it must be maintained and repaired.
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+But it is also wrong to think that indigenous systems, particularly those in poor and developing countries, work perfectly well if you leave them well alone.
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+It must be accepted that communities are not isolated and they do need to interact with the outside world.
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+The key lesson to be learned is that water use must be sustainable.
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+This has been defined as the use of water that supports the ability of human society to endure and flourish into the indefinite future without undermining the integrity of the hydrological cycle or the ecological systems that depend on it.
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+A basic water requirement will be guaranteed to restore and maintain the health of ecosystems.
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+Water quality will be maintained to meet certain minimum standards.
+{/org}
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+These standards will vary depending on location and how the water is to be used.
+{/org}
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+Human actions will not impair the long-term renewability of freshwater stocks and flows.
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+Data on water resources availability, use and quality will be collected and made accessible to all parties.
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+Institutional mechanisms will be set up to prevent and resolve conflicts over water.
+{/org}
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+Water planning and decisionmaking will be democratic, ensuring representation of all affected parties and fostering direct participation of affected interests.
+{/org}
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+[S:6080]
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+When considering future global water needs, the criteria listed above are a useful guide to which projects should be undertaken and which should be reconsidered.
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+{org:en}
+Present global water needs
+{/org}
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+The growth of the world’s population and of many state’s economies has meant that current water consumption is higher than it has ever been.
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+Some states, such as the United States of America (USA), reached a peak of water withdrawal in the 1980s and have since declined.
+{/org}
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+Others, mainly developing states, are expanding their water infrastructure to enable more water to be stored and more to be used.
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+By the last decade of the HTM1 century, freshwater withdrawals had reached 3,580 cubic kilometres per year (km³/yr).
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+At the start of the century, global freshwater withdrawals amounted to approximately one sixth of the current figure.
+{/org}
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+[S:6087]
+{org:en}
+These figures should be explained.
+{/org}
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+Some of this water is withdrawn (taken for storage or use) but not actually used.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6089]
+{org:en}
+Instead, some of it is returned directly to the source after use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200879028:0P.@entry, 400535291:02)
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+{org:en}
+In other cases, water is reused and recirculated, often for industrial purposes.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The term ‘gross water use’, is used to describe the total amount of water used, even if some of it has been reused several times.
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+
+[S:6092]
+{org:en}
+Another useful term is ‘water consumption’ which refers to water that has been used in such a way that it cannot be immediately reused.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Evaporation and contamination are two ways that water is ‘consumed’.
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+[S:6094]
+{org:en}
+Once it has evaporated, it has to fall as rain before it re-enters the supply of freshwater from which the withdrawals take place.
+{/org}
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+[S:6095]
+{org:en}
+Another interesting point about global water use figures is that they are substantially lower than predicted.
+{/org}
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+[S:6096]
+{org:en}
+A couple a decades ago, it was thought that water use in 2000 would be around the 7 000 HTM1 mark.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:6097]
+{org:en}
+That prediction, like so many others, has been proved incorrect because of a new approach to water by some of the biggest users
+{/org}
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+[S:6098]
+{org:en}
+the developed states in Western Europe and the US.
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6099]
+{org:en}
+While some developing states may continue with unsustainable water withdrawal and consumption, many states have a changed their water use because of environmental concerns and because of the high economic cost that new water projects entail.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:6100]
+{org:en}
+Current agricultural water use
+{/org}
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+aoj(302790222:0A, 100947128:0T.@entry)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6101]
+{org:en}
+Agriculture, the cultivation of crops and the keeping of domestic animals for food, fibre or power, enabled primitive people to settle down in communities which grew as their agricultural efficiency increased.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6102]
+{org:en}
+By the start of the HTM1 century, agriculture, perhaps not surprisingly, utilizes by far the most water when compared to other uses.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Not only does agriculture require massive amounts of freshwater withdrawals, it also uses most of that water very inefficiently.
+{/org}
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+[S:6104]
+{org:en}
+Pipes and canals with leaks and cracks lose much of the water before it reaches the crops.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
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+[S:6105]
+{org:en}
+Once it reaches the farmer and the crops, the water is sometimes used indiscriminately and without care.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6106]
+{org:en}
+Many fields are flooded to water plants which would grow just as well with a few well placed drops.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+This involves pumping the water to the surface through tubewells.
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+These have had a big impact in states such as Bangladesh where underground water has been used to irrigate many millions of hectares.
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+As with other sources of freshwater, groundwater needs to be understood and explored in order to be effectively used.
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+Developing states generally rely on agriculture for a large part of their gross domestic product (GDP), they are dependent on irrigation to supplement natural rainfall and often have large rural populations.
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+Agricultural water use in developing states is often based on traditional thinking about water, not all of which is sustainable.
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+The idea that water should be bought and sold and that it should be calculated as a cost is not widely accepted by those who see it as an unregulated resource.
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+For example, Guinea Bissau’s economy depends heavily on peanuts, cashews nuts, corn and beans.
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+Agriculture supplies jobs to 77 % of the labour force in Guinea Bissau.
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+Irrigation and water supply for crops are clearly crucial to the economy.
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+The amount of irrigated area has risen in both developed and developing states.
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+The rate of increase in developing states has however been slightly higher than developed states.
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+The total amount of irrigated land has risen from 167 million hectares in 1970 to almost 250 million hectares in 1994.
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+Developing countries had 123 million hectares under cultivation in 1970.
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+In the next 24 years, 61 million hectares were added.
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+This represents are growth of almost 50% over 24 years.
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+Industrial water use
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+This varies from motor vehicle production and electronic components manufacturing to textiles and packaging.
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+As can be seen in the table below, industrial water use is highest in high income states.
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+[S:6152]
+{org:en}
+Table 2
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6153]
+{org:en}
+Sectoral water withdrawals by country income group
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+When water is used as part of an economic activity, the demand for water depends on two things
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+[S:6155]
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+what is being produced and how efficiently it is produced.
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+Making fertiliser and making steel requires different amounts of water which is used in different ways.
+{/org}
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+States which are arid often focus on economic activities that require less water or simply invent industrial processes that use water more efficiently.
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+Water used for cooling is a good example of how the same water is recycled and thus used efficiently.
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+It is useful to measure how much water is used when producing certain products.
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+In the United States in the 1930s, between 60 and 100 tons of water was used to produce one ton of steel.
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+Pollution of water is often closely related to industrial use.
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+Treatment of polluted water to allow it to be reused is costly and time consuming.
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+These have been effective in many cases where the problem is contained and easily assessed.
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+Other means are necessary when the problem involves more than one sovereign state.
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+Water pollution often needs to be addressed by several states whose water resources are shared or interlinked.
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+{org:en}
+The Danube, which flows through Central and Eastern Europe, is regarded as mildly polluted.
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+The pollution affects Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria via rivers such as the Tisza which flow through the region.
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+It was noted in 1991 that in Romania, 85 percent of the main rivers were unfit to drink from.
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+Romania’s water problems, mainly due to bad industrial practices, has impacted negatively on the several states in the region and has had to be addressed by intergovernmental bodies.
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+Domestic water use
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+This refers specifically to drinking water, demand by private homes, water outlets at commercial establishments, public services and municipal supplies.
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+Domestic water use is particularly visible and is often linked to a level of lifestyle.
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+Poor urban communities often have limited access to water while wealthier citizens have more water outlets than they really need.
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+Urban water use is often very visible and part of daily routines
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+A toilet that is designed to use 25 litres per flush, installed in 10 000 households, determines the level of demand.
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+The spread of these over the past 50 years has had an effect on water demand.
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+Washing machines and garden sprinklers switch on and off using timers.
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+While it may be the case that this allows one person to use more water simultaneously, it also allows more control.
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+Washing machines can be set to more economic cycles and gardens can be watered at times when the water will be most effective.
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+Lush green lawns, seen as desirable by many, are often only made possible by large freshwater withdrawals.
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+Large residential communities in arid parts of the USA use a large percentage of water to maintain urban landscapes and areas such as golf courses.
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+In some parts of the USA, as much as half of all domestic water demand is from these projects.
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+Future trends
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+Future global water needs will depend on how developed and developing societies tackle the challenge of distributing scarce resources to their citizens.
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+Political conditions, economic success or failure, social re-arrangements and climatic changes (see HTM1 The Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources HTM2 ) will all have an impact.
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+In many ways water use will continue much as it has in the past.
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+Very often changes do not occur because political, economic and social institutions have a certain momentum that discourages change and has an interest in maintaining the status quo.
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+A number of barriers to change have been identified by water experts.
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+These are, amongst others, national water subsidies, inappropriate economic signals to consumers of water, financial support for water-intensive crops grown in arid regions and a number of legislative constraints.
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+The trend toward more democratic water use is not inevitable.
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+An ideal future is one where individuals are given the information they need to make decisions about how much water is needed and how much is wanted.
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+Future agricultural water needs
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+Despite many changes, existing irrigated areas will remain the largest users of freshwater for many years to come.
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+The rate of increase of irrigated areas has slowed, particularly in high-income states.
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+Low and middle income states are likely to continue to develop their agricultural sectors since it is an important part of their income.
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+Once again, technology and the spread of knowledge would very likely help increase the amount of water that is used effectively.
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+The highest potential for saving water in the future lies in the agricultural sector.
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+Water that is saved here can be diverted to other, perhaps more productive uses, including domestic water supply and industrial use.
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+The challenge is that in many poor states, the agricultural sector, which needs to be most effective in its water use is often the least competent and most poorly resourced.
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+Poor states will continue to struggle to irrigate more effectively while their populations remain illiterate and without access to high quality education.
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+Partnerships with large, international organisations do offer some hope.
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+World Bank and United Nations projects have the benefit of experienced research teams and dedicated funding but are not always sufficiently aware of local conditions or able to influence sovereign decisionmaking.
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+The decision by Libya to divert large amounts of groundwater via canals for productive use is a case in point.
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+The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer lies below parts of Egypt, Sudan and Libya and covers 1.8 million square kilometres.
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+Libya’s withdrawal of massive amounts of water will affect groundwater supplies in both Sudan and Egypt.
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+The repercussions of such an action would be damaging.
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+The groundwater in sub-Saharan Africa is not as large in size but may also be successfully tapped in future.
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+For this to happen, more investment will be needed to find the aquifers and explore how much water they contain, at what rate they are refilled and how they are linked to other water sources.
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+The development of a reliable supply of freshwater will be positive for agriculture and may well lead to better use of water for crop irrigation.
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+High income states, particularly those in Western Europe, have made a decision to subsidise their national agricultural industries even though they are not economically viable in the current economic climate.
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+Despite their use of advanced technology and efficient farming techniques, developing states remain more competitive but do not have fair access to the European agricultural market.
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+If this were to change, agriculture in poorer states would likely become a more prosperous economic sector.
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+The result of that might well be the more widespread use of modern, efficient irrigation technologies.
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+Another scenario is that large agriculture multinational might shift their production, and their water use, to poorer states with lower labour costs.
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+Virtual water (see HTM1 Perspectives of Global Water Balance and Regional Water Resources HTM2 ) is a relatively new concept that is almost sure to become a factor in agricultural decisionmaking in the future.
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+It refers to the amount of water, used at all stages in the process, to produce a certain product or crop.
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+Virtual water allows one to measure and compare all freshwater inputs for a range of products.
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+The results are often quite astounding since they include the less obvious or hidden inputs as well as the more obvious ones.
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+It is therefore possible to determine how much water is used to produce a bag of maize or a box of paper.
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+Once these amounts are calculated and known, decisions can be made to produce one product instead of another based on their water cost.
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+Products that have a high virtual water index are obviously not suited to arid regions.
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+Another use of virtual water is for environmental impact assessments.
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+By reviewing which industries operate in a certain area and using the relevant virtual water indices, an approximation can be made of how much freshwater is being withdrawn, how much pollution is likely to be produced and how much water can be recycled.
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+Without oversimplifying the process, virtual water figures makes water use empirically available and allows informed decisions to be made.
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+Developing states have a smaller share of global industry and while they will be affected in part by these trends, the effect will not be as intense.
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+Global links between industries may well mean that efficient water use technologies are more easily diffused in industry than in agriculture where there is less need for international co-operation.
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+Developing states will need to develop their ability to effectively govern a given territory before water legislation can be enforced.
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+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+Corruption and a lack of capacity will remain big obstacles to effective water planning and policy in poor states.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{org:en}
+Future domestic water needs
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6269]
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+It is generally hoped that the anticipated rise in demand for domestic water use will be covered by more efficiency in the agricultural sector.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Domestic demand, increasingly, will be for high quality water.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6271]
+{org:en}
+A regular supply of clean water is a major factor in ensuring good public health of citizens.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:6272]
+{org:en}
+If they live in democratic states, they are likely to demand this, because of the entrenched right to life in a clean environment and have access to clean resources.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+If this demand is to be met it will have to be properly paid for.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Future domestic water supplies are less likely to be subsidised in ways that distorts the actual cost of water.
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+{org:en}
+Large projects that do not deliver specific, sustainable benefits will be resisted by those citizens that can.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6276]
+{org:en}
+Technology, once again plays a big role.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:6277]
+{org:en}
+More efficient washing machines, such as the front-loading variety can reduce domestic water consumption significantly.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:6278]
+{org:en}
+The same applies to toilets and garden water supply.
+{/org}
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+gol(200765396:0B.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(107935504:15, 103417345:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6279]
+{org:en}
+Large urban areas, with the right technology, properly implemented can maintain the same level of lifestyle with far less freshwater withdrawal.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6280]
+{org:en}
+Conclusion
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6281]
+{org:en}
+A number of drivers are pushing water needs higher.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:6282]
+{org:en}
+The most influential of these are population growth and economic development.
+{/org}
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+[S:6283]
+{org:en}
+Economic development, for instance, if not implemented in a sustainable manner can lead to disastrous ecological consequences such as the Aral Sea ecological calamity.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6284]
+{org:en}
+At present some states are using less water while in other countries, most notably those of the developing world are increasing their water consumption.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6285]
+{org:en}
+The increase in water consumption in these state can be attributed to their high dependency on agriculture as an earner of foreign revenue and a ‘creator’ of employment.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6286]
+{org:en}
+For this reason, the agricultural sector is the highest water consumer in developing countries, with industry being the largest consumer in high income states.
+{/org}
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+aoj(300527870:3E, 109612848:3M.@state.@def)
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+mod(100024720:4A.@pl, 113255145:43)
+aoj(109612848:3M.@state.@def, 100923444:2V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6287]
+{org:en}
+The reason for this being that high income states are more dependent on industry for their economic development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj:01(300705498:0X, 100024720:19.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6288]
+{org:en}
+Future global water needs will depend on how developed and developing societies tackle the challenge of distributing scarce resources to their citizens.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0X.@entry.@will, 109367991:0M.@topic.@pl)
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+mod(109923673:41.@pl, 600000020:3V.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6289]
+{org:en}
+Political conditions, economic success or failure, social re-arrangements and climatic changes will all have an impact on future global water needs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:02(105798863:0C.@pl, 301814385:02)
+and:02(100338821:1V.@pl.@topic, :01.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6290]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6291]
+{org:en}
+Glossary and Abbreviations
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100359135:0F.@entry.@pl, 106420781:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6292]
+{org:en}
+Blue water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300370869:02, 107935504:07.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6293]
+{org:en}
+It is visible water contained in rivers, streams, lakes and other surface water bodies, and also fractionally in acquifers which trickle back to rivers, streams, lakes and other surface water bodies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(107935504:0G.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+mod:02(107935504:54, 104362025:4W)
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+obj(202701210:0M, 107935504:0G.@entry)
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+mod:02(102861886:5A.@entry.@pl, 600000031:4Q)
+man(107935504:0G.@entry, 400535408:2N)
+and:02(109328904:4G.@pl, 107406765:47.@pl)
+plc(400535408:2N, 115690419:33.@pl)
+mod:01(102861886:29.@entry, 600000031:1P)
+and:02(109328904:4G.@pl, 107406765:47.@pl)
+plc(400535408:2N, 115690419:33.@pl)
+mod:01(102861886:29.@entry, 600000031:1P)
+and:02(102861886:5A.@entry.@pl, 109328904:4G.@pl)
+plc(202701210:0M, :01:01)
+man(202070874:3J, 600000190:3R)
+and:01(109328904:1F.@pl, 107406765:16.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6294]
+{org:en}
+Green water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300375969:02, 107935504:08.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6295]
+{org:en}
+The water that is concealed in the soil and connected to plant production where it forms a greenwater flow (evapotranspiration) back to the atmosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:01, 107935504:06.@entry.@def)
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+mod:01(100329227:2W.@indef, 303163295:2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6296]
+{org:en}
+GDP
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323691:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6297]
+{org:en}
+Gross Domestic Product.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103748886:0H.@entry, 300987974:02)
+mod(103748886:0H.@entry, 301036754:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6298]
+{org:en}
+Hydrological Cycle
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161050:02, 107341038:0F.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6299]
+{org:en}
+The movement of water between the reservoirs of water found in the environment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100279835:06.@entry.@def, 107935504:0I)
+plc(200715239:1K, 108567235:1X.@def)
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+plc(200715239:1K, 108567235:1X.@def)
+mod(104078574:10.@def.@pl, 107935504:1E)
+obj(600000024:0O, 104078574:10.@def.@pl)
+aoj(600000024:0O, 107935504:0I)
+obj(200715239:1K, 107935504:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6300]
+{org:en}
+The hydrological cycle also includes the transformation of water in all its different forms - solid, liquid, and gas.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+tim(200183879:0U.@entry, 107341038:0J.@def)
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+and:01(114481080:33.@entry, 107119643:2R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6301]
+{org:en}
+The hydrological cycle is also called the water cycle.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200107231:0X.@entry, 107341038:0J.@topic.@def)
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+aoj(303161050:06, 107341038:0J.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6302]
+{org:en}
+It is driven by solar radiation and the gravitational pull of the earth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:01(100114431:1K.@entry.@def, 108562067:1W.@def)
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+aoj(201026975:08.@entry, :01)
+aoj:01(302737183:16, 100114431:1K.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6303]
+{org:en}
+A number of processes are also involved in the hydrological cycle.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200401538:0X.@entry, 100029677:0E.@topic.@pl)
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+gol(200401538:0X.@entry, 107341038:1Q.@def)
+mod(100029677:0E.@topic.@pl, 600000054:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6304]
+{org:en}
+These major processes are as follows
+{/org}
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+mod(100029677:0E.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+man(202603699:0O.@entry, 600000181:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6305]
+{org:en}
+condensation by which precipitation is formed, the movement and storage of water on the surface of the earth or in sub-surface reservoirs - aquifers, evaporation and the upward transportation of moisture into the atmosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:02(113572436:4I.@def, 109201998:48.@pl.@def)
+mod:03(104362025:3N, 303161200:3J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6306]
+{org:en}
+km³/yr
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000025:07, 115669024:02.@entry)
+obj(600000025:07, 115201505:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6307]
+{org:en}
+Cubic kilometres per year
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000025:0J, 113659760:08.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000025:0J, 115201505:0N)
+aoj(300657198:02, 113659760:08.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6308]
+{org:en}
+Population growth rate
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(113325010:0K.@entry, 108438067:0D)
+mod(108438067:0D, 101257969:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6309]
+{org:en}
+The rate at which a population is increasing (or decreasing) in a given year due to natural increase and net migration, expressed as a percentage of the base population.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200940384:3E.@entry.@past, 113325010:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(115201505:22.@indef, 300028280:1W)
+plc(200153263:10.@progress, 113325010:06.@topic.@def)
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+mod:01(101123095:33.@entry, 301582461:2Z)
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+mod(115201505:22.@indef, 300028280:1W)
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+or(200151689:1F.@parenthesis.@progress, 200153263:10.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6310]
+{org:en}
+Sustainable water use
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302806261:02, 100947128:0K.@entry)
+mod(100947128:0K.@entry, 107935504:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6311]
+{org:en}
+This is the notion of the use of water that supports the capacity of humans to survive and prosper into the unlimited future without impairing the integrity of the hydrologic cycle or ecological systems that depend on it.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103832799:0E.@entry.@def, 600000022:02.@topic)
+aoj:02(301415605:32, 103408721:3C.@def)
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+aoj:01(202663848:5U, 104377057:5H.@entry.@pl)
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+[S:6314]
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+Bibliography
+{/org}
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+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6315]
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+Adams W.M. (1998).
+{/org}
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+tim(500323173:02.@entry, "1998":0E.@parenthesis)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6316]
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+[S:6317]
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+[W]
+500008271:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6319]
+{org:en}
+Earthscan Publications.
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+[W]
+500324058:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6320]
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+Practical examples of water projects are discussed critically
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+[S:6322]
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+Gleick P.H. (1999)
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+[W]
+"1999":0F.@entry.@parenthesis
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+[S:6323]
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+The World’s Water
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+mod(107935504:0E.@entry.@def, 105670972:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6324]
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+The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:6325]
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+Washington DC
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+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6326]
+{org:en}
+Island Press.
+{/org}
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+[W]
+500324127:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6327]
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+A report that reflects current thinking on water, gives an update of how freshwater is used and the current state of water planning.
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+{unl}
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+Hillel D. (1994) Rivers of Eden
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+The struggle for water and the quest for peace in the Middle East. Oxford, UK
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+[S:6330]
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+Oxford University Press.
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6331]
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+This book tells of how water scarcity is intertwined in the conflicts of the Middle East.
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+[S:6332]
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+Lundqvist J. et al. (1999).
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+[W]
+"1999":0N.@entry.@parenthesis
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6333]
+{org:en}
+Adapting to Growing Water Scarcity
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+mod(105116953:0S, 303070879:0E)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6334]
+{org:en}
+Ecological and Social Challenges.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107191569:0O.@entry, :01)
+and:01(301076634:0H.@entry, 302906478:02)
+{/unl}
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+[S:6335]
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+Report prepared for the Food and Agricultural Organisation.
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+{unl}
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+[S:6336]
+{org:en}
+This suggests a new way of thinking about water supplies, classifies water and identifies challenges for future water needs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6337]
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+Rosegrant M.W. (1997).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323401:02.@entry, "1997":0I.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6338]
+{org:en}
+Water Resources in the HTM1 Century
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(115205532:0U.@def, HTM1:0P)
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+[S:6339]
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+Challenges and Implications for Action.
+{/org}
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+pur(:01.@entry, 100037396:0Y)
+and:01(107238102:0H.@entry.@pl, 107191569:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:6340]
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+Washington, USA
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(115692449:02.@entry, 500323518:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6341]
+{org:en}
+International Food Policy Research Institute.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324115:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6342]
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+This presents an overview of the salient points to be considered in water policy planning.
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+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6343]
+{org:en}
+Turton A.R. (1999) Water Scarcity and Social Adaptive Capacity
+{/org}
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+and(100720951:1K.@entry, 105116953:0R)
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+mod(107935504:0L, 500322998:02)
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+
+[S:6344]
+{org:en}
+Towards an understanding of the social dynamics of water demand management in developing countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:6345]
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+London
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6346]
+{org:en}
+School of African and Oriental Studies
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(300825807:0O.@entry, 302941790:0C)
+aoj(:01, 104345028:0X.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6347]
+{org:en}
+MEWREW Occasional Paper No.9.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107205104:0Q.@entry, "9":0T)
+mod(107205104:0Q.@entry, 106255613:0K)
+mod(107205104:0Q.@entry, 106255613:0K)
+mod(107205104:0Q.@entry, 301067415:09)
+mod(107205104:0Q.@entry, 500323871:02)
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+
+[S:6348]
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+A paper discussing how societies cope with water scarcity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:6349]
+{org:en}
+Thomas C. and Howlett D. (1987).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(:01.@entry, "1987":0S.@parenthesis)
+and:01(500323251:0G.@entry, 500323231:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6350]
+{org:en}
+Resource Politics
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100611972:0B.@entry.@pl, 105154676:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6351]
+{org:en}
+Freshwater and Regional Relations.
+{/org}
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+and(100031921:0Q.@entry.@pl, 115689095:02)
+mod(100031921:0Q.@entry.@pl, 302408977:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6352]
+{org:en}
+Philadelphia, USA
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500004938:02.@entry, 500323518:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6353]
+{org:en}
+Open University Press.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324219:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6354]
+{org:en}
+Chapter Eight of this source focuses on the politics of interstate management of water resources in East Central Europe and Central Asia.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6355]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161322:02, 104227144:0F.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6356]
+{org:en}
+Richard Meissner HTM1 received his training as a political scientist at the Rand Afrikaans University (RAU) in Johannesburg.
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+
+[S:6357]
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+He obtained a Magister Artium (M.A.) degree in Political Studies from the same university in 1999 and is currently busy with a D.Phil. in International Relations at the University of Pretoria (UP).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6358]
+{org:en}
+He was one of the first students in South Africa to complete a Master? thesis on water politics.
+{/org}
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+He is currently employed as a research associate by the African Water Issues Research Unit (AWIRU) which he joined in 1999.
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+{org:en}
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+He has also written a number of articles which were published in accredited journals.
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+His scope of interest lies within the field of water politics and particularly the interaction of divers actors within the domestic and international domains regarding water resource issues.
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+[/S]
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+[S:6364]
+{org:en}
+Richard Meissner is a member of the South African Political Studies Association and the South African Institute of International Affairs.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6365]
+{org:en}
+GROUND AND SOIL WATER CHARACTERISTICS
+{/org}
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+
+[S:6366]
+{org:en}
+GROUND AND SOIL WATER CHARACTERISTICS
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6367]
+{org:en}
+A.G. Kocharyan
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500322990:02.@entry
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6368]
+{org:en}
+Laboratory of Water Quality, Water Problems Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences.
+{/org}
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+and(500323955:0V, 500323717:02)
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+
+[S:6369]
+{org:en}
+Moscow, Russia.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500004288:2E.@entry, 500004285:2M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6370]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6371]
+{org:en}
+physically bound water, free water, water structure, soil and ground water, saturation zone, heavy metals, geological barriers, migration capacity, microphlora, water pollution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6372]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6373]
+{org:en}
+Introduction.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:05.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6374]
+{org:en}
+Water structure and its physical characteristics.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6375]
+{org:en}
+The process of groundwater chemical composition formation.
+{/org}
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+mod(100925207:1H, 115669150:0W)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6376]
+{org:en}
+Groundwater biological characteristics.
+{/org}
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+aoj(301405904:0H, 104731497:0S.@entry.@pl)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6377]
+{org:en}
+Anthropogenic influence on ground water chemistry
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6378]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6379]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6380]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6381]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6382]
+{org:en}
+Summary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6383]
+{org:en}
+Water bedded under the earth’s surface in the crust is called ground water.
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+Geological structures holding groundwater are located in different physico-chemical conditions—this determines the different aggregative states of water
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+
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+{org:en}
+liquid, solid, and gaseous.
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+{org:en}
+Liquid water is located in the upper part of the earth’s crust under relatively low temperature and pressure.
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+{/unl}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Water deeper than 20-70 km is in gaseous state under high pressure.
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+
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+Water in the solid state is located in the zone of permafrost.
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+
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+{org:en}
+Liquid water in rocks is in different forms
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6390]
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+in the crystal lattice of minerals, physically bound with rocks, and free.
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+
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+The maximum volume of physically bound water is found in clay—up to 40%.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+Free water moves under gravity and possesses extraordinary ability to dissolve rock.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6393]
+{org:en}
+All ground waters are solutions of different chemical composition—their characteristics depend in part on their location in the crust.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6394]
+{org:en}
+The chemical composition of soil and subsoil waters forms as a result of stage-by-stage transformation of the chemical composition of water that fell as precipitation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6395]
+{org:en}
+Other transformations are controlled by many factors
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200663160:0S.@entry.@past, 100398704:08.@topic.@pl)
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+agt(200663160:0S.@entry.@past, 105858317:1B.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6396]
+{org:en}
+climate, relief, lithology, intensity of water exchange, the biological production of the landscape, and the geochemical situation.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:6397]
+{org:en}
+The complex combination of these factors creates the mixed character of soil and subsurface waters.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6398]
+{org:en}
+Chemical composition of artesian water is created under the influence of interactions between water and rocks.
+{/org}
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+and:01(100348008:2Y.@entry.@pl, 107935504:2O)
+aoj(600000024:2G, 100039021:23.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6399]
+{org:en}
+The scale of the interaction is determined by the duration of the contact between water and rocks as well as by the composition of the rocks.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6400]
+{org:en}
+The duration depends on the intensity of water exchange in the hydrogeological structure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0F.@entry, 105051249:06.@topic.@def)
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+mod(100167063:1D, 107935504:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6401]
+{org:en}
+In recent decades the increase in groundwater use and human economic activity has led to noticeable deterioration in groundwater quality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774203:2C.@entry.@complete, 100363260:0O.@topic.@def)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6402]
+{org:en}
+As it is extremely difficult to remove existing groundwater contamination, the best strategy is to eliminate sources of contamination.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(200470701:2T.@entry.@will, 300744916:0L.@should)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6403]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:05.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6404]
+{org:en}
+The extraordinary mobility, high chemical activity, diversity of forms, and ability to change phase determine the unique role of water in all geochemical processes in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6405]
+{org:en}
+All natural waters are linked to each other.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(107935504:0E.@topic.@pl, 301335708:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6406]
+{org:en}
+It does not matter in which state they are.
+{/org}
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+aoj(303163465:0E.@entry.@not, 202603699:15.@topic)
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+plc(202603699:15.@topic, 100024720:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6407]
+{org:en}
+Changes of state take place steadily.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(100191142:02.@topic.@pl, 100024720:0D)
+man(202774213:0O.@entry, 400050186:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6408]
+{org:en}
+Transfer of chemical elements happens with the help of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6409]
+{org:en}
+Groundwater plays a key role in this eternal movement of water and soluble substances, circulating in global and many other smaller cycles.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6410]
+{org:en}
+Groundwater is usually understood as water found in the crust, in different aggregative states—liquid, gaseous and solid.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6411]
+{org:en}
+It lies in soil, in sedimentary beds and in cracks in massive-crystal rocks.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301185916:1K, 100348008:20.@pl)
+aoj(302952109:0M, 102818832:0Y.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6412]
+{org:en}
+The lower border of liquid water may be as much as 70 km beneath the surface.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua(115669024:1K, "70":1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6413]
+{org:en}
+In other words the zone of water distribution includes virtually all the crust.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200183879:1C.@entry, 600000193:02)
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+mod(101083077:0Z, 107935504:0T)
+mod(109260218:23.@def, 300521584:1V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6414]
+{org:en}
+;The total volume of the Earth’s groundwater is estimated to be 23.4 million HTM1 , i.e. approximately 65% of all terrestrial water.The total volume of the Earth’s groundwater is estimated to be 23.4 million cubic kilometer , i.e. approximately 65% of all terrestrial water.
+{/org}
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+aoj(300124918:35, 107935504:3H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6415]
+{org:en}
+Soil and ground water are always aqueous solutions of various chemicals.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(114589912:0Z.@entry.@pl, :01)
+aoj(303160904:1K, 114806838:1S.@pl)
+aoj(303160904:1K, 114806838:1S.@pl)
+man(114589912:0Z.@entry.@pl, 400019339:0S)
+mod(114589912:0Z.@entry.@pl, 114806838:1S.@pl)
+and:01(114847503:0B.@entry.@topic, 109335240:02.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6416]
+{org:en}
+The source of the water is precipitation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105061149:0T.@entry, 104263614:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(104263614:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0K.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6417]
+{org:en}
+The chemical composition of soil and ground water is closely related to geographical conditions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200953058:1R.@entry.@past, 115669150:06.@topic.@def)
+and:01(114847503:13.@entry, 109335240:0U)
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+aoj(303161278:22, 105798863:2F.@pl)
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+gol(200953058:1R.@entry.@past, 105798863:2F.@pl)
+mod(115669150:06.@topic.@def, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6418]
+{org:en}
+A high flushing regime, low water mineralization and high sediment loads are associated with land with low annual temperature and rapid biomass accumulation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200713167:27.@entry.@past, :01:01)
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+mod:02(100372013:42.@entry, 105024691:3U)
+and:01(115689274:10.@topic, 115669360:0I.@indef.@topic)
+mod:02(100372013:42.@entry, 105024691:3U)
+and:02(100372013:42.@entry, 105011790:38)
+aoj:01(300705498:04, 115669360:0I.@indef)
+and:01(115694383:1O.@entry.@pl.@topic, 115689274:10.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6419]
+{org:en}
+In arid zones the concentration of organic acids is very low, and water mineralization is high, as products of weathering and soil formation are not removed from the soil profile due to the low precipitation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300705498:2K.@entry, 301206474:1N)
+mod(103748886:2T.@pl, :01)
+rsn(200173338:47.@not, 600000001:51)
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+mod(103748886:2T.@pl, :01)
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+obj(600000001:51, 105061149:5G.@def)
+aoj(300705498:2K.@entry, 115689274:22.@topic)
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+mod(106516404:4T.@def, 109335240:4O)
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+src(200173338:47.@not, 106516404:4T.@def)
+and:01(115692373:3K.@entry, 115669040:35)
+src(200173338:47.@not, 106516404:4T.@def)
+aoj(300806991:05, 105611062:0A.@pl)
+obj(200173338:47.@not, 103748886:2T.@pl)
+man(301206474:1N, 400031899:1I)
+aoj(301206474:5C, 105061149:5G.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6420]
+{org:en}
+The chemical composition of deep ground water is determined by the geological characteristics of the environment and is controlled by processes of interaction between water and rocks.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200663160:3E.@entry.@past, 200699815:1F)
+aoj(302905591:1X, 104731497:28.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000024:4H, :01)
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+aoj(302905591:1X, 104731497:28.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000024:4H, :01)
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+agt(200699815:1F, 104731497:28.@def.@pl)
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+aoj(300149120:0U, 114847503:0Z)
+obj(200699815:1F, 115669150:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(200663160:3E.@entry.@past, 115669150:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(115669150:06.@topic.@def, 114847503:0Z)
+and:01(100348008:4Z.@entry.@pl, 107935504:4P)
+mod(115669150:06.@topic.@def, 114847503:0Z)
+and:01(100348008:4Z.@entry.@pl, 107935504:4P)
+aoj(600000024:4H, 100039021:45)
+mod(104731497:28.@def.@pl, 108567235:2V.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6421]
+{org:en}
+All this gives rise to an extraordinary diversity of chemical composition in soil, subsurface and ground waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202774441:0H.@entry, 600000022:06.@topic)
+mod(107935504:26, :01)
+aoj(300490650:0S, 104735711:16.@indef)
+mod(600000022:06.@topic, 300521584:02)
+mod(107935504:26, :01)
+aoj(300490650:0S, 104735711:16.@indef)
+mod(600000022:06.@topic, 300521584:02)
+mod(104735711:16.@indef, 115669150:1J)
+and:01(302471782:2D, 109335240:27)
+obj(202774441:0H.@entry, 104735711:16.@indef)
+and:01(303155671:2S.@entry, 302471782:2D)
+and:01(303155671:2S.@entry, 302471782:2D)
+plc(115669150:1J, 107935504:26.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6422]
+{org:en}
+In recent decades groundwater use has increased, as have changes in its physical and chemical characteristics, under the influence of anthropogenic activity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:14.@entry.@complete, 100947128:0W.@topic)
+obj(100157081:3F.@def, 100407535:46)
+mod(104731497:2O.@pl, 600000009:35)
+obj(200065370:1I, 100191142:1N.@pl)
+mod(115669379:0K, 115204983:0C.@pl)
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+obj(100157081:3F.@def, 100407535:46)
+mod(104731497:2O.@pl, 600000009:35)
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+mod(115669379:0K, 115204983:0C.@pl)
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+mod(100947128:0W.@topic, 115669379:0K)
+aoj(:01, 104731497:2O.@pl)
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+aoj(303161088:3S, 100407535:46)
+mod(104731497:2O.@pl, 600000016:1Y)
+aoj(303161088:3S, 100407535:46)
+mod(104731497:2O.@pl, 600000016:1Y)
+plc(100191142:1N.@pl, 104731497:2O.@pl)
+aoj(301642477:05, 115204983:0C.@pl)
+obj(600000009:35, 100157081:3F.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6423]
+{org:en}
+Anthropogenic pollution of ground water now occurs all over the world.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303160996:1A.@entry, 114516743:0G.@topic)
+obj(114516743:0G.@topic, 114847503:0T)
+obj(114516743:0G.@topic, 114847503:0T)
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+man(303160996:1A.@entry, 600000985:1H)
+aoj(303161088:02, 114516743:0G.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6424]
+{org:en}
+The best strategy for maintaining good water quality is preventive measures, such as elimination of pollution sources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100174412:1X.@entry.@pl, 106249177:0B.@topic.@def)
+pur(106249177:0B.@topic.@def, 201017643:0O.@progress)
+obj(600000029:27, 100223720:2F)
+aoj(300523364:10, 104723816:1B)
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+obj(600000029:27, 100223720:2F)
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+aoj(301167269:1M, 100174412:1X.@entry.@pl)
+obj(201017643:0O.@progress, 104723816:1B)
+aoj(600000029:27, 100174412:1X.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300227507:06, 106249177:0B.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300227507:06, 106249177:0B.@topic.@def)
+obj(100223720:2F, 115695857:2U)
+mod(104723816:1B, 107935504:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6425]
+{org:en}
+Water structure and its physical characteristics.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115691122:0T.@entry.@pl, 104931965:0B)
+mod(104931965:0B, 107935504:05)
+mod(115691122:0T.@entry.@pl, 600000016:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6426]
+{org:en}
+Ground water in rocks is found in different states
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200715239:0R.@entry.@past, 114847503:02.@topic)
+plc(114847503:02.@topic, 100348008:0I.@pl)
+plc(114847503:02.@topic, 100348008:0I.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:10, 100024720:1A.@pl)
+plc(200715239:0R.@entry.@past, 100024720:1A.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6427]
+{org:en}
+water in the crystal lattice of minerals, water physically bound with rocks, free water, ice and vapor.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(107935504:2O.@entry, 107935504:1I)
+aoj(303161298:1V, 103646916:23.@def)
+and:01(115055633:47.@entry, 107614198:3Z)
+man(200567291:35, 400115254:2U)
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+aoj(303161298:1V, 103646916:23.@def)
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+man(200567291:35, 400115254:2U)
+plc(107935504:1I, 103646916:23.@def)
+gol(200567291:35, 600000018:3B)
+and:01(115690914:3N, 100348008:3G.@pl)
+obj(200567291:35, 107935504:2O.@entry)
+and:01(107614198:3Z, 115690914:3N)
+and:01(107614198:3Z, 115690914:3N)
+obj(600000018:3B, :01)
+mod(103646916:23.@def, 114662574:2E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6428]
+{org:en}
+Water in the crystal lattice of minerals is chemically bound with its atoms and ions and may be removed from the lattice only by heating.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200173338:2P.@entry.@past.@may, 200567291:1K)
+mod:01(114585519:1Z.@pl, 600000016:1V)
+obj(200567291:1K, 107935504:02.@topic)
+man(200173338:2P.@entry.@past.@may, 400535197:3E)
+aoj(303161298:0F, 103646916:0N.@def)
+obj(600000018:1Q, :01)
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+obj(200567291:1K, 107935504:02.@topic)
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+aoj(303161298:0F, 103646916:0N.@def)
+obj(600000018:1Q, :01)
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+mod(103646916:0N.@def, 114662574:0Y)
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+plc(107935504:02.@topic, 103646916:0N.@def)
+gol(200567291:1K, 600000018:1Q)
+src(200173338:2P.@entry.@past.@may, 103646916:36.@def)
+and:01(109315159:29.@entry.@pl, 114585519:1Z.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6429]
+{org:en}
+Physically bound water is located in rocks as a hydrated covering surrounding mineral particles and can be subdivided into hard-bound and low-bound.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200333066:31.@entry.@past.@ability, 302126430:0S)
+obj(201467370:1W.@progress, 106326406:2G.@pl)
+man(302126430:0S, 600000023:19)
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+obj(201467370:1W.@progress, 106326406:2G.@pl)
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+man(300252954:0D, 400115254:02)
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+plc(302126430:0S, 100348008:13.@pl)
+aoj(301680559:28, 106326406:2G.@pl)
+plc(302126430:0S, 100348008:13.@pl)
+aoj(302126430:0S, 107935504:0J.@topic)
+aoj(303162233:1E, 100828082:1N.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6430]
+{org:en}
+Hard-bound or hygroscopic water is found in clay material and is firmly held there by molecular and electric cohesion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200004492:22.@entry.@past, 200715239:11)
+plc(200715239:11, 103729951:1F)
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+aoj(200004492:22.@entry.@past, 111436585:33)
+aoj(:01, 107935504:0F.@topic)
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+mod(103729951:1F, 114813182:1A)
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+man(200004492:22.@entry.@past, 400535449:1V)
+obj(200715239:11, 107935504:0F.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6431]
+{org:en}
+It only moves when it goes into the gaseous state, and it can be removed by heating (up to 100 – 120 HTM1 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200124442:0A.@entry, :03:03)
+gol:03(200359916:0R, 100024720:1D.@def)
+agt:03(200173338:22.@entry.@past.@ability, 113491876:2D)
+and:03(200173338:22.@entry.@past.@ability, 200359916:0R)
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+man(200124442:0A.@entry, 400535197:05)
+obj:02(600000086:2M.@entry, HTM1:2Z)
+obj(200124442:0A.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj:03(302262542:15, 100024720:1D.@def)
+aoj:03(:02.@parenthesis, 113491876:2D)
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+aoj:03(:02.@parenthesis, 113491876:2D)
+obj:03(200173338:22.@entry.@past.@ability, 600000016:1S.@topic)
+obj:03(200359916:0R, 600000016:0O.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6432]
+{org:en}
+The maximum volume of hard-bound water in rocks is called maximum hygroscopic rock moisture capacity, and this does not exceed 1% for massive-crystal rocks, or 18-20% for clays.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202669081:3E.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 200107231:1H)
+plc(107935504:0Z, 100348008:18.@pl)
+aoj:02(303161298:40, 100348008:48.@pl)
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+mod(100720951:2M, 114535431:2D)
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+qua:02("%":4N.@entry, :01:01)
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+aoj(300007096:1W, 100720951:2M)
+aoj:02(301185916:3S, 100348008:48.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6433]
+{org:en}
+Plants cannot use this kind of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201158572:0G.@entry.@ability.@not, 100017222:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105839024:0P, 600000017:0K)
+mod(105839024:0P, 600000017:0K)
+mod(105839024:0P, 107935504:0X)
+obj(201158572:0G.@entry.@ability.@not, 105839024:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6434]
+{org:en}
+Low-bound or film water forms films on hard-bound water when the rock moisture exceeds rock hygroscopicity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200144850:0Q.@entry, 202669081:2C)
+mod(114535431:23.@topic.@def, 100348008:1Y)
+mod(107935504:0F.@topic, :01)
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+{org:en}
+The bond strength between rocks and this kind of water is significantly lower than the hygroscopic one.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6436]
+{org:en}
+On the other hand, the power that keeps the water in rocks is 70 000 times greater than the power of gravitational acceleration, as water moves in rocks from a thicker to a thinner film.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6437]
+{org:en}
+Maximum film water concentrations are
+{/org}
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+mod(100375071:0L.@topic.@pl, 303161017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6438]
+{org:en}
+in clays – 25-40%, in loamy soils – 15-23%, in clay sands – 9-13%, in sands – up to 6%.
+{/org}
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+qua("%":2K.@entry, :02:02)
+fmt:03("13":3C.@entry, "9":3A)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6439]
+{org:en}
+Physically bound water may be removed from rocks by heating (up to HTM1 ).
+{/org}
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+obj:01(600000086:1R.@entry, HTM1:20)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6440]
+{org:en}
+The characteristics of this kind of water differ strongly from those of free water.
+{/org}
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+mod(104731497:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 105839024:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6441]
+{org:en}
+Its permittivity is significantly lower, and the freezing point is significantly lower than HTM1 , dropping to HTM2 when converting to hygroscopic water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(115668968:06.@topic, 600000016:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6442]
+{org:en}
+The dissolving power of this water is also low.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301206474:19.@entry, 105190804:0H.@topic.@def)
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+mod(105190804:0H.@topic.@def, 303156913:06)
+mod(105190804:0H.@topic.@def, 107935504:0V)
+man(301206474:19.@entry, 400047534:14)
+mod(107935504:0V, 600000017:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6443]
+{org:en}
+The maximum volume of physically bound water is called ‘maximum molecular rock moisture capacity’.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200107231:1E.@entry.@past, 104990220:0E.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(114535431:2B, 100348008:26)
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+mod(104990220:0E.@topic.@def, 303161017:06)
+gol(200107231:1E.@entry.@past, :01.@single_quote)
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+mod(104990220:0E.@topic.@def, 107935504:15)
+mod:01(100720951:2K.@entry, 114535431:2B)
+man(300252954:0Z, 400115254:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6444]
+{org:en}
+Free water moves under gravity and is located in rock cracks and pores.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(302126430:14.@entry, 200124442:0D)
+obj(200124442:0D, 115690914:02.@topic)
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+man(200124442:0D, 600000003:0J)
+mod:01(100787061:1K.@pl, 100348008:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6445]
+{org:en}
+It is formed in rocks when the humidity within the rock is higher than the maximum molecular rock moisture capacity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+bas(200144850:08.@entry, 300705498:1S)
+aoj(600000006:19, 114535643:10.@topic.@def)
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+mod(100720951:34.@def, 114535431:2V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6446]
+{org:en}
+Water in the solid state—ice crystals—is formed under temperatures below zero in the layer of winter freezing.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+bas(600000219:24, :4U.@def)
+plc(107935504:02.@topic, 100024720:0L.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6447]
+{org:en}
+In the zone of permafrost, ice consolidates separate rock particles.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(106326406:1O.@pl, 100348008:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6448]
+{org:en}
+Water in the gaseous state is located in pores free of liquid water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(302262542:0F, 100024720:0N.@def)
+aoj(300432453:1L, 107935504:1S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6449]
+{org:en}
+It moves from layers with higher pressure and temperature to layers with lower pressure and temperature.
+{/org}
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+obj(600000019:1Y, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6450]
+{org:en}
+The diversity of water forms and states creates various interactions of water with the lithosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6451]
+{org:en}
+During the process of such interactions the physical and chemical characteristics of the water undergo changes.
+{/org}
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+mod(100029677:0D.@def, 100039021:0T.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 104731497:1W.@topic.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6452]
+{org:en}
+As a result of the development of human activity, the characteristics of water consumers have changed over time, and these changes pose hazard to the populations of many countries, particularly those that suffer from deficit of suitable water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200837288:3P.@entry, 200109660:2O.@complete)
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+obj(200065070:5R, 105114371:63)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6453]
+{org:en}
+The study of soil and ground water chemical composition formation is therefore a priority line of investigation dedicated to medical, biological and environmental problems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(301405904:3S, 301168988:3J)
+man(101204294:2K.@entry.@indef, 400043003:1Z)
+mod(100925207:1M, 115669150:11)
+and:01(302943151:47.@entry, 301405904:3S)
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+mod(100925207:1M, 114847503:0O)
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+aoj(:01, 105687338:4L.@pl)
+obj(200677966:36, 100633864:2S)
+obj(104345028:06.@topic.@def, 100925207:1M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6454]
+{org:en}
+The unique structure of the water molecule, caused by the presence of the hydrogen bond, determines its anomalous physical and chemical characteristics.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200699815:2J.@entry, 104931965:0D.@topic.@def)
+met(201645601:1A, 101233802:1O.@def)
+and:01(300627004:38, 301596455:2Y)
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+mod(104931965:0D.@topic.@def, 114682133:10.@def)
+obj(101233802:1O.@def, 111437111:24.@def)
+mod(104931965:0D.@topic.@def, 114682133:10.@def)
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+mod(114682133:10.@def, 107935504:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6455]
+{org:en}
+For instance, according the calculations of D. Herd, the melting point of water, by analogy with the hydrides of other elements, should be minus HTM1 , and boiling point - minus HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(400535850:02.@entry, :01:01.@past.@should.@will)
+obj:01(100651176:2H, 114910748:2Y.@def.@pl)
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+aoj:01(HTM2:55.@entry, 104629030:4G.@topic)
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+mod:01(HTM1:49, 300065667:40)
+mod:01(HTM2:55.@entry, 300065667:4W)
+obj(100868910:0X.@def.@pl, 500323248:1D)
+obj:01(600000065:2G, 100651176:2H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6456]
+{org:en}
+Water melting is accompanied by compression, not expansion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+agt(202025550:0J.@entry.@past, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6457]
+{org:en}
+The maximum density temperature is plus HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(HTM1:17.@entry, 105011790:0M.@topic.@def)
+mod(105011790:0M.@topic.@def, 104941453:0E)
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+mod(105011790:0M.@topic.@def, 303161017:06)
+mod(HTM1:17.@entry, 300065064:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6458]
+{org:en}
+The specific heat of evaporation and surface tension are the highest among all other liquids.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300705498:1R.@entry, 105725527:0F.@topic.@def)
+mod(107119643:2F.@pl, 600000053:29)
+obj(600000079:1Z, 107119643:2F.@pl)
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+obj(600000079:1Z, 107119643:2F.@pl)
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+obj(105725527:0F.@topic.@def, :01:01)
+mod(107119643:2F.@pl, 300521584:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6459]
+{org:en}
+Most substances are perfectly soluble in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(302265015:0W.@entry, 107935504:17)
+qua(100019613:07.@pl, 600000028:02)
+qua(100019613:07.@pl, 600000028:02)
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+man(302265015:0W.@entry, 100019613:07.@pl)
+man(600000028:02, 400536271:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6460]
+{org:en}
+This characteristic can be explained by the high permittivity of water that equals 80 at a temperature of HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200939277:0T.@entry.@past.@ability, 104731497:07.@topic)
+obj(300889831:26, :4N.@def)
+aoj(300705498:1A, 115668968:1F.@def)
+mod(105011790:2L.@indef, HTM1:32)
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+aoj(300705498:1A, 115668968:1F.@def)
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+mod(115668968:1F.@def, 107935504:1V)
+qua(:4N.@def, "80":2D)
+agt(200939277:0T.@entry.@past.@ability, 115668968:1F.@def)
+scn(:4N.@def, 105011790:2L.@indef)
+scn(:4N.@def, 105011790:2L.@indef)
+aoj(300889831:26, 115668968:1F.@def)
+mod(104731497:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6461]
+{org:en}
+The key point about the hydrogen bond is that the hydrogen ion, having a small radius, is capable of electrostatically attracting other ions similar to electrons.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(115693953:06.@entry.@def, 300306314:2N)
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+aoj(300306314:2N, 109307719:1J.@topic.@def)
+mod(109315159:3X.@pl, 600000053:3R)
+aoj(200065370:1X.@progress, 109307719:1J.@topic.@def)
+obj(201350025:3G.@progress, 109315159:3X.@pl)
+aoj(300306314:2N, 109307719:1J.@topic.@def)
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+obj(600000013:0G, 111437111:0Q.@def)
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+obj(300306314:2N, 201350025:3G.@progress)
+obj(303161264:42, 109271904:4D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6462]
+{org:en}
+In each water molecule four hydrogen bonds are formed
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(114682133:0G, 600000848:05)
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+mod(111437111:0U.@pl, 114682133:0G)
+mod(114682133:0G, 107935504:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6463]
+{org:en}
+2 at the expense of 2 hydrogen protons and 2 – 2 pairs of unshared electrons.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(:1N.@entry, "2":1O)
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+aoj(:1N.@entry, 600001335:1Q)
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+qua(107958407:34.@entry.@pl, :01:01)
+mod(109400037:2J.@pl, 114640434:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6464]
+{org:en}
+Because of the presence of 2 plus and 2 minus poles, a water molecule is an electric dipole with dipole moment (1844 debye).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(600000019:2M, 109271774:26.@entry.@indef)
+mod:01(:3N, 300065064:0V)
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+qua:02(115695037:3B.@entry, "1844":36)
+aoj(600000019:2M, 109271774:26.@entry.@indef)
+mod:01(:3N, 300065064:0V)
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+man(109271774:26.@entry.@indef, :02.@parenthesis)
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+obj(600000012:02, 101233802:0H.@def)
+aoj(109271774:26.@entry.@indef, 114682133:1R.@topic.@indef)
+mod:01(103976657:1C.@entry.@pl, 300065667:16)
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+mod(114682133:1R.@topic.@indef, 107935504:1L)
+obj(600000019:2M, 111483354:2R)
+and:01(103976657:1C.@entry.@pl, :3N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6465]
+{org:en}
+Each water molecule is surrounded (as a tetrahedron) by 4 other molecules.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201467370:0P.@entry.@past, 114682133:0D.@topic)
+mod(114682133:1U.@pl, 600000053:1O)
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+obj:01(600000023:11.@entry, 113915113:16.@indef)
+man(201467370:0P.@entry.@past, :01.@parenthesis)
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+mod(114682133:0D.@topic, 600000848:02)
+qua(114682133:1U.@pl, "4":1M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6466]
+{org:en}
+Owing to the hydrogen bonds, these molecules have a high degree of orderliness.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200065370:1B.@entry, 600000225:02)
+mod(114682133:11.@topic.@pl, 600000017:0V.@pl)
+mod(105094565:1N.@indef, 104768483:1X)
+mod(114682133:11.@topic.@pl, 600000017:0V.@pl)
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+obj(600000225:02, 111437111:0F.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:1I, 105094565:1N.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6467]
+{org:en}
+This fact gives the structure of water similarities to the structure of solid substances.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(104931965:1P.@def, 100019613:28.@pl)
+mod(104931965:0M.@def, 104743605:15.@pl)
+mod(104931965:1P.@def, 100019613:28.@pl)
+mod(104931965:0M.@def, 104743605:15.@pl)
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+aoj(300291181:22, 100019613:28.@pl)
+mod(104743605:15.@pl, 107935504:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6468]
+{org:en}
+However, the orderliness of a solid substances’ molecules is the same throughout the solid, but it is only the orderliness of the closest atoms in water that is similar to that of solid substances.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000103:20, 113860793:2F.@def)
+obj(303161264:4J, 600000030:4U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6469]
+{org:en}
+O.Ya. Samoylov considered the orderliness of water to be an ice-like frame that is slightly fuzzy because of thermal motion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:01(600000012:2S, 115693156:33)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6470]
+{org:en}
+The frame’s cavities are filled with monomolecular water molecules.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200261533:0R.@entry.@past, 105303402:0E.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+man(200261533:0R.@entry.@past, 600000018:0Y)
+mod(114682133:1N.@pl, 107935504:1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6471]
+{org:en}
+In ice, all water molecules are bound to each other but in water there are always some (10 to 50%, according to different publications) monomeric molecules.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6472]
+{org:en}
+When ice melts the water molecules change from being in a hexagonal arrangement to a closer tetrahedral modification, the volume of which is 20% less.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(114682133:0R.@topic.@def.@pl, 107935504:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6473]
+{org:en}
+Similarly expansion of the liquid state, as determined by the increase in thermal motion of water molecules, causes a 10% increase in volume.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201645601:33.@entry, 400138060:02)
+met(200699815:1A, 100363260:1S.@def)
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+scn(100363260:3G.@indef, 104990220:3S)
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+obj(600000023:17, 200699815:1A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6474]
+{org:en}
+The overall result of contraction of water molecular volume at the moment of ice melting is 10%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(115692926:19, 106022509:1X.@def)
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+mod(115698567:0E.@topic.@def, 100365471:0O)
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+mod(115692926:19, 107935504:13)
+obj(100365471:0O, 115692926:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6475]
+{org:en}
+Contraction of volume together with temperature increase prevails up to HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200777793:1N.@entry, 100365471:02.@topic)
+obj(600000196:0O, 100363260:1E)
+obj(100365471:02.@topic, 104990220:0H)
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+obj(100365471:02.@topic, 104990220:0H)
+obj(600000047:1W, HTM1:23)
+man(200777793:1N.@entry, 600000047:1W)
+mod(100363260:1E, 105011790:12)
+mod(100363260:1E, 105011790:12)
+aoj(600000196:0O, 104990220:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6476]
+{org:en}
+As a result of increase in thermal molecular motion, the number of monomeric molecules and the water volume are increasing.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200153263:36.@entry.@progress, 600000056:02)
+aoj:01(303161864:1X, 114682133:27.@pl)
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+mod(107163593:11, 301250565:0T)
+mod:01(103835412:1N.@def, 114682133:27.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6477]
+{org:en}
+Complete destruction of hydrogen bonds and transfer of the molecules to a monomeric state occur at 250 to 370 HTM1 , according to different sources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200723349:2K.@entry, 100217014:0B.@topic)
+and:01(100201671:19.@entry, 111437111:0Q.@pl)
+obj(600000046:36, 104263614:3T.@pl)
+mod(HTM1:33, :02)
+aoj(300520214:02, 100217014:0B.@topic)
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+obj(600000046:36, 104263614:3T.@pl)
+mod(HTM1:33, :02)
+aoj(300520214:02, 100217014:0B.@topic)
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+obj(100217014:0B.@topic, :01:01)
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+aoj(300490413:3J, 104263614:3T.@pl)
+to(114682133:1P.@def.@pl, 100024720:2E.@indef)
+aoj(300490413:3J, 104263614:3T.@pl)
+fmt:02("370":30.@entry, "250":2T)
+obj(:01, 114682133:1P.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6478]
+{org:en}
+The structure of physically bound water adsorbed onto the surface of rocks is close to the monomeric condition.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200352137:28.@entry, 104931965:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300252954:0U, 107935504:10)
+mod(104931965:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:10)
+mod(104362025:1O.@def, 100348008:1Z.@pl)
+aoj(300252954:0U, 107935504:10)
+mod(104931965:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:10)
+mod(104362025:1O.@def, 100348008:1Z.@pl)
+aoj(303161864:2L, 105798863:2V.@def)
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+man(300252954:0U, 400115254:0J)
+man(300252954:0U, 400115254:0J)
+obj(200395698:16, 107935504:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6479]
+{org:en}
+There are no hydrogen bonds there.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202603699:08.@entry, 111437111:0F.@pl)
+mod(111437111:0F.@pl, 600001330:0C)
+man(111437111:0F.@pl, 400109151:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6480]
+{org:en}
+This leads to a change in permittivity value to 2.2, and, consequently, to acute decrease in the dissolving power of the water and lowering of the freezing point.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774203:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod:02(105190804:32.@def, 303156913:2R)
+mod:02(104979425:15, 115668968:0S)
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+scn:02(100191142:0I.@indef, 104979425:15)
+aoj:02(300044760:25, 100351638:2B.@entry)
+and:02(100351638:2B.@entry, 100191142:0I.@indef)
+and:01(100327683:3P.@entry.@def, 107935504:3F.@def)
+scn:02(100351638:2B.@entry, 105190804:32.@def)
+obj(202774203:07.@entry, :02:02)
+obj:02(:01, 105013967:45.@def)
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+man:02(100351638:2B.@entry, 400062857:1O)
+gol:02(100191142:0I.@indef, "2.2":1E)
+mod:02(105190804:32.@def, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6481]
+{org:en}
+This is why adsorbed and film water have few solutes as compared to other forms of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+and:01(103338648:0R.@entry, 302009166:0E)
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+obj:02(200065370:12.@entry, 115047849:1B.@pl)
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+mod:02(103384535:24.@pl, 600000053:1Y)
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+mod:02(103384535:24.@pl, 107935504:2D)
+qua:02(115047849:1B.@pl, 600000106:17)
+aoj:02(:01, 107935504:0W.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6482]
+{org:en}
+The structure of water changes under the process of dilution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200109660:0P.@entry, 104931965:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100029677:17.@def, 100362659:1I)
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+man(200109660:0P.@entry, 600000003:0X)
+mod(104931965:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6483]
+{org:en}
+If ion size exceeds the size of cavities in ice-like water frames it "tears" the hydrogen bonds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200066977:20.@entry.@double_quote, 202669081:0E)
+mod(105095691:09, 109315159:05)
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+obj(202669081:0E, 105095691:0Q.@def)
+obj(600000123:1D, 107614198:1A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6484]
+{org:en}
+If the ion charge is not high, broken hydrogen bonds will not be effectively substituted by the interaction between the ion and water, and water molecules will have higher mobility than they have in pure water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(:02.@entry, 300705498:0R.@should.@not)
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+obj:02(600000024:32, :01)
+mod:02(114682133:43.@topic.@pl, 107935504:3X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6485]
+{org:en}
+The elements K, Rb, Cs, Br and I are among the ions that disorder the structure of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000064:12.@entry, 105868954:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+and:01(500323590:0H, 106832248:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6486]
+{org:en}
+The influence of ions on water structure is proportionally related to polarizing power
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(100157081:06.@topic.@def, 109315159:0J.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6487]
+{org:en}
+to put it more precisely its charge density equals the ratio of ion charge to radius.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201160370:2L.@entry, 400158309:2X)
+obj(300889831:3Q.@entry, 113819207:41.@def)
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+mod(115690499:3B.@topic, 600000016:37)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6488]
+{org:en}
+The ions of K, Rb, Cs, Br and I have a high charge density.
+{/org}
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+and:01(500323593:0K, 500323590:0G)
+and:01(106832033:0V.@entry, 500323566:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6489]
+{org:en}
+Ions with this characteristic strengthen the ice-like water structure and lower water mobility.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000019:07, 104731497:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6490]
+{org:en}
+In order to go out of the nearest ion entourage, a water molecule has to go through a so-called potential barrier the value of which increases under the restorative influence of ions with high charge density.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(600000421:0S, 115669561:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6491]
+{org:en}
+Conversely, the value of the potential barrier decreases under the destructive effect of ions with low charge density.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(104979425:0I.@topic.@def, 115691555:0V.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6492]
+{org:en}
+The value of the HTM1 potential barrier E is for pure water and equals E + ?E in the case of ion presence HTM2 , HTM3 where ?E is the value characterizing changes in potential barrier under HTM4 the influence of ions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300889831:1P.@entry, 115691865:1A)
+plc(100191142:45.@pl, 115691555:4G)
+plc(104979425:3K.@def, 101233802:2Q)
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+aoj(600000232:27, 500323806:1W)
+obj(100157081:58.@def, 109315159:5L.@pl)
+agt(202697950:3Q.@progress, 104979425:3K.@def)
+plc(100191142:45.@pl, 115691555:4G)
+plc(104979425:3K.@def, 101233802:2Q)
+mod(104979425:06.@topic.@def, 106831605:11.@def)
+aoj(600000232:27, 500323806:1W)
+obj(100157081:58.@def, 109315159:5L.@pl)
+agt(202697950:3Q.@progress, 104979425:3K.@def)
+obj(300889831:1P.@entry, 500323806:1W)
+obj(600000009:4Y, 100157081:58.@def)
+aoj(104979425:3K.@def, 115695047:36.@topic)
+aoj(300889831:1P.@entry, 104979425:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(115691555:4G, 600000009:4Y)
+mod(101233802:2Q, 109315159:2M)
+mod(115691555:4G, 600000009:4Y)
+mod(101233802:2Q, 109315159:2M)
+mod(106831605:11.@def, 115691555:0J)
+obj(600000232:27, 101233802:2Q)
+aoj(115691865:1A, 104979425:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(202697950:3Q.@progress, 100191142:45.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6493]
+{org:en}
+If ?E>0, ions HTM1 are effectively bound to the nearest solution molecules.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200567291:10.@entry, 115693575:05)
+mod(114682133:1U.@pl, 100190783:1L)
+man(200567291:10.@entry, 400060032:0O)
+mod(114682133:1U.@pl, 100190783:1L)
+man(200567291:10.@entry, 400060032:0O)
+gol(200567291:10.@entry, 114682133:1U.@pl)
+obj(200567291:10.@entry, 109315159:0F.@topic.@pl)
+man(600000421:1D, 400536271:27)
+man(600000421:1D, 400536271:27)
+aoj(600000421:1D, 114682133:1U.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6494]
+{org:en}
+This HTM1 phenomenon is called positive ion hydration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200107231:0L.@entry.@past, 100034213:07.@topic)
+obj(113494325:0S, 109315159:0P)
+obj(113494325:0S, 109315159:0P)
+aoj(300358678:0O, 109315159:0P)
+gol(200107231:0L.@entry.@past, 113494325:0S)
+mod(100034213:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6495]
+{org:en}
+If ?E<0, water molecules located near ions become more active than in pure water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200149583:1D.@entry, 115693575:05)
+aoj(302126430:0V, 114682133:0L.@topic.@pl)
+gol(200149583:1D.@entry, 300031974:1P)
+obj(600000139:13, 109315159:18.@pl)
+aoj(302126430:0V, 114682133:0L.@topic.@pl)
+gol(200149583:1D.@entry, 300031974:1P)
+obj(600000139:13, 109315159:18.@pl)
+scn(200149583:1D.@entry, 115691865:24)
+man(302126430:0V, 600000139:13)
+obj(200149583:1D.@entry, 114682133:0L.@topic.@pl)
+mod(114682133:0L.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0F)
+mod(114682133:0L.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0F)
+man(300031974:1P, 400099341:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6496]
+{org:en}
+This phenomenon is called negative ion hydration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200107231:0L.@entry.@past, 100034213:07.@topic)
+aoj(300075515:0O, 113494325:0S)
+aoj(300075515:0O, 113494325:0S)
+mod(100034213:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+gol(200107231:0L.@entry.@past, 113494325:0S)
+obj(113494325:0S, 109315159:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6497]
+{org:en}
+Ions with low charge density, i.e. with negative hydration, are not sufficiently protected by water molecules and are easily sorbed in natural conditions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:01.@entry, 109315159:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(115689159:0W, 600000019:11)
+mod:01(105798863:41.@pl, 301335708:3T)
+aoj(301206474:0C, 115690499:0G)
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+aoj(600000019:07, 109315159:02.@topic.@pl)
+man:01(400145571:1Y, 400024073:1U)
+obj(115689159:0W, 600000019:11)
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+plc:01(201540449:3J.@entry.@past, 105798863:41.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:07, 109315159:02.@topic.@pl)
+man:01(400145571:1Y, 400024073:1U)
+and:01(201540449:3J.@entry.@past, 201128193:2B.@past)
+aoj(300075515:16, 113494325:1F)
+man:01(201128193:2B.@past, 400145571:1Y)
+man(:01.@entry, 115689159:0W)
+obj(600000019:11, 113494325:1F)
+agt:01(201128193:2B.@past, 114682133:2U.@pl)
+obj(600000019:11, 113494325:1F)
+agt:01(201128193:2B.@past, 114682133:2U.@pl)
+man:01(201540449:3J.@entry.@past, 400054435:3C)
+obj(600000019:07, 115690499:0G)
+mod:01(114682133:2U.@pl, 107935504:2O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6498]
+{org:en}
+The low potassium concentrations in natural waters—despite the abundance of this element in the lithosphere and the high water solubility of its compounds—exemplifies this phenomenon.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201021128:4D.@entry, 100375071:0K.@topic.@def.@pl)
+scn(105868954:2B, :01:01)
+mod(100375071:0K.@topic.@def.@pl, 114650807:0A)
+mod:01(105210221:3L.@entry.@def, 107935504:3F)
+plc(100375071:0K.@topic.@def.@pl, 107935504:1A.@pl)
+mod:01(105210221:3L.@entry.@def, 103081859:43.@pl)
+obj(400535917:1H, 105115040:1T.@def)
+scn(105868954:2B, :01:01)
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+mod:01(105210221:3L.@entry.@def, 107935504:3F)
+plc(100375071:0K.@topic.@def.@pl, 107935504:1A.@pl)
+mod:01(105210221:3L.@entry.@def, 103081859:43.@pl)
+obj(400535917:1H, 105115040:1T.@def)
+mod(100034213:4U, 600000017:4P)
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+mod(107935504:1A.@pl, 301335708:12)
+obj(201021128:4D.@entry, 100034213:4U)
+mod(105868954:2B, 600000017:26)
+aoj(400535917:1H, 107935504:1A.@pl)
+mod(105868954:2B, 600000017:26)
+aoj(400535917:1H, 107935504:1A.@pl)
+mod:01(103081859:43.@pl, 600000016:3Z)
+aoj(301206474:06, 100375071:0K.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(300705498:3A, 105210221:3L.@entry.@def)
+mod(105115040:1T.@def, 105868954:2B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6499]
+{org:en}
+Its low charge density and large radius lead to destruction of water structure and fast ion capture by natural sorbents.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774203:16.@entry, :01)
+aoj:01(300527870:0T, 105102101:0Z.@entry)
+aoj:02(300323873:2D, 100088481:2M.@entry)
+and:02(100088481:2M.@entry, 104931965:1Z)
+mod:02(104931965:1Z, 107935504:1T)
+aoj:01(300527870:0T, 105102101:0Z.@entry)
+aoj:02(300323873:2D, 100088481:2M.@entry)
+and:02(100088481:2M.@entry, 104931965:1Z)
+mod:02(104931965:1Z, 107935504:1T)
+obj(100217014:1E, :02)
+aoj:01(301206474:06, 115690499:0A)
+mod:02(114597158:35.@pl, 301335708:2X)
+obj(202774203:16.@entry, 100217014:1E)
+mod:01(115690499:0A.@topic, 600000016:02)
+mod:02(100088481:2M.@entry, 109315159:2I)
+mod:01(115690499:0A.@topic, 600000016:02)
+mod:02(100088481:2M.@entry, 109315159:2I)
+ins:02(100088481:2M.@entry, 114597158:35.@pl)
+and:01(105102101:0Z.@entry.@topic, 115690499:0A.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6500]
+{org:en}
+Ions with positive hydration have the same influence on water structure as increased pressure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0V.@entry, 109315159:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300358678:0C, 113494325:0L)
+mod(104931965:1S, 107935504:1M)
+mod(100157081:19, 300355611:14)
+aoj(600000019:07, 109315159:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300358678:0C, 113494325:0L)
+mod(104931965:1S, 107935504:1M)
+mod(100157081:19, 300355611:14)
+aoj(600000019:07, 109315159:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(100157081:19, 104931965:1S)
+mod(100113113:2F, 300880207:25)
+obj(200065370:0V.@entry, 100157081:19)
+obj(600000061:22, 100113113:2F)
+obj(600000061:22, 100113113:2F)
+aoj(600000061:22, 104931965:1S)
+obj(600000019:07, 113494325:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6501]
+{org:en}
+According to the Le Shatelieux principle, increased pressure leads to the transition of ions with negative hydration to solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774203:1R.@entry, 600000046:02)
+mod(105872477:0K.@def, 500324154:0J)
+obj(600000019:2N, 113494325:31)
+obj(106401328:24.@def, 109315159:2I.@pl)
+mod(100113113:1I.@topic, 300880207:18)
+mod(105872477:0K.@def, 500324154:0J)
+obj(600000019:2N, 113494325:31)
+obj(106401328:24.@def, 109315159:2I.@pl)
+mod(100113113:1I.@topic, 300880207:18)
+obj(202774203:1R.@entry, 106401328:24.@def)
+aoj(300075515:2S, 113494325:31)
+aoj(202774203:1R.@entry, 100113113:1I.@topic)
+to(113494325:31, 100190783:3E)
+to(113494325:31, 100190783:3E)
+aoj(600000019:2N, 109315159:2I.@pl)
+obj(600000046:02, 105872477:0K.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6502]
+{org:en}
+Thus, in near-surface conditions, carbonaceous and sulfate minerals are easily dissolved in water and at the same time ions with positive hydration go into solution ( HTM1 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200359916:46.@entry, 200338559:29)
+obj(200338559:29, 114662574:1P.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:3I, 109315159:3D.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303163518:0B, 105798863:0O.@pl)
+gol(200359916:46.@entry, 100190783:4E)
+mod(114662574:1P.@topic.@pl, :01)
+and(200338559:29, 400121135:02)
+obj(200338559:29, 114662574:1P.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:3I, 109315159:3D.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303163518:0B, 105798863:0O.@pl)
+gol(200359916:46.@entry, 100190783:4E)
+mod(114662574:1P.@topic.@pl, :01)
+and(200338559:29, 400121135:02)
+obj(200359916:46.@entry, 109315159:3D.@topic.@pl)
+man(200338559:29, 400054435:22)
+aoj(300358678:3N, 113494325:3W)
+man(200359916:46.@entry, 400535235:2W)
+scn(200338559:29, 107935504:2M)
+obj(600000019:3I, 113494325:3W)
+scn(200338559:29, 107935504:2M)
+obj(600000019:3I, 113494325:3W)
+cnt(100190783:4E, HTM1:4F.@parenthesis)
+and:01(115063493:1H.@entry, 302863724:10)
+plc(200338559:29, 105798863:0O.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6503]
+{org:en}
+At a certain depth these minerals become solution-resistant, and new formations of tufa, anhydrite, etc. are usual there.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300489108:33.@entry, 200149583:10)
+mod(114662574:0R.@topic.@pl, 600000017:0L)
+and:01(115689145:2U.@entry, 115669770:2J)
+mod(100925207:1Z.@topic.@pl, :01)
+obj(200149583:10, 114662574:0R.@topic.@pl)
+mod(114662574:0R.@topic.@pl, 600000017:0L)
+and:01(115689145:2U.@entry, 115669770:2J)
+mod(100925207:1Z.@topic.@pl, :01)
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+aoj(300489108:33.@entry, 100925207:1Z.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300309740:07, 105094725:0F.@indef)
+and:01(115669770:2J, 114931323:2D)
+aoj(300309740:07, 105094725:0F.@indef)
+and:01(115669770:2J, 114931323:2D)
+aoj(300024996:1V, 100925207:1Z.@topic.@pl)
+gol(200149583:10, 303163747:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6504]
+{org:en}
+Furthermore ions with negative hydration ( HTM1 ) migrate in waters of artesian basins and hardly migrate in subsurface water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201856626:2V.@entry, 201856626:1J)
+obj(600000019:0J, 113494325:0X)
+obj(201856626:1J, 109315159:0E.@topic.@pl)
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+aoj(300098933:24, 102801525:2D.@pl)
+obj(600000019:0J, 113494325:0X)
+obj(201856626:1J, 109315159:0E.@topic.@pl)
+man(201856626:2V.@entry, 400003093:2O)
+aoj(300098933:24, 102801525:2D.@pl)
+scn(201856626:2V.@entry, 115690282:36)
+aoj(300075515:0O, 113494325:0X)
+mod(107935504:1U.@pl, 102801525:2D.@pl)
+obj(201856626:2V.@entry, 109315159:0E.@topic.@pl)
+cnt(113494325:0X, HTM1:18.@parenthesis)
+plc(201856626:1J, 107935504:1U.@pl)
+cnt(113494325:0X, HTM1:18.@parenthesis)
+plc(201856626:1J, 107935504:1U.@pl)
+man(201856626:1J, 400029367:02)
+aoj(600000019:0J, 109315159:0E.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6505]
+{org:en}
+When ions with positive hydration prevail, water polarity and dissolving power are higher.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(300705498:2D.@entry, 200777793:10.@should)
+mod:01(113856574:1F.@topic, 107935504:19)
+and:01(105190804:23.@entry.@topic, 113856574:1F.@topic)
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+obj(200777793:10.@should, 109315159:07.@pl)
+mod:01(105190804:23.@entry.@topic, 303156913:1S)
+aoj(300358678:0H, 113494325:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6506]
+{org:en}
+Spatial forms of groundwater bedding.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103384535:0F.@entry.@pl, 115669773:10)
+mod(115669773:10, 115669379:0O)
+aoj(302841066:07, 103384535:0F.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6507]
+{org:en}
+Movement of groundwater and its physical, chemical and biological characteristics depend on the peculiarities of the ground hydrosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:2C.@entry, 100279835:02.@topic)
+and:02(104731497:1W.@entry.@pl, 115669379:0E)
+mod(109307902:3I.@def, 103462594:3B)
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+obj(100279835:02.@topic, :02:02)
+and:01(302692624:18, 300627004:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6508]
+{org:en}
+;In a hydrogeological section of the earth’s crust (downward from the surface) one can distinguish a zone of suspended water, a cryolithozone, and asaturated zone.In a hydrogeological section of the earth’s crust (downward from the surface) one can distinguish a zone of suspended water, a cryolithe zone, and a saturated zone.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man:01(600000205:53.@entry, 400536025:1I)
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+and:02(115694370:45.@indef.@entry, 105611062:3N.@indef)
+obj:01(600000205:53.@entry, 104362025:20.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6509]
+{org:en}
+Water located in the pores of the upper layer of the zone of suspended water confer fertility and is called soil water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200107231:2V.@entry.@past, 200876665:27)
+mod(105245906:0N.@def.@pl, 101463259:16.@def)
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+plc(302126430:08, 105245906:0N.@def.@pl)
+obj(200107231:2V.@entry.@past, 107935504:02.@topic)
+mod(101463259:16.@def, 301206318:10)
+aoj(302126430:08, 107935504:02.@topic)
+mod(101463259:16.@def, 301206318:10)
+aoj(302126430:08, 107935504:02.@topic)
+agt(200876665:27, 107935504:02.@topic)
+mod(105245906:0N.@def.@pl, 105611062:1J.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6510]
+{org:en}
+In soils all kinds of water are found—from physically bound to vaporous.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200715239:0Y.@entry.@past, 109335240:05.@pl)
+mod(105839024:0F.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0O)
+fmt:01(303162902:1T.@entry, 300252954:1K)
+mod(105839024:0F.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0O)
+fmt:01(303162902:1T.@entry, 300252954:1K)
+man(200715239:0Y.@entry.@past, :01)
+obj(200715239:0Y.@entry.@past, 105839024:0F.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105839024:0F.@topic.@pl, 300521584:0B)
+mod(105839024:0F.@topic.@pl, 300521584:0B)
+man:01(300252954:1K, 400115254:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6511]
+{org:en}
+In periods of intense moistening of soils, free gravitational water prevails.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200777793:1Y.@entry, 106843520:05.@pl)
+obj(100278040:0O, 109335240:12.@pl)
+aoj(302737183:18, 107935504:19.@topic)
+obj(100278040:0O, 109335240:12.@pl)
+aoj(302737183:18, 107935504:19.@topic)
+aoj(300916199:17, 107935504:19.@topic)
+obj(200777793:1Y.@entry, 107935504:19.@topic)
+aoj(300393683:0G, 100278040:0O)
+aoj(300393683:0G, 100278040:0O)
+mod(106843520:05.@pl, 100278040:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6512]
+{org:en}
+Downward motion under gravity is the main type of motion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104504486:18, 107163593:0B.@entry)
+mod(104504486:18, 107163593:1G)
+mod(104504486:18, 107163593:1G)
+aoj(104504486:18, 107512147:0O.@topic)
+mod(107163593:0B.@entry, 302492981:02)
+mod(104504486:18, 301512527:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6513]
+{org:en}
+Ice, vapor and hygroscopic water have no ability to dissolve substances and are beyond the reach of vegetation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(600000203:2A.@entry, 200065370:0Z)
+obj(200338559:1I, 100019613:1R.@pl)
+and:01(115055633:07.@topic, 107614198:02.@topic)
+mod(100341243:2L.@def, 101065057:2U)
+pur(105200169:17, 200338559:1I)
+obj(200338559:1I, 100019613:1R.@pl)
+and:01(115055633:07.@topic, 107614198:02.@topic)
+mod(100341243:2L.@def, 101065057:2U)
+pur(105200169:17, 200338559:1I)
+obj(600000203:2A.@entry, 100341243:2L.@def)
+obj(200065370:0Z, 105200169:17)
+aoj(600000203:2A.@entry, :01)
+and:01(115693853:0H.@entry.@topic, 115055633:07.@topic)
+aoj(200065370:0Z, :01)
+and:01(115693853:0H.@entry.@topic, 115055633:07.@topic)
+aoj(200065370:0Z, :01)
+mod(105200169:17, 600001330:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6514]
+{org:en}
+The soil water fraction in the whole volume of surface waters is not big (~0.06%), but its role in the life of the Earth’s biocenoses is extremely important.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300173391:1Z.@entry.@not, 103390207:0H.@topic.@def)
+mod(100722061:2L.@topic, 600000016:2H)
+aoj(300514884:0X, 104990220:13.@def)
+mod(107935504:0B, 109335240:06)
+man(301275562:45.@entry, 400535251:3V)
+mod(100722061:2L.@topic, 600000016:2H)
+aoj(300514884:0X, 104990220:13.@def)
+mod(107935504:0B, 109335240:06)
+man(301275562:45.@entry, 400535251:3V)
+mod(103390207:0H.@topic.@def, 107935504:0B)
+mod(115690357:3H.@def.@pl, 108562067:39)
+aoj(301275562:45.@entry, 100722061:2L.@topic)
+scn(103390207:0H.@topic.@def, 104990220:13.@def)
+obj(100006269:2X.@def, 115690357:3H.@def.@pl)
+qua:01("%":29, "0.06":25)
+obj(100006269:2X.@def, 115690357:3H.@def.@pl)
+qua:01("%":29, "0.06":25)
+mod(104990220:13.@def, 115689665:1D.@pl)
+scn(100722061:2L.@topic, 100006269:2X.@def)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6515]
+{org:en}
+In this boundary part of the lithosphere all four components of biosphere meet
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201079480:24.@entry, 103892891:0J)
+plc(103892891:0J, 108512259:0A)
+mod(103081021:1G.@topic.@pl, 300521584:17)
+plc(103892891:0J, 108512259:0A)
+mod(103081021:1G.@topic.@pl, 300521584:17)
+qua(108499504:1U, 103081021:1G.@topic.@pl)
+mod(108512259:0A, 600000017:05)
+obj(201079480:24.@entry, 103081021:1G.@topic.@pl)
+mod(103892891:0J, 109339810:0V.@def)
+mod(103892891:0J, 109339810:0V.@def)
+qua(103081021:1G.@topic.@pl, "4":1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6516]
+{org:en}
+atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and living substances.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100019613:3N.@entry.@pl, 109307902:2Z)
+and(109339810:2M, 108499057:2A)
+and(109339810:2M, 108499057:2A)
+and(109307902:2Z, 109339810:2M)
+aoj(300005839:3G, 100019613:3N.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6517]
+{org:en}
+The transformation of incoming solar energy takes place here, too.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774213:1G.@entry, 100398704:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(302799016:0X, 104633197:13)
+obj(100398704:06.@topic.@def, 104633197:13)
+aoj(302799016:0X, 104633197:13)
+obj(100398704:06.@topic.@def, 104633197:13)
+and:01(400047534:1S.@entry, 400536275:1M)
+man(202774213:1G.@entry, :01)
+mod(104633197:13, 301294051:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6518]
+{org:en}
+In this connection the physical characteristics of soil water reflect three essential and interlinked aspects that determine its role in the Earth’s hydrosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200821580:1S.@entry, 100145218:0A)
+mod(109307902:47.@def, 108562067:3Z)
+mod(104733118:2W.@pl, :01)
+qua(104733118:2W.@pl, "3":20)
+mod(107935504:1M, 109335240:1H)
+scn(100722061:3N, 109307902:47.@def)
+mod(109307902:47.@def, 108562067:3Z)
+mod(104733118:2W.@pl, :01)
+qua(104733118:2W.@pl, "3":20)
+mod(107935504:1M, 109335240:1H)
+scn(100722061:3N, 109307902:47.@def)
+obj(200821580:1S.@entry, 104733118:2W.@pl)
+aoj(300627004:0P, 104731497:0Y.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200699815:39, 100722061:3N)
+agt(200821580:1S.@entry, 104731497:0Y.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(104731497:0Y.@topic.@def.@pl, 107935504:1M)
+and:01(202776031:2K.@past.@entry, 300900616:26)
+mod(104731497:0Y.@topic.@def.@pl, 107935504:1M)
+and:01(202776031:2K.@past.@entry, 300900616:26)
+agt(200699815:39, 104733118:2W.@pl)
+mod(100145218:0A, 600000017:05)
+mod(100722061:3N, 600000016:3J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6519]
+{org:en}
+Firstly, soil water plays the most active part in surface water exchange.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200013328:0M.@entry, 400535373:02)
+man(300031974:11, 400536271:0W)
+scn(103892891:18, 100167063:1U)
+man(300031974:11, 400536271:0W)
+scn(103892891:18, 100167063:1U)
+obj(200013328:0M.@entry, 103892891:18)
+mod(107935504:0G.@topic, 109335240:0B)
+agt(200013328:0M.@entry, 107935504:0G.@topic)
+mod(100167063:1U, 115689665:1G)
+mod(100167063:1U, 115689665:1G)
+aoj(300031974:11, 103892891:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6520]
+{org:en}
+In the terrestrial hydrological cycle, the soil layer serves as the first "water divisor" causing partition of the precipitation into three parts
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774543:1K.@entry, :01:01.@double_quote.@def)
+qua(103892891:3Y.@pl, "3":3S)
+aoj(201645601:2K.@progress, :01.@double_quote.@def)
+mod(:01.@double_quote.@def, "1":1Y)
+obj(103894379:2S, 105061149:39.@def)
+qua(103892891:3Y.@pl, "3":3S)
+aoj(201645601:2K.@progress, :01.@double_quote.@def)
+mod(:01.@double_quote.@def, "1":1Y)
+obj(103894379:2S, 105061149:39.@def)
+aoj(202774543:1K.@entry, 115696093:19.@topic.@def)
+obj(201645601:2K.@progress, 103894379:2S)
+plc(202774543:1K.@entry, 115691793:0L.@def)
+mod:01(113733167:2B.@entry, 107935504:25)
+mod:01(113733167:2B.@entry, 107935504:25)
+aoj(300124918:09, 115691793:0L.@def)
+gol(105061149:39.@def, 103892891:3Y.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6521]
+{org:en}
+surface runoff, groundwater flow, and evapotranspiration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115669057:57.@entry, 100329227:4X)
+mod(100329227:4X, 115669379:4L)
+and(100329227:4X, 115691612:45)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6522]
+{org:en}
+Secondly, soil water is one of the elements in the Earth’s climate system which significantly influences the climate because of its specific location on the border of atmosphere and lithosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(600000027:0Q.@entry, 400535471:02)
+man(202536557:2O, 400006259:2A)
+mod(104377057:1X.@def, 114519366:1P)
+and:01(109339810:54.@entry, 108499057:4P)
+plc(105868954:11.@def.@pl, 104377057:1X.@def)
+aoj(301099951:3Q, 100027167:3Z)
+rsn(202536557:2O, 600000012:3B)
+man(202536557:2O, 400006259:2A)
+mod(104377057:1X.@def, 114519366:1P)
+and:01(109339810:54.@entry, 108499057:4P)
+plc(105868954:11.@def.@pl, 104377057:1X.@def)
+aoj(301099951:3Q, 100027167:3Z)
+rsn(202536557:2O, 600000012:3B)
+pof(600000027:0Q.@entry, 105868954:11.@def.@pl)
+mod(100027167:3Z, 600000016:3M)
+plc(202536557:2O, 102875013:4F.@def)
+aoj(600000027:0Q.@entry, 107935504:0H.@topic)
+obj(600000012:3B, 100027167:3Z)
+mod(114519366:1P, 108562067:1H)
+obj(600000012:3B, 100027167:3Z)
+mod(114519366:1P, 108562067:1H)
+mod(107935504:0H.@topic, 109335240:0C)
+agt(202536557:2O, 104377057:1X.@def)
+mod(102875013:4F.@def, :01)
+obj(202536557:2O, 114519366:33.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6523]
+{org:en}
+Thirdly, soil water is an important factor in the existence and development of vegetation, i.e. it plays a vital part in the food chain of ground ecosystems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(105858317:12.@entry.@indef, 400535473:02)
+scn(103892891:37.@indef, 102999410:3O.@def)
+obj(:01, 101065057:29)
+mod(107935504:0G.@topic, 109335240:0B)
+aoj(301275562:0S, 105858317:12.@entry.@indef)
+mod(102999410:3O.@def, 100021265:3J)
+agt(200013328:2T, 600000016:2Q.@topic)
+scn(103892891:37.@indef, 102999410:3O.@def)
+obj(:01, 101065057:29)
+mod(107935504:0G.@topic, 109335240:0B)
+aoj(301275562:0S, 105858317:12.@entry.@indef)
+mod(102999410:3O.@def, 100021265:3J)
+agt(200013328:2T, 600000016:2Q.@topic)
+scn(105858317:12.@entry.@indef, :01:01)
+obj(102999410:3O.@def, 108368757:44.@pl)
+obj(115689159:2L, 200013328:2T)
+aoj(105858317:12.@entry.@indef, 107935504:0G.@topic)
+aoj(300095094:31, 103892891:37.@indef)
+and:01(100250259:1U.@entry.@def, 113954253:1G.@def)
+aoj(300095094:31, 103892891:37.@indef)
+and:01(100250259:1U.@entry.@def, 113954253:1G.@def)
+aoj(115689159:2L, :01)
+mod(108368757:44.@pl, 103462594:3X)
+obj(200013328:2T, 103892891:37.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6524]
+{org:en}
+The root fraction of the vegetation is situated in soils, providing for the uptake of mineral elements to plant tissues as well as water to the stomata of leaves—their evaporative organs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303156813:15.@entry, 103390207:06.@topic.@def)
+to(107935504:3P, 115691912:42.@def)
+obj(113571580:26.@def, 105868954:2O.@pl)
+obj(103390207:06.@topic.@def, 101065057:0R.@def)
+man(202774323:1O.@progress, 600000015:3E)
+mod(103854065:52.@pl, 600000020:4K.@pl)
+mod(105267345:36.@pl, 100017222:30)
+to(107935504:3P, 115691912:42.@def)
+obj(113571580:26.@def, 105868954:2O.@pl)
+obj(103390207:06.@topic.@def, 101065057:0R.@def)
+man(202774323:1O.@progress, 600000015:3E)
+mod(103854065:52.@pl, 600000020:4K.@pl)
+mod(105267345:36.@pl, 100017222:30)
+plc(303156813:15.@entry, 109335240:1H.@pl)
+cnt(103652226:4D.@pl, 103854065:52.@pl)
+aoj(301680559:2G, 105868954:2O.@pl)
+man(303156813:15.@entry, 202774323:1O.@progress)
+mod(115691912:42.@def, 103652226:4D.@pl)
+to(105868954:2O.@pl, 105267345:36.@pl)
+mod(115691912:42.@def, 103652226:4D.@pl)
+to(105868954:2O.@pl, 105267345:36.@pl)
+mod(103390207:06.@topic.@def, 105308310:05)
+obj(202774323:1O.@progress, 113571580:26.@def)
+aoj(302924428:4Q, 103854065:52.@pl)
+obj(600000015:3E, 107935504:3P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6525]
+{org:en}
+Therefore, transpiration activity—a process playing an important role in the hydrological cycle and primary production of organic material—is determined not only by vegetation parameters but also soil water reserves.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200699815:40.@entry.@past, 400043003:02)
+mod(100407535:0R.@topic, 113569774:0D)
+mod:02(104652438:5T.@entry.@pl, 109335240:5I)
+and:01(100522736:32.@entry, 115691793:27.@def)
+and:02(104652438:5T.@entry.@pl, 105859071:4Y.@pl)
+scn(100722061:1V.@indef, :01:01)
+mod:02(105859071:4Y.@pl, 101065057:4N)
+mod(100407535:0R.@topic, 113569774:0D)
+mod:02(104652438:5T.@entry.@pl, 109335240:5I)
+and:01(100522736:32.@entry, 115691793:27.@def)
+and:02(104652438:5T.@entry.@pl, 105859071:4Y.@pl)
+scn(100722061:1V.@indef, :01:01)
+mod:02(105859071:4Y.@pl, 101065057:4N)
+mod:01(100522736:32.@entry, 300699521:2U)
+agt(200699815:40.@entry.@past, :02)
+obj(200013328:1A.@progress, 100722061:1V.@indef)
+mod:02(105859071:4Y.@pl, 600000119:4B)
+aoj:01(301093142:3F, 103729951:3G)
+obj(200699815:40.@entry.@past, 100407535:0R.@topic)
+agt(200013328:1A.@progress, 100029677:12.@indef)
+mod:02(104652438:5T.@entry.@pl, 107935504:5N)
+agt(200013328:1A.@progress, 100029677:12.@indef)
+mod:02(104652438:5T.@entry.@pl, 107935504:5N)
+obj:01(100522736:32.@entry, 103729951:3G)
+mod:02(104652438:5T.@entry.@pl, 600000132:59)
+aoj(301275562:1L, 100722061:1V.@indef)
+cnt(100407535:0R.@topic, 100029677:12.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6526]
+{org:en}
+Soil holds the specific water body, on the terrestrial part of the Earth, that accomplishes temporal control on vegetation’s water supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200004492:07.@entry, 109335240:02.@topic)
+aoj(301181904:2M, 100803617:2V)
+mod(103892891:1L.@def, 108562067:1X.@def)
+aoj(301099951:0H, 102861886:0W.@def)
+obj(202775825:29, 100803617:2V)
+aoj(301181904:2M, 100803617:2V)
+mod(103892891:1L.@def, 108562067:1X.@def)
+aoj(301099951:0H, 102861886:0W.@def)
+obj(202775825:29, 100803617:2V)
+plc(102861886:0W.@def, 103892891:1L.@def)
+mod(113563522:3P, 107935504:3J)
+agt(202775825:29, 108562067:1X.@def)
+obj(200004492:07.@entry, 102861886:0W.@def)
+mod(113563522:3P, 101065057:36)
+aoj(300124918:19, 103892891:1L.@def)
+mod(113563522:3P, 101065057:36)
+aoj(300124918:19, 103892891:1L.@def)
+mod(102861886:0W.@def, 107935504:0Q)
+obj(100803617:2V, 113563522:3P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6527]
+{org:en}
+It is worth dwelling on transpiration as an important part of the hydrological cycle.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302502016:08.@entry, 202640226:0E.@progress)
+aoj(301275562:1A, 103892891:1K.@indef)
+obj(600000023:14, 103892891:1K.@indef)
+aoj(301275562:1A, 103892891:1K.@indef)
+obj(600000023:14, 103892891:1K.@indef)
+man(113569774:0Q, 600000023:14)
+obj(202640226:0E.@progress, 113569774:0Q)
+mod(103892891:1K.@indef, 115691793:1W.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6528]
+{org:en}
+Total evaporation from the Earth’s land (of which transpiration is 80-90%) is approximately 2/3 of the land precipitation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:4J.@entry.@def, 113572436:08.@topic)
+qua:02("%":22, :01:01)
+frm(113572436:08.@topic, 109334396:11.@def)
+man("2/3":2O, 400007015:28)
+mod(109334396:11.@def, 108562067:0T)
+qua:02("%":22, :01:01)
+frm(113572436:08.@topic, 109334396:11.@def)
+man("2/3":2O, 400007015:28)
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+At first glance, this is a very large volume of water, falling as precipitation on the land surface, that remains unused.
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+The other 97-99% goes to the atmosphere with the help of transpiration.
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+However, analysis of vegetation in the light of the theory of dissipative structures (all living organisms including plants are dissipative structures; a necessary condition for their existence is the export of permanent entropy) shows that during the evolutional of land plants there arose a unique mechanism for such export—water vapor transfer on the surface of mesophilic cells of leaves, i.e. transpiration.
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+In the forest-steppe zone soil water penetrates deeper than the lower border of the rhizosphere but does not reach subsoil water.
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+The chemistry of subsoil water in such landscape conditions is not directly related to soil formation.
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+At the same time, the processes of dilution, hydrolysis, acidification and reduction in rocks, exert significant influences on soil formation.
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+In arid zones water reaches only to the root-inhabited layer
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+A geochemically inert layer serves as the boundary between the upper part of the soil and a deeply located lower part.
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+Mobile elements accumulate above the subsoil water as a result of evaporation.
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+The cryolithozone is coincident with the areas of permafrost.
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+It covers part of the zone of suspended water and the upper part of the saturated zone.
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+Its thickness changes from several meters to 1500 meters and more, depending on climate and geological conditions.
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+mod:03(103753077:11.@pl, 600000059:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6546]
+{org:en}
+The great majority of the water in this zone is in a solid state or as physically bound water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 105122557:0F.@topic.@def)
+mod(105611062:19, 600000017:14)
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+mod(105611062:19, 600000017:14)
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+aoj(301278818:09, 105122557:0F.@topic.@def)
+obj:01(600000023:21.@entry, 107935504:2L)
+mod(105122557:0F.@topic.@def, 107935504:0V.@def)
+or:01(600000023:21.@entry, 600000051:1H)
+aoj:01(300291181:1M, 100024720:1S.@indef)
+aoj:01(300291181:1M, 100024720:1S.@indef)
+man:01(300252954:2F, 400115254:24)
+plc(107935504:0V.@def, 105611062:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6547]
+{org:en}
+its freezing occurs below HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200723349:3C.@entry, 115669251:33.@topic)
+mod(115669251:33.@topic, 600000016:2Z)
+mod(115669251:33.@topic, 600000016:2Z)
+bas(600000091:3J, HTM1:3Q)
+man(200723349:3C.@entry, 600000091:3J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6548]
+{org:en}
+The zone of total saturation covers the upper part of the Earth’s crust to 8-20 km.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200048633:0V.@entry, 105611062:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(109260218:1W.@def, 108562067:1O)
+mod(103892891:1C.@def, 109260218:1W.@def)
+mod(105611062:06.@topic.@def, 100402671:0K)
+mod(109260218:1W.@def, 108562067:1O)
+mod(103892891:1C.@def, 109260218:1W.@def)
+mod(105611062:06.@topic.@def, 100402671:0K)
+obj(200048633:0V.@entry, 103892891:1C.@def)
+fmt:01("20":27.@entry, "8":25)
+gol(200048633:0V.@entry, 115669024:2A)
+qua(115669024:2A, :01:01)
+qua(115669024:2A, :01:01)
+mod(103892891:1C.@def, 301206318:16)
+qua(100402671:0K, 303160907:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6549]
+{org:en}
+The uppermost aquifer in the zone of total saturation is called the aquifer of subsoil water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200107231:1N.@entry.@past, 109201998:0G.@topic.@def)
+mod(105611062:0V.@def, 100402671:19)
+plc(109201998:0G.@topic.@def, 105611062:0V.@def)
+mod(105611062:0V.@def, 100402671:19)
+plc(109201998:0G.@topic.@def, 105611062:0V.@def)
+mod(109201998:1Y.@def, 115690346:29)
+gol(200107231:1N.@entry.@past, 109201998:1Y.@def)
+qua(100402671:19, 303160907:13)
+qua(100402671:19, 303160907:13)
+mod(109201998:0G.@topic.@def, 303162895:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6550]
+{org:en}
+The zone of supply of subsoil water coincides with the zone of its location.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202658734:12.@entry, 105611062:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(113563522:0E, 115690346:0O)
+mod(100027167:1X, 600000016:1T)
+obj(113563522:0E, 115690346:0O)
+mod(100027167:1X, 600000016:1T)
+cob(202658734:12.@entry, 105611062:1L.@def)
+rsn(202658734:12.@entry, 100027167:1X)
+mod(105611062:06.@topic.@def, 113563522:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6551]
+{org:en}
+All ground water in the zone of total saturation, excluding subsoil water, is called artesian water, i.e. it is held under pressure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200107231:28.@entry.@past, 114847503:06.@topic)
+aoj(600000791:1G, 100402671:14)
+mod(114847503:06.@topic, 300521584:02)
+man(200004492:08.@entry.@past, 600000003:0D)
+aoj(600000791:1G, 100402671:14)
+mod(114847503:06.@topic, 300521584:02)
+man(200004492:08.@entry.@past, 600000003:0D)
+plc(114847503:06.@topic, 105611062:0Q.@def)
+obj(600000791:1G, 115690346:1Q)
+gol(200107231:28.@entry.@past, 115691991:2F)
+qua(100402671:14, 303160907:0Y)
+qua(100402671:14, 303160907:0Y)
+mod(105611062:0Q.@def, 100402671:14)
+obj(600000003:0D, 100113113:0J)
+[W]
+115689159:2V.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6552]
+{org:en}
+An artesian basin is most often a system of inter-bedded water-bearing and water-proof layers within geological structures.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104377057:10.@entry.@indef, 102801525:0E.@topic.@indef)
+obj(600000006:2O, 104931965:36.@pl)
+obj(201500082:1G.@past, 101463259:2H.@pl)
+man(400059547:0S, 400536271:0N)
+obj:01(300217297:1P, 107935504:1N)
+obj(600000006:2O, 104931965:36.@pl)
+obj(201500082:1G.@past, 101463259:2H.@pl)
+man(400059547:0S, 400536271:0N)
+obj:01(300217297:1P, 107935504:1N)
+man(104377057:10.@entry.@indef, 400059547:0S)
+aoj(300098933:05, 102801525:0E.@topic.@indef)
+and:01(303162118:25.@entry, 300217297:1P)
+mod(104377057:10.@entry.@indef, 101463259:2H.@pl)
+aoj(302905591:2V, 104931965:36.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 101463259:2H.@pl)
+aoj(302905591:2V, 104931965:36.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 101463259:2H.@pl)
+aoj(600000006:2O, 101463259:2H.@pl)
+man(201500082:1G.@past, 400536061:1A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6553]
+{org:en}
+The name stems from the province Artois in France where for the first time in Europe, in the twelfth century, pressure water was discovered.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200176137:0B.@entry, 101139636:06.@topic.@def)
+man(200721437:3N.@past, 400535893:1M)
+plc(500003985:0Z, 500003942:19)
+tim(115690115:28, 115205532:2V.@def)
+man(200721437:3N.@past, 400535893:1M)
+plc(500003985:0Z, 500003942:19)
+tim(115690115:28, 115205532:2V.@def)
+mod(115690275:0Q.@def, 500003985:0Z)
+obj(200721437:3N.@past, 115695888:34.@topic)
+src(200176137:0B.@entry, 115690275:0Q.@def)
+plc(200721437:3N.@past, 115690115:28)
+plc(200721437:3N.@past, 115690115:28)
+plc(200721437:3N.@past, 500003942:19)
+mod(115205532:2V.@def, "12":2N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6554]
+{org:en}
+Depending on bedding conditions, fracture and cavern water in volcanic metamorphic rocks and limestones may be either subsoil or artesian water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:03.@entry, 202663848:02.@progress)
+mod(105798863:0N.@pl, 115669773:0F)
+mod(107935504:1J.@topic, :01)
+man:03(114695838:3C.@may, 400047534:35)
+aoj:02(301355746:1S, 114698698:21.@pl)
+mod(105798863:0N.@pl, 115669773:0F)
+mod(107935504:1J.@topic, :01)
+man:03(114695838:3C.@may, 400047534:35)
+aoj:02(301355746:1S, 114698698:21.@pl)
+or:03(115691991:3N.@entry.@may, 114695838:3C.@may)
+and:02(114936226:2N.@entry.@pl, 114698698:21.@pl)
+aoj(:03.@entry, 107935504:1J.@topic)
+and:01(109239302:1C.@entry, 100376994:0Z)
+and:01(109239302:1C.@entry, 100376994:0Z)
+plc(107935504:1J.@topic, :02:02)
+obj(202663848:02.@progress, 105798863:0N.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6555]
+{org:en}
+The bedding conditions for ground water are determined by the local geological structure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:1A.@entry.@past, 105798863:0E.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(105798863:0E.@topic.@def.@pl, 115669773:06)
+aoj(302905591:1Y, 104931965:29.@def)
+mod(105798863:0E.@topic.@def.@pl, 115669773:06)
+aoj(302905591:1Y, 104931965:29.@def)
+aoj(301106405:1S, 104931965:29.@def)
+agt(200699815:1A.@entry.@past, 104931965:29.@def)
+pur(105798863:0E.@topic.@def.@pl, 114847503:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6556]
+{org:en}
+Structures with similar conditions of bedding and chemical composition are called hydrodynamic.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200107231:25.@entry.@past, 104931965:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301409581:0I, 105798863:0Q.@pl)
+obj(600000019:0D, 105798863:0Q.@pl)
+aoj(301409581:0I, 105798863:0Q.@pl)
+obj(600000019:0D, 105798863:0Q.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:0D, 104931965:02.@topic.@pl)
+gol(200107231:25.@entry.@past, 302979995:2C)
+and:01(115669150:1G.@entry, 115669773:14)
+and:01(115669150:1G.@entry, 115669773:14)
+obj(105798863:0Q.@pl, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6557]
+{org:en}
+Three hydrodynamic zones are distinguished according to the intensity of water exchange among the hydrogeological structures
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200650353:0V.@entry.@past, 105611062:0L.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302979995:08, 105611062:0L.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100167063:29, 107935504:23)
+mod(105036394:1Q.@def, 100167063:29)
+aoj(302905591:2X, 104931965:38.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302979995:08, 105611062:0L.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100167063:29, 107935504:23)
+mod(105036394:1Q.@def, 100167063:29)
+aoj(302905591:2X, 104931965:38.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000046:19, 105036394:1Q.@def)
+mod(104931965:38.@def.@pl, 303160971:2S)
+man(200650353:0V.@entry.@past, 600000046:19)
+obj(600000064:2I, 104931965:38.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000064:2I, 104931965:38.@def.@pl)
+aoj(600000064:2I, 100167063:29)
+qua(105611062:0L.@topic.@pl, "3":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6558]
+{org:en}
+these are the upper, middle and lower zones.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105611062:4M.@entry.@def.@pl, 600000022:3K.@topic.@pl)
+man:01(301206474:4G.@entry, 400099341:64)
+man:01(301206474:4G.@entry, 400099341:64)
+and:01(301206474:4G.@entry, 300815941:45)
+aoj(:01, 105611062:4M.@entry.@def.@pl)
+and:01(300815941:45, 301206318:3Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6559]
+{org:en}
+The upper zone—or zone of intensive water exchange—is actively drained by the local drainage network.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200451648:1T.@entry.@past, :01)
+or:01(105611062:0K.@entry, 105611062:0C.@def)
+aoj(301106405:28, 103820474:2N.@def)
+mod:01(100167063:18, 107935504:12)
+or:01(105611062:0K.@entry, 105611062:0C.@def)
+aoj(301106405:28, 103820474:2N.@def)
+mod:01(100167063:18, 107935504:12)
+man(200451648:1T.@entry.@past, 400079617:1K)
+aoj:01(301512275:0S, 100167063:18)
+agt(200451648:1T.@entry.@past, 103820474:2N.@def)
+mod:01(105611062:0K.@entry, 100167063:18)
+mod:01(105611062:0K.@entry, 100167063:18)
+mod(103820474:2N.@def, 115668933:2E)
+mod:01(105611062:0C.@def, 301206318:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6560]
+{org:en}
+Its thickness depends on the relief and is greatest in mountain regions, –and least in flat terrain.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(301278818:19.@entry, 202663848:0G)
+aoj(300038119:2H, 108674563:2M)
+obj(202663848:0G, 100354884:0V.@def)
+man(301278818:19.@entry, 400536271:2W)
+scn(300855670:28.@entry, 108674563:2M)
+aoj(300038119:2H, 108674563:2M)
+obj(202663848:0G, 100354884:0V.@def)
+man(301278818:19.@entry, 400536271:2W)
+scn(300855670:28.@entry, 108674563:2M)
+plc(301278818:19.@entry, 105221895:1U.@pl)
+mod(105221895:1U.@pl, 109359803:1L)
+aoj(301278818:19.@entry, 104936403:06)
+mod(104936403:06, 600000016:02)
+mod(104936403:06, 600000016:02)
+aoj(202663848:0G, 104936403:06)
+man(300855670:28.@entry, 400536271:3J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6561]
+{org:en}
+Its thickness can vary from 10 to 1000 m.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(303160998:0K.@entry.@ability, 104936403:06.@topic)
+fmt:01("1000":10.@entry, "10":0U)
+fmt:01("1000":10.@entry, "10":0U)
+qua(106832464:15, :01:01)
+man(303160998:0K.@entry.@ability, 106832464:15)
+mod(104936403:06.@topic, 600000016:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6562]
+{org:en}
+The turnover time for water exchange varies from decades in mountain regions to centuries and millennia in plateau areas.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(303160998:13.@entry, :02)
+mod:02(105221895:1Z.@pl, 109359803:1Q)
+fmt:02(:01.@entry, 115204983:1F.@pl)
+mod(100028270:0F.@def, 107624466:06)
+mod:01(102735688:39.@pl, 109453008:31)
+mod:02(105221895:1Z.@pl, 109359803:1Q)
+fmt:02(:01.@entry, 115204983:1F.@pl)
+mod(100028270:0F.@def, 107624466:06)
+mod:01(102735688:39.@pl, 109453008:31)
+pur(100028270:0F.@def, 100167063:0U)
+plc:01(115141213:2O.@entry.@pl, 102735688:39.@pl)
+tim(303160998:13.@entry, 100028270:0F.@def)
+and:01(115141213:2O.@entry.@pl, 115205532:2A.@pl)
+and:01(115141213:2O.@entry.@pl, 115205532:2A.@pl)
+mod(100167063:0U, 107935504:0O)
+plc:02(115204983:1F.@pl, 105221895:1Z.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6563]
+{org:en}
+The middle zone—or zone of slow water exchange—is situated in mountains and transition areas (from mountains to plateaus).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303156813:1G.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(105611062:0D.@def.@topic, 300815941:06)
+fmt:02(109453008:36.@entry.@pl, 109359803:2T.@pl)
+aoj:03(:02.@parenthesis, 102735688:2H.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(300980527:0T, 100167063:14)
+mod:01(105611062:0D.@def.@topic, 300815941:06)
+fmt:02(109453008:36.@entry.@pl, 109359803:2T.@pl)
+aoj:03(:02.@parenthesis, 102735688:2H.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(300980527:0T, 100167063:14)
+and:03(102735688:2H.@entry.@pl, 109359803:1S.@pl)
+mod:01(105611062:0L.@entry.@topic, 100167063:14)
+plc(303156813:1G.@entry, :03:03)
+or:01(105611062:0L.@entry.@topic, 105611062:0D.@def.@topic)
+or:01(105611062:0L.@entry.@topic, 105611062:0D.@def.@topic)
+mod:03(102735688:2H.@entry.@pl, 106401328:26)
+mod:01(100167063:14, 107935504:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6564]
+{org:en}
+Its lower border is the level of the ocean.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105093890:0Q.@entry.@def, 102875013:0C.@topic)
+aoj(301206474:06, 102875013:0C.@topic)
+aoj(301206474:06, 102875013:0C.@topic)
+mod(102875013:0C.@topic, 600000016:02)
+mod(105093890:0Q.@entry.@def, 109376198:13.@def)
+man(301206474:06, 400099341:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6565]
+{org:en}
+The turnover time is tens and hundreds of thousands of years.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115201505:1S.@entry.@pl, 100028270:0F.@topic.@def)
+and:01(115690923:0Z.@entry, 115691007:0Q)
+and:01(115690923:0Z.@entry, 115691007:0Q)
+qua(115690851:1F, :01:01)
+qua(115201505:1S.@entry.@pl, 115690851:1F)
+mod(100028270:0F.@topic.@def, 107624466:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6566]
+{org:en}
+The lower zone is a zone of difficult water exchange.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105611062:0M.@entry.@indef, 105611062:0C.@topic.@def)
+man(301206474:06, 400099341:1H)
+mod(100167063:1A, 107935504:14)
+man(301206474:06, 400099341:1H)
+mod(100167063:1A, 107935504:14)
+aoj(300744916:0U, 100167063:1A)
+mod(105611062:0M.@entry.@indef, 100167063:1A)
+aoj(301206474:06, 105611062:0C.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6567]
+{org:en}
+It is located below the ocean level.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302126430:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+mod(105093890:0W.@def, 109376198:0Q)
+mod(105093890:0W.@def, 109376198:0Q)
+bas(600000091:0G, 105093890:0W.@def)
+man(302126430:08.@entry, 600000091:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6568]
+{org:en}
+Groundwater flow is minimal, and the time of water exchange may be up to tens and hundreds of millions of years.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(600000047:1X.@entry.@may, 301496021:0M)
+and:01(115690923:2F.@entry, 115691007:26)
+qua(115201505:37.@pl, 115690392:2V)
+aoj(301496021:0M, 100329227:0E.@topic)
+and:01(115690923:2F.@entry, 115691007:26)
+qua(115201505:37.@pl, 115690392:2V)
+aoj(301496021:0M, 100329227:0E.@topic)
+obj(600000047:1X.@entry.@may, 115201505:37.@pl)
+mod(100167063:1H.@topic, 107935504:1B)
+aoj(600000047:1X.@entry.@may, 100167063:1H.@topic)
+tim(100167063:1H.@topic, 100028270:13.@def)
+tim(100167063:1H.@topic, 100028270:13.@def)
+qua(115690392:2V, :01:01)
+mod(100329227:0E.@topic, 115669379:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6569]
+{org:en}
+The groundwater regime, i.e. temporal and spatial changes of level, temperature and chemical composition, depends on the intensity of water exchange.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:27.@entry, 115669360:0I.@def.@topic)
+and:02(115669150:1L.@entry, 105011790:15)
+mod(105036394:2M.@def, 100167063:35)
+aoj(115689159:0Q, 115669360:0I.@def.@topic)
+aoj(:01, 100191142:0N.@topic.@pl)
+and:02(115669150:1L.@entry, 105011790:15)
+mod(105036394:2M.@def, 100167063:35)
+aoj(115689159:0Q, 115669360:0I.@def.@topic)
+aoj(:01, 100191142:0N.@topic.@pl)
+mod(115669360:0I.@def.@topic, 115669379:06)
+obj(100191142:0N.@topic.@pl, :02:02)
+obj(202663848:27.@entry, 105036394:2M.@def)
+and:02(105011790:15, 105093890:0Y)
+mod(100167063:35, 107935504:2Z)
+and:02(105011790:15, 105093890:0Y)
+mod(100167063:35, 107935504:2Z)
+obj(115689159:0Q, 100191142:0N.@pl)
+and:01(302841066:0F.@entry, 301181904:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6570]
+{org:en}
+The waters of these hydrodynamic zones have different origins.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:15.@entry, 107935504:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302979995:0M, 105611062:0Z.@pl)
+mod(107935504:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 105611062:0Z.@pl)
+aoj(302979995:0M, 105611062:0Z.@pl)
+mod(107935504:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 105611062:0Z.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:1A, 104923743:1K.@pl)
+obj(200065370:15.@entry, 104923743:1K.@pl)
+mod(105611062:0Z.@pl, 600000017:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6571]
+{org:en}
+Waters of the upper and middle zones arise from penetration of precipitation into the Earth’s crust.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200339738:13.@entry, 107935504:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(107935504:02.@topic.@pl, 105611062:0X.@def.@pl)
+gol(105061149:1T, 109260218:2O.@def)
+mod(107935504:02.@topic.@pl, 105611062:0X.@def.@pl)
+gol(105061149:1T, 109260218:2O.@def)
+obj(100051525:1E, 105061149:1T)
+and:01(300815941:0Q.@entry, 301206318:0G)
+src(200339738:13.@entry, 100051525:1E)
+mod(105611062:0X.@def.@pl, :01)
+mod(105611062:0X.@def.@pl, :01)
+mod(109260218:2O.@def, 108562067:2G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6572]
+{org:en}
+As regards the mechanism of penetration through the zone of suspended water, the zones can be divided into infiltration, in which water is in a liquid state, and condensation, in which it is in a vaporous state.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200642098:2O.@entry.@ability, 600000242:02)
+aoj:01(303162902:5I, 100024720:5R.@indef)
+scn(202603699:3U, :01:01)
+mod(100051525:0U, 600000045:16)
+plc(202603699:3U, 100976698:31)
+mod(100098385:0H.@def, 100051525:0U)
+aoj:01(202603699:5A.@should, 600000016:57)
+aoj:01(303162902:5I, 100024720:5R.@indef)
+scn(202603699:3U, :01:01)
+mod(100051525:0U, 600000045:16)
+plc(202603699:3U, 100976698:31)
+mod(100098385:0H.@def, 100051525:0U)
+aoj:01(202603699:5A.@should, 600000016:57)
+scn(200642098:2O.@entry.@ability, 100976698:31)
+obj(600000242:02, 100098385:0H.@def)
+plc:01(202603699:5A.@should, 106246700:4K.@entry)
+obj(200642098:2O.@entry.@ability, 105611062:2B.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(300432453:42, 100024720:49.@indef)
+and:01(106246700:4K.@entry, 100024720:49.@indef)
+aoj:01(300432453:42, 100024720:49.@indef)
+and:01(106246700:4K.@entry, 100024720:49.@indef)
+obj(600000045:16, 105611062:1I.@def)
+aoj(202603699:3U, 107935504:3O)
+obj(100051525:0U, 115691001:1Q)
+plc:01(202603699:5A.@should, 100024720:5R.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6573]
+{org:en}
+The thickness of the zone of such waters on plateaus is 1 to 2 km
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115669024:1W.@entry, 104936403:09.@topic.@def)
+plc(107935504:13.@pl, 109453008:1D.@pl)
+mod(104936403:09.@topic.@def, 107935504:13.@pl)
+plc(107935504:13.@pl, 109453008:1D.@pl)
+mod(104936403:09.@topic.@def, 107935504:13.@pl)
+fmt:01("2":1U.@entry, "1":1P)
+qua(115669024:1W.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(107935504:13.@pl, 600001411:0Y)
+mod(107935504:13.@pl, 600001411:0Y)
+mod(104936403:09.@topic.@def, 105611062:0Q.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6574]
+{org:en}
+in mountain-fold areas it is up to 3 km.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(600000047:30.@entry, 102735688:2O.@pl)
+cnt(109359803:2A, 100406612:2J)
+qua(115669024:38, "3":36)
+cnt(109359803:2A, 100406612:2J)
+qua(115669024:38, "3":36)
+obj(600000047:30.@entry, 115669024:38)
+aoj(600000047:30.@entry, 600000016:2U.@topic)
+mod(102735688:2O.@pl, 100406612:2J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6575]
+{org:en}
+Waters in what are called sediment reservoirs have a totally different origin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:1C.@entry, 107935504:02.@topic.@pl)
+plc(107935504:02.@topic.@pl, 600000048:2B)
+man(300490413:1R, 400535436:1J)
+plc(107935504:02.@topic.@pl, 600000048:2B)
+man(300490413:1R, 400535436:1J)
+aoj(300490413:1R, 104923743:21.@indef)
+mod(104078574:11.@pl, 109428967:0S)
+obj(200065370:1C.@entry, 104923743:21.@indef)
+gol(200107231:0L, 104078574:11.@pl)
+gol(200107231:0L, 104078574:11.@pl)
+obj(200107231:0L, 107935504:02.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6576]
+{org:en}
+They are formed in the process of sedimentation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200144850:0B.@entry.@past, 600000020:02.@topic)
+obj(600000149:0I, 111445395:10)
+man(200144850:0B.@entry.@past, 600000149:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6577]
+{org:en}
+These are greatly changed waters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(107935504:0V.@entry.@pl, 600000022:05.@topic.@pl)
+man(300352716:0N, 400056539:0F)
+mod(107935504:0V.@entry.@pl, 300352716:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6578]
+{org:en}
+they are widely spread in the zone of difficult water exchange—in the lower aquifers of plateau-type artesian basins.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201378556:1Q.@entry.@past, 600000020:1A.@topic)
+mod(102801525:4C.@pl, 104504486:3X)
+aoj(300744916:2C, 100167063:2S)
+mod(105611062:24.@def, 100167063:2S)
+aoj(301206474:38, 109201998:3E.@def.@pl)
+mod(102801525:4C.@pl, 104504486:3X)
+aoj(300744916:2C, 100167063:2S)
+mod(105611062:24.@def, 100167063:2S)
+aoj(301206474:38, 109201998:3E.@def.@pl)
+man(201378556:1Q.@entry.@past, 400495663:1J)
+mod(104504486:3X, 109453008:3Q)
+mod(109201998:3E.@def.@pl, 102801525:4C.@pl)
+plc(201378556:1Q.@entry.@past, 105611062:24.@def)
+aoj(300098933:43, 102801525:4C.@pl)
+mod(100167063:2S, 107935504:2M)
+aoj(300098933:43, 102801525:4C.@pl)
+mod(100167063:2S, 107935504:2M)
+plc(100167063:2S, 109201998:3E.@def.@pl)
+man(301206474:38, 400099341:5O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6579]
+{org:en}
+The processes of groundwater chemical composition formation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+shd(100029677:09.@entry.@def.@pl, "3.":02)
+mod(100925207:1J, 115669150:0Y)
+mod(100925207:1J, 115669150:0Y)
+mod(100925207:1J, 115669379:0M)
+mod(100029677:09.@entry.@def.@pl, 100925207:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6580]
+{org:en}
+Many factors influence groundwater chemical composition.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202536557:0F.@entry, 105858317:07.@topic.@pl)
+qua(105858317:07.@topic.@pl, 600000028:02)
+qua(105858317:07.@topic.@pl, 600000028:02)
+mod(115669150:11, 115669379:0P)
+obj(202536557:0F.@entry, 115669150:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6581]
+{org:en}
+Ye. V. Pinneker divides them into
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200642098:0I.@entry, 500323511:02.@topic)
+obj(200642098:0I.@entry, 600000020:0Q)
+gol(200642098:0I.@entry, :15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6582]
+{org:en}
+physical geographical (climate, relief, water exchange, peculiarities of weathering)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(303161278:0B.@entry, 300627004:02)
+mod:01(100167063:1C, 107935504:16)
+mod:01(100167063:1C, 107935504:16)
+and:01(100167063:1C, 100354884:0Y)
+mod:01(104763925:1M.@entry.@pl, 115669040:23)
+and:01(100354884:0Y, 114519366:0P)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6583]
+{org:en}
+geological (geological structure, petrographic composition of rocks, tectonic movements, gaseous factor)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+302905591:2G.@entry
+[/W]
+aoj:02(303163584:3E, 103081660:3E)
+and:02(103081660:3E, 104931965:33)
+aoj:02(303163584:3E, 103081660:3E)
+and:02(103081660:3E, 104931965:33)
+and:02(115694512:4D.@pl, 103081660:3E)
+aoj:02(302262542:4X, 105858317:55.@entry)
+aoj:02(302905591:2S, 104931965:33)
+aoj:02(302905591:2S, 104931965:33)
+mod:02(103081660:3E, 100348008:46.@pl)
+[W]
+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+and:02(105858317:55.@entry, 115694512:4D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6584]
+{org:en}
+physical chemical (solubility of compounds,, oxidation-reduction and acid-base conditions)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(302692624:5N.@entry, 300627004:5E)
+cnt:03(113530408:6N, 100192300:6X)
+cnt:03(113530408:6N, 100192300:6X)
+aoj:03(303161792:7B, 105798863:7L.@entry.@pl)
+and:03(105798863:7L.@entry.@pl, 100192300:6X)
+mod:04(105210221:5X, 103081859:6B.@pl)
+[W]
+:04.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6585]
+{org:en}
+physical (temperature, pressure)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+300627004:7Y.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+:05.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+and:05(100113113:8L.@entry, 105011790:88)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6586]
+{org:en}
+biological (influence of living substances,, soil processes)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+301405904:8W.@entry
+[/W]
+aoj:06(300005839:9L, 100019613:9S.@pl)
+aoj:06(300005839:9L, 100019613:9S.@pl)
+obj:06(100157081:98, 100019613:9S.@pl)
+mod:06(100029677:AA.@entry.@pl, 109335240:A5)
+[W]
+:06.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+and:06(100029677:AA.@entry.@pl, 100157081:98)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6587]
+{org:en}
+artificial (anthropogenic activities).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+300073465:AM.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+:07.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+aoj:07(303161088:AY, 100407535:BC.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6588]
+{org:en}
+All these factors run in certain combinations and their roles are not similar.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(301409581:20.@entry.@not, 200332672:0K)
+aoj(300309740:0R, 100378985:0Z.@pl)
+obj(200332672:0K, 105858317:0C.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300309740:0R, 100378985:0Z.@pl)
+obj(200332672:0K, 105858317:0C.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100722061:1M.@topic.@pl, 600000020:1G.@pl)
+mod(105858317:0C.@topic.@pl, 600000017:06)
+aoj(301409581:20.@entry.@not, 100722061:1M.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105858317:0C.@topic.@pl, 300521584:02)
+mod(105858317:0C.@topic.@pl, 300521584:02)
+plc(200332672:0K, 100378985:0Z.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6589]
+{org:en}
+All the factors are inter-related and collaterally subordinated.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:01.@entry, 105858317:0A.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(105858317:0A.@topic.@def.@pl, 300521584:02)
+mod(105858317:0A.@topic.@def.@pl, 300521584:02)
+man:01(200579712:1H.@entry.@past, 400535546:14)
+and:01(200579712:1H.@entry.@past, 303161340:0M.@past)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6590]
+{org:en}
+For instance, intensity of water exchange has a strong influence on the chemical composition of ground water, and this depends on relief, the ratio of precipitation to evaporation, and lithologic composition of rocks.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(400535850:02.@entry, :03:03)
+aoj:03(200065370:18, 105036394:0G.@topic)
+to:02(113819207:43.@entry.@def, :01:01)
+mod:03(105036394:0G.@topic, 100167063:0Z)
+obj:03(202663848:3D.@entry, :02:02)
+aoj:03(301068609:1E, 100157081:1L.@indef)
+mod:01(103081660:5L.@entry, 100348008:60.@pl)
+aoj:03(200065370:18, 105036394:0G.@topic)
+to:02(113819207:43.@entry.@def, :01:01)
+mod:03(105036394:0G.@topic, 100167063:0Z)
+obj:03(202663848:3D.@entry, :02:02)
+aoj:03(301068609:1E, 100157081:1L.@indef)
+mod:01(103081660:5L.@entry, 100348008:60.@pl)
+aoj:03(202663848:3D.@entry, 600000022:38.@topic)
+obj:03(100157081:1L.@indef, 115669150:22.@def)
+and:01(103081660:5L.@entry, 113572436:4T)
+and:03(202663848:3D.@entry, 200065370:18)
+obj:03(200065370:18, 100157081:1L.@indef)
+mod:02(113819207:43.@entry.@def, 105061149:4C)
+obj:03(200065370:18, 100157081:1L.@indef)
+mod:02(113819207:43.@entry.@def, 105061149:4C)
+mod:03(100167063:0Z, 107935504:0T)
+and:02(113819207:43.@entry.@def, 100354884:3R)
+mod:03(115669150:22.@def, 114847503:2Q)
+aoj:01(303162667:5A, 103081660:5L.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6591]
+{org:en}
+S.L. Shvartsev hierarchically arranged the main factors controlling groundwater composition in the zone of hypergenesis (see HTM1 Figure 1 HTM2 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200735571:0W.@entry.@past, 500323155:02.@topic)
+obj(200663160:1M.@progress, 103081660:2A)
+agt(200663160:1M.@progress, 105858317:1E.@def.@pl)
+mod(105611062:2T.@def, 115691794:31)
+obj(200663160:1M.@progress, 103081660:2A)
+agt(200663160:1M.@progress, 105858317:1E.@def.@pl)
+mod(105611062:2T.@def, 115691794:31)
+man(200735571:0W.@entry.@past, 400255741:0H)
+mod(103081660:2A, 115669379:1Y)
+obj(200735571:0W.@entry.@past, 105858317:1E.@def.@pl)
+plc(103081660:2A, 105611062:2T.@def)
+plc(103081660:2A, 105611062:2T.@def)
+mod(105858317:1E.@def.@pl, 301512527:19)
+mod:01(100556992:3J, "1":3Q)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6592]
+{org:en}
+He showed that groundwater composition, climate, relief, and geology have indirect influence, and their influence is revealed in biological production, intensity of water exchange, physical chemical parameters of the environment etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202144243:3I.@entry, 200923307:05.@past)
+and:01(100354884:1I.@topic, 114519366:19.@topic)
+mod:02(100167063:50, 107935504:4U)
+mod:02(105859071:5S.@pl, 108567235:6A.@def)
+aoj(200065370:22, :01)
+and:02(115689145:6M.@entry, 105859071:5S.@pl)
+obj(200923307:05.@past, 200065370:22)
+and:02(105036394:4H, 100522736:45)
+and:01(100354884:1I.@topic, 114519366:19.@topic)
+mod:02(100167063:50, 107935504:4U)
+mod:02(105859071:5S.@pl, 108567235:6A.@def)
+aoj(200065370:22, :01)
+and:02(115689145:6M.@entry, 105859071:5S.@pl)
+obj(200923307:05.@past, 200065370:22)
+and:02(105036394:4H, 100522736:45)
+and:01(106115701:1U.@entry.@topic, 100354884:1I.@topic)
+plc(202144243:3I.@entry, :02:02)
+mod:01(103081660:0W.@topic, 115669379:0K)
+mod(100157081:35.@topic, 600000020:2Z.@pl)
+aoj:02(302692624:5J, 105859071:5S.@pl)
+aoj(300762355:27, 100157081:2G)
+obj(202144243:3I.@entry, 100157081:35.@topic)
+and:01(114519366:19.@topic, 103081660:0W.@topic)
+aoj:02(301405904:3U, 100522736:45)
+aoj:02(300627004:5A, 105859071:5S.@pl)
+and:01(114519366:19.@topic, 103081660:0W.@topic)
+aoj:02(301405904:3U, 100522736:45)
+aoj:02(300627004:5A, 105859071:5S.@pl)
+obj(200065370:22, 100157081:2G)
+and:02(105859071:5S.@pl, 105036394:4H)
+agt(200923307:05.@past, 600000021:02.@topic)
+mod:02(105036394:4H, 100167063:50)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6593]
+{org:en}
+It is worth mentioning that different sets of factors impact soil/subsoil waters, from those that influence water formation in the zone of slow water exchange.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302502016:08.@entry, 201023071:0E.@progress)
+plc(100925207:3B, 105611062:3S.@def)
+mod(107935504:20.@pl, :01)
+aoj(300490413:0X, 100625699:17.@topic.@pl)
+obj(201343482:1N, 107935504:20.@pl)
+mod(100167063:4B, 107935504:45)
+obj(202536557:2V, 100925207:3B)
+plc(100925207:3B, 105611062:3S.@def)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6594]
+{org:en}
+Figure 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "1.":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6595]
+{org:en}
+Hierarchy of main factors influencing the formation of groundwater chemical composition in the zone of hypergenesis.
+{/org}
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+Source
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+[/W]
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+[/S]
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+[S:6597]
+{org:en}
+S.L. Shvartsev.
+{/org}
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+[W]
+500323155:0A.@entry
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6598]
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+Soil and subsoil water chemical composition has to be considered as a result of stage-by-stage transformation of precipitation in the system soil - zone of suspended water - subsoil water.
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+The first stages of the process start in the atmosphere.
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+[S:6600]
+{org:en}
+One of the features of precipitation is its geographical zoning.
+{/org}
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+mod(103325769:0D.@def.@pl, 105061149:0P)
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+[S:6601]
+{org:en}
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+{/org}
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+[S:6602]
+{org:en}
+The mineralization of precipitation increases from north to south.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+In low-mineralized precipitation the following anions occur in the proportions
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6604]
+{org:en}
+As mineralization increases, however, the ratio changes
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+In the steppes where precipitation mineralization may be more than 1 g/l, the following ratio is established
+{/org}
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+Salts migrate in the atmosphere as aerosols of marine and continental origin.
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+Sulfates and carbonates show the highest mobility.
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+The proportions of cations’ are more stable
+{/org}
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+
+[S:6609]
+{org:en}
+On the continents aerosols of continental origin prevail.
+{/org}
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+Their composition is determined by soil composition, vegetation, climatic and meteorological conditions.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+In coastal regions aerosols are of continental-marine origin.
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+mod(105221895:0D.@pl, 300462909:05)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6612]
+{org:en}
+The subacid character of precipitation here (pH = 5.6 – 6.8) and HTM1 acid precipitation of anthropogenic origin (pH = 4 – 5) has special significance.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6613]
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+This character of precipitation may be explained by acidification caused by gas-cycle photochemical reactions of sour gases, i.e. gases containing a lot of sulfur.
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+Heavy metals in precipitation are of special interest.
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+
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+In the air they migrate in particles with a size < 0.4 mkm, or in a vapor-gaseous environment, or in precipitation (in solution).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Atmospheric water is often the main source of heavy metals in soils and in surface waters in humid and arid zones.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+Atmospheric transport and deposition of metals on the land surface are global phenomena.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6618]
+{org:en}
+In Table 1 gas spaces of heavy metals that reached the surface of the European territory of Russia with precipitation provides evidence of the large scale of the process described.
+{/org}
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+aoj(302968325:20, 105999134:29.@def)
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+mod(101902877:47.@def, 100029677:4K.@def)
+aoj(600000019:2T, 105999134:29.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6619]
+{org:en}
+Table 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "1.":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6620]
+{org:en}
+Concentration and gas space of heavy metals that reached the surface of the European territory of Russia in precipitation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200743344:1F, 107065149:0X.@pl)
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+aoj(302968325:26, 105999134:2F.@def)
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+mod(105999134:2F.@def, 500004285:2S)
+and:01(106389553:0K.@entry, 100375071:02)
+mod(104362025:1R.@def, 105999134:2F.@def)
+mod(104362025:1R.@def, 105999134:2F.@def)
+scn(200743344:1F, 105061149:32)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6621]
+{org:en}
+Precipitation falling on the Earth's surface is taken up by vegetation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200348422:1E.@entry.@past, 105061149:02.@topic)
+plc(200147815:0G.@progress, 104362025:13.@def)
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+agt(200348422:1E.@entry.@past, 101065057:1Q)
+mod(104362025:13.@def, 108562067:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6622]
+{org:en}
+Transpiration adds to the air near the ground surface such elements as P, Cl, K, and Ca and increases mineralization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200182406:0G.@entry, 113569774:02.@topic)
+obj:01(200153263:2N.@entry, 115689274:2X)
+aoj(600000032:1Y, 105868954:1P.@pl)
+aoj(600000081:0W, 104727214:0S.@def)
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+obj(600000081:0W, 115695322:15.@def)
+and:01(200153263:2N.@entry, 500323524:2G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6623]
+{org:en}
+These elements forming part of the surface mixture are taken out of the air by precipitation and dew.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200523095:1L.@entry.@past, 105868954:08.@topic.@pl)
+agt(200144850:0H.@progress, 105868954:08.@topic.@pl)
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+mod(105868954:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02.@pl)
+and:01(114834132:2R.@entry, 105061149:29)
+mod(100380083:19.@def, 104362025:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6624]
+{org:en}
+In forest ecosystems leaching of elements occurs when precipitation makes contact with vegetation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200723349:18.@entry, 200012267:21)
+aoj(200012267:21, 105061149:1N.@topic)
+obj(115669517:0N.@topic, 105868954:0Z.@pl)
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+aoj(200012267:21, 105061149:1N.@topic)
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+obj(600000019:2F, 101065057:2K)
+obj(200723349:18.@entry, 115669517:0N.@topic)
+aoj(600000019:2F, 100039297:27)
+plc(200723349:18.@entry, 108368757:0C.@pl)
+obj(200012267:21, 100039297:27)
+obj(200012267:21, 100039297:27)
+mod(108368757:0C.@pl, 108438533:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6625]
+{org:en}
+Their concentrations increase in subsurface waters under forest.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:0N.@entry, 100375071:08.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000009:1H, 108438533:1N)
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+plc(200153263:0N.@entry, 115690282:0Z.@pl)
+mod(100375071:08.@topic.@pl, 600000020:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6626]
+{org:en}
+Mineralization—concentrations of K, P, solute organic compounds, Ca, Mg, HTM1 , and HTM2 —increase.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:2I.@entry, 115689274:02.@topic)
+and:01(106832788:11, 106832248:0Z)
+and:01(115669302:1X, 500323524:1U)
+and:01(HTM2:2A.@entry, HTM1:21)
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+and:01(106832788:11, 106832248:0Z)
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+cnt(115689274:02.@topic, 100375071:0H.@pl)
+and:01(500323524:1U, 103081859:1J.@pl)
+and:01(500323524:1U, 103081859:1J.@pl)
+and:01(HTM1:21, 115669302:1X)
+aoj:01(301093142:1B, 103081859:1J.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6627]
+{org:en}
+Conifers acidify subsurface waters, and, conversely, deciduous trees make them more alkaline.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200012267:1Z.@entry, 200264875:0B)
+man(300025728:2E, 400099341:29)
+gol(200012267:1Z.@entry, 300025728:2E)
+obj(200264875:0B, 115690282:0J.@pl)
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+agt(200264875:0B, 113108841:02.@topic.@pl)
+man(200012267:1Z.@entry, 400078050:17)
+man(400099341:29, 400099341:2T)
+man(400099341:29, 400099341:2T)
+obj(200012267:1Z.@entry, 600000020:24)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6628]
+{org:en}
+When subsurface waters under forests are filtered through the substrata, they once become again enriched with the same elements and indices.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200149583:2D.@entry, 201458664:17)
+man(201458664:17, 600000026:1G)
+man(200171586:2Q.@past, 400040365:2K)
+gol(200149583:2D.@entry, 200171586:2Q.@past)
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+man(200171586:2Q.@past, 400040365:2K)
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+obj(200149583:2D.@entry, 600000020:23.@topic)
+obj(600000026:1G, 115696153:1S.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000018:2Z, :01)
+obj(600000026:1G, 115696153:1S.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000018:2Z, :01)
+man(200149583:2D.@entry, 400118869:28)
+obj(201458664:17, 115690282:07.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6629]
+{org:en}
+Water filtration through a humus layer is accompanied by decrease of all indices as a result of root absorption.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202025550:18.@entry.@past, 100191980:08.@topic)
+mod(101463259:0Z.@indef, 114908822:0T)
+obj(600000056:2B, 113423922:2Q)
+obj(100351638:1N, 105567381:23.@pl)
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+obj(600000056:2B, 113423922:2Q)
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+man(202025550:18.@entry.@past, 600000056:2B)
+obj(113423922:2Q, 105308310:2P)
+obj(113423922:2Q, 105308310:2P)
+mod(105567381:23.@pl, 300521584:1Z)
+obj(600000045:0J, 101463259:0Z.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6630]
+{org:en}
+The decrease in concentrations of solute organic compounds, K, P, Ca, and heavy metals is the most significant.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300625055:2S.@entry, 100351638:06.@topic.@def)
+and:01(500323524:1V, 106832788:1S)
+obj(100375071:0I.@pl, :01:01)
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+plc(100351638:06.@topic.@def, 100375071:0I.@pl)
+and:01(106832248:1Q, 103081859:1F.@pl)
+man(300625055:2S.@entry, 400536271:2N)
+and:01(106832788:1S, 106832248:1Q)
+and:01(106832788:1S, 106832248:1Q)
+and:01(107065149:23.@entry.@pl, 500323524:1V)
+aoj:01(301093142:17, 103081859:1F.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6631]
+{org:en}
+As water continues to filter through the soil profile, it loses solute compounds and becomes neutral.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200149583:2F.@entry, 201099592:1O)
+obj(600000026:0V, 106516404:1C.@def)
+obj(201099592:1O, 103081859:21.@pl)
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+pur(200118523:0B, 201458664:0O)
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+rsn(201099592:1O, 200118523:0B)
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+obj(200118523:0B, 107935504:05)
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+mod(106516404:1C.@def, 109335240:17)
+aoj(303161524:1U, 103081859:21.@pl)
+mod(106516404:1C.@def, 109335240:17)
+aoj(303161524:1U, 103081859:21.@pl)
+agt(201099592:1O, 600000016:1L.@topic)
+man(201458664:0O, 600000026:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6632]
+{org:en}
+Thus, by filtering through each soil layer, and consequently changing its chemical composition, the water actively takes part in circulation of biological material in the landscape.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774708:3F.@entry, 400121135:02)
+man:01(200109660:1R.@entry.@progress, 400062857:1E)
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+man:01(200109660:1R.@entry.@progress, 400062857:1E)
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+mod:01(101463259:13, 600000848:0T)
+obj:01(200109660:1R.@entry.@progress, 115669150:24)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6633]
+{org:en}
+Plants accumulate elements in the process of creation of organic compounds
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200158804:0C.@entry, 100017222:05.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000149:0W, 100908492:1E)
+obj(600000149:0W, 100908492:1E)
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+man(200158804:0C.@entry, 600000149:0W)
+obj(100908492:1E, 114727670:1Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6634]
+{org:en}
+this involves materials that had been carried by the air—including organics and heavy metals—and they subsequently return them to the soil as fallen leaves, dead branches, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200879028:5N.@entry, 200401538:2L)
+mod:01(103652226:6L.@pl, 300097577:6E)
+man(200879028:5N.@entry, 400061203:5A)
+and:02(107065149:4O.@entry.@pl, 301093142:4B.@def.@pl)
+gol(200879028:5N.@entry, 109335240:66.@def)
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+agt(200401538:2L, 600000022:2G.@topic)
+obj(600000023:6B, :01)
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+obj(600000023:6B, :01)
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+obj(200879028:5N.@entry, 600000020:5U)
+agt(200235110:3I.@progress.@past.@complete, :02)
+aoj:01(300036879:6T, 108401248:6Y.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6635]
+{org:en}
+Soil water carries the compounds and elements away into root-inhabited layers, where plants take them up again by root adsorption.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200235110:0D.@entry, 107935504:07.@topic)
+obj(113423922:38, 105308310:37)
+plc(200523095:2M, 101463259:21.@pl)
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+man(200523095:2M, 400040365:2Z)
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+man(200523095:2M, 400040365:2Z)
+plc(202654416:1R.@entry.@past, 101463259:21.@pl)
+and:01(105868954:13.@entry.@pl, 103081859:0P.@def.@pl)
+mod(107935504:07.@topic, 109335240:02)
+met(200523095:2M, 113423922:38)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6636]
+{org:en}
+This is one of the functions of soil waters in ecosystems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000027:0A.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+plc(107935504:13.@pl, 108368757:1D.@pl)
+plc(107935504:13.@pl, 108368757:1D.@pl)
+mod(100720565:0L.@def.@pl, 107935504:13.@pl)
+pof(600000027:0A.@entry, 100720565:0L.@def.@pl)
+mod(107935504:13.@pl, 109335240:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6637]
+{org:en}
+The significant transformation of the chemical composition of precipitation, in the confined space of the soil profile, is explained by processes described above.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200939277:3H.@entry.@past, 100398704:0I.@topic.@def)
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+man(200987071:44, 600000201:4E)
+mod(115669150:14.@def, 105061149:1S)
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+scn(100398704:0I.@topic.@def, 106389553:2N.@def)
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+obj(100398704:0I.@topic.@def, 115669150:14.@def)
+mod(100398704:0I.@topic.@def, 106516404:35.@def)
+aoj(300558373:2E, 106389553:2N.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6638]
+{org:en}
+Table 2 gives an example of the changing chemistry of soil waters in turf-lowpodzol soils developed on light-loamy rocks.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200108604:0A.@entry, 104379243:02.@topic)
+aoj(303163439:2X, 100348008:39.@pl)
+plc(107935504:1P.@pl, 109335240:2E.@pl)
+mod(106084469:17.@def, 107935504:1P.@pl)
+aoj(303162870:1Z, 109335240:2E.@pl)
+aoj(303163439:2X, 100348008:39.@pl)
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+aoj(303162870:1Z, 109335240:2E.@pl)
+mod(105820620:0J.@indef, 106084469:17.@def)
+obj(200234057:2K.@past, 109335240:2E.@pl)
+obj(200108604:0A.@entry, 105820620:0J.@indef)
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+mod(107935504:1P.@pl, 109335240:1K)
+mod(104379243:02.@topic, "2":08)
+mod(107935504:1P.@pl, 109335240:1K)
+aoj(300808822:0Y, 106084469:17.@def)
+plc(200234057:2K.@past, 100348008:39.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6639]
+{org:en}
+The vegetation is mixed deciduous-pine forest.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(108438533:0Q.@entry, 101065057:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300914104:0O, 111608250:0P)
+aoj(300914104:0O, 111608250:0P)
+mod(108438533:0Q.@entry, 111608250:0P)
+aoj(303161752:0K, 108438533:0Q.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6640]
+{org:en}
+Table 2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "2.":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6641]
+{org:en}
+Changing chemistry of soil water in turf-lowpodzol soils in Middle Russia.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200109660:02.@entry.@progress, 106084469:0C)
+aoj(303162870:13, 109335240:1I.@pl)
+mod(107935504:0U, 109335240:0P)
+aoj(303162870:13, 109335240:1I.@pl)
+mod(107935504:0U, 109335240:0P)
+plc(107935504:0U, 109335240:1I.@pl)
+mod(106084469:0C, 107935504:0U)
+plc(109335240:1I.@pl, 500324184:1R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6642]
+{org:en}
+The well-known Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky in his monograph "Biosphere" edited in 1926 wrote that the main sources of cations and anions for subsurface and surface water were not rocks but soil and vegetation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200993014:2M.@entry.@past, 110560637:0P.@topic.@def)
+tim(200200397:27, "1926":2H)
+mod:02(107935504:4L, :01)
+man:04(100348008:59.@pl.@past, 400024073:55)
+mod(110560637:0P.@topic.@def, 500323009:0Z)
+and:04(:03.@entry, 100348008:59.@pl.@past)
+aoj(301376705:06, 110560637:0P.@topic.@def)
+and:02(109197815:3W.@entry.@pl, 109238294:3K.@pl)
+tim(200200397:27, "1926":2H)
+mod:02(107935504:4L, :01)
+man:04(100348008:59.@pl.@past, 400024073:55)
+mod(110560637:0P.@topic.@def, 500323009:0Z)
+and:04(:03.@entry, 100348008:59.@pl.@past)
+aoj(301376705:06, 110560637:0P.@topic.@def)
+and:02(109197815:3W.@entry.@pl, 109238294:3K.@pl)
+mod(106409448:1L, 600000021:1H)
+aoj:05(:04.@entry, 104263614:39.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(110560637:0P.@topic.@def, 106409448:1L)
+mod:05(104263614:39.@topic.@def.@pl, 301512527:34)
+cnt(106409448:1L, 108499504:1W.@double_quote)
+obj(200993014:2M.@entry.@past, :05:05)
+and:01(302471091:4M.@entry, 302471782:47)
+mod:05(104263614:39.@topic.@def.@pl, :02)
+and:01(302471091:4M.@entry, 302471782:47)
+mod:05(104263614:39.@topic.@def.@pl, :02)
+obj(200200397:27, 106409448:1L)
+and:03(101065057:5S.@entry.@past, 109335240:5J.@past)
+aoj(302957276:0H, 110560637:0P.@topic.@def)
+pur:02(109197815:3W.@entry.@pl, 107935504:4L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6643]
+{org:en}
+According to S.L. Shwartsev's calculations, the "biogenic part" of ground water chemical flow, i.e. that arising from the decomposition of vegetation in soil, is
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:9A.@entry, 600000046:02)
+plc(101065057:40, 109335240:4E)
+mod(115693457:2D, 114847503:20)
+mod(:01.@double_quote, 115693457:2D)
+src(200339738:32.@progress, 106013471:3J.@def)
+plc(101065057:40, 109335240:4E)
+mod(115693457:2D, 114847503:20)
+mod(:01.@double_quote, 115693457:2D)
+src(200339738:32.@progress, 106013471:3J.@def)
+aoj(115689159:2S, :01.@double_quote)
+mod(100868910:0W.@pl, 500323156:0F)
+obj(200339738:32.@progress, 600000030:2X)
+aoj(:9A.@entry, :01.@double_quote)
+obj(600000046:02, 100868910:0W.@pl)
+obj(115689159:2S, 600000030:2X)
+obj(600000046:02, 100868910:0W.@pl)
+obj(115689159:2S, 600000030:2X)
+aoj:01(300901161:1I, 103892891:1R.@entry)
+obj(106013471:3J.@def, 101065057:40)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6644]
+{org:en}
+for tundra – 62.5% of total flow
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(100329227:5N.@entry, "%":5C)
+qua("%":5C, "62.5":58)
+qua("%":5C, "62.5":58)
+pur("%":5C, 109463226:4Z)
+qua(100329227:5N.@entry, 303160907:5H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6645]
+{org:en}
+for mixed forest – 50.6%
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur("%":6N.@entry, 108438533:6A)
+aoj(303161752:64, 108438533:6A)
+qua("%":6N.@entry, "50.6":6J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6646]
+{org:en}
+for forest-steppe – 42.6%
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur("%":7L.@entry, 109445289:78)
+mod(109445289:78, 108438533:71)
+qua("%":7L.@entry, "42.6":7H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6647]
+{org:en}
+for steppe – 16.2%
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur("%":8C.@entry, 109445289:7Z)
+qua("%":8C.@entry, "16.2":88)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6648]
+{org:en}
+and for humid savanna – 88.6%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and("%":9E.@entry, :00)
+aoj(302549393:8U, 108645847:90)
+aoj(302549393:8U, 108645847:90)
+qua("%":9E.@entry, "88.6":9A)
+pur("%":9E.@entry, 108645847:90)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6649]
+{org:en}
+In steppe and forest-steppe landscapes, the biomass of decaying vegetation plays a small part in the processes of dilution, but evaporation and crystallization of salts have a strong influence on soil and ground water chemical composition.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200065370:4R.@entry, 200013328:25)
+and:01(108438533:0G.@entry, 109445289:05)
+agt(200013328:25, 105024691:1A.@topic.@def)
+mod(115669150:64, 109335240:5I)
+mod(105024691:1A.@topic.@def, 101065057:1U)
+obj(100157081:55.@indef, 115669150:64)
+aoj(301391351:2D, 103892891:2J.@indef)
+and:02(105772044:42.@entry.@topic, 113572436:3M.@topic)
+and:01(108438533:0G.@entry, 109445289:05)
+agt(200013328:25, 105024691:1A.@topic.@def)
+mod(115669150:64, 109335240:5I)
+mod(105024691:1A.@topic.@def, 101065057:1U)
+obj(100157081:55.@indef, 115669150:64)
+aoj(301391351:2D, 103892891:2J.@indef)
+and:02(105772044:42.@entry.@topic, 113572436:3M.@topic)
+mod(103640011:0U.@pl, 109445289:0N)
+obj(200065370:4R.@entry, 100157081:55.@indef)
+plc(103892891:2J.@indef, 100029677:2V.@def.@pl)
+obj(:02, 105717342:4L.@pl)
+cnt(:01, 103640011:0U.@pl)
+aoj(200065370:4R.@entry, :02)
+obj(200013328:25, 103892891:2J.@indef)
+mod(115669150:64, 114847503:5R)
+obj(200013328:25, 103892891:2J.@indef)
+mod(115669150:64, 114847503:5R)
+mod(101065057:1U, 303156306:1L)
+aoj(301068609:4Y, 100157081:55.@indef)
+mod(100029677:2V.@def.@pl, 100362659:38)
+plc(200013328:25, 103640011:0U.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6650]
+{org:en}
+Geochemical barriers—transitional zones where one geochemical situation is substituted by another and where characteristics of element transport change—are located across the path of vertical transfer of soil water to the subsoil and from local catchments to local depressions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302126430:4E.@entry, 102796623:0E.@topic.@pl)
+gol(100201671:5E, 114695838:68.@entry.@def)
+obj:01(200109660:43.@entry, 104731497:32.@topic.@pl)
+cnt(102796623:0E.@topic.@pl, 105611062:10.@pl)
+aoj:02(301106405:6P, 102983357:6V.@pl)
+agt:01(202257767:25, 600000116:2K)
+obj(600000216:4M, 103899328:4X.@def)
+fmt:02(100112674:7F.@entry.@pl, 102983357:6V.@pl)
+mod:01(113570236:3T, 105868954:3L)
+aoj(302944694:0N, 105611062:10.@pl)
+gol(100201671:5E, 114695838:68.@entry.@def)
+obj:01(200109660:43.@entry, 104731497:32.@topic.@pl)
+cnt(102796623:0E.@topic.@pl, 105611062:10.@pl)
+aoj:02(301106405:6P, 102983357:6V.@pl)
+agt:01(202257767:25, 600000116:2K)
+obj(600000216:4M, 103899328:4X.@def)
+fmt:02(100112674:7F.@entry.@pl, 102983357:6V.@pl)
+mod:01(113570236:3T, 105868954:3L)
+aoj(302944694:0N, 105611062:10.@pl)
+obj(100201671:5E, 107935504:5V)
+man(302126430:4E.@entry, :02)
+mod(107935504:5V, 109335240:5Q)
+plc:01(104731497:32.@topic.@pl, 115689346:2W)
+plc(:01, 105611062:10.@pl)
+aoj:01(303161173:1G, 113925752:1S)
+man(302126430:4E.@entry, 600000216:4M)
+aoj(301204142:55, 100201671:5E)
+mod:01(104731497:32.@topic.@pl, 113570236:3T)
+aoj(303161173:02, 102796623:0E.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301204142:55, 100201671:5E)
+mod:01(104731497:32.@topic.@pl, 113570236:3T)
+aoj(303161173:02, 102796623:0E.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(113925752:1S, 600000089:1C)
+mod(103899328:4X.@def, 100201671:5E)
+aoj:02(301106405:79, 100112674:7F.@entry.@pl)
+obj:01(202257767:25, 113925752:1S)
+and:01(200109660:43.@entry, 202257767:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6651]
+{org:en}
+Very important in these is the above-mentioned barrier of root absorption, which depends on the biological absorption capacity and on peculiarities of the vegetation—each holding a characteristic association of elements.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(102796623:1D.@entry.@def, :02)
+obj:01(101081628:5I.@indef, 105868954:5X.@pl)
+and:01(104763925:3S.@entry.@pl, 202663848:2B)
+plc:02(301275562:07.@entry, 600000022:0K.@pl)
+plc(113423922:1O, :01:01)
+aoj:01(301405904:2Q, 100720951:3C.@def)
+cnt:01(101065057:4D, 600000092:4O.@def)
+obj:01(101081628:5I.@indef, 105868954:5X.@pl)
+and:01(104763925:3S.@entry.@pl, 202663848:2B)
+plc:02(301275562:07.@entry, 600000022:0K.@pl)
+plc(113423922:1O, :01:01)
+aoj:01(301405904:2Q, 100720951:3C.@def)
+cnt:01(101065057:4D, 600000092:4O.@def)
+mod(102796623:1D.@entry.@def, 300126116:0X)
+obj:01(202663848:2B, 100720951:3C.@def)
+aoj:01(200004492:4T.@progress, 600000092:4O.@def)
+mod(102796623:1D.@entry.@def, 113423922:1O)
+aoj:01(300356926:53, 101081628:5I.@indef)
+mod:01(104763925:3S.@entry.@pl, 600000092:4O.@def)
+aoj:01(300356926:53, 101081628:5I.@indef)
+mod:01(104763925:3S.@entry.@pl, 600000092:4O.@def)
+man:02(301275562:07.@entry, 400031899:02)
+obj(113423922:1O, 105308310:1N)
+mod:01(100720951:3C.@def, 113423922:31)
+obj:01(200004492:4T.@progress, 101081628:5I.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6652]
+{org:en}
+For instance, the capacity for biological accumulation of elements in deciduous forest is twice as much as in coniferous forest, and 25 times as much as in meadow steppe.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(400535850:02.@entry, :01:01)
+obj:01(600000051:49, 109445289:4L)
+plc(105868954:1O.@pl, 115667909:20)
+obj(100372013:18, 105868954:1O.@pl)
+obj:01(600000167:2T, 600000051:62)
+qua:01(400535332:3U.@pl, "25":3R)
+obj:01(600000051:49, 109445289:4L)
+plc(105868954:1O.@pl, 115667909:20)
+obj(100372013:18, 105868954:1O.@pl)
+obj:01(600000167:2T, 600000051:62)
+qua:01(400535332:3U.@pl, "25":3R)
+obj(100720951:0K.@def, 100372013:18)
+man:01(303161916:2K, 600000167:2T)
+aoj:01(600000399:43, 400535332:3U.@pl.@entry)
+aoj(:01, 100720951:0K.@def)
+mod:01(109445289:4L, 115669482:4E)
+and:01(400535332:3U.@pl.@entry, 303161916:2K)
+mod:01(109445289:4L, 115669482:4E)
+and:01(400535332:3U.@pl.@entry, 303161916:2K)
+aoj(301405904:0X, 100372013:18)
+obj:01(600000051:62, 115667931:34)
+obj:01(600000399:43, 600000051:49)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6653]
+{org:en}
+The acid-base equilibrium changes from subacid to neutral and alkaline in the zone of suspended water, with organomineral compounds of Al, Fe and Ca with fulvic acids.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200109660:0S.@entry, 105659365:0G.@topic.@def)
+aoj(303163554:39, 103081859:3N.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:34, 105611062:2F.@def)
+fmt:02(:01.@entry, 302369683:15)
+obj(600000019:4E, 114875878:4J.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:4E, 103081859:3N.@pl)
+aoj(303163554:39, 103081859:3N.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:34, 105611062:2F.@def)
+fmt:02(:01.@entry, 302369683:15)
+obj(600000019:4E, 114875878:4J.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:4E, 103081859:3N.@pl)
+man(200109660:0S.@entry, :02)
+and:03(500323522:44, 500323766:40)
+obj(600000019:34, 103081859:3N.@pl)
+plc(200109660:0S.@entry, 105611062:2F.@def)
+and:03(500323524:4B.@entry, 500323522:44)
+mod(105611062:2F.@def, 115691001:2N)
+and:03(500323524:4B.@entry, 500323522:44)
+mod(105611062:2F.@def, 115691001:2N)
+and:01(300025728:1V.@entry, 300359160:1J)
+aoj(303161792:06, 105659365:0G.@topic.@def)
+cnt(103081859:3N.@pl, :03)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6654]
+{org:en}
+Calcium compounds and bicarbonate-ion consequently transfer into a soluble state.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200555240:1H.@entry, 109315159:10.@topic)
+and:01(114775729:0O.@entry, 103081859:0A.@pl)
+aoj(302265015:1X, 100024720:25.@indef)
+and:01(114775729:0O.@entry, 103081859:0A.@pl)
+aoj(302265015:1X, 100024720:25.@indef)
+man(200555240:1H.@entry, 400062857:14)
+gol(200555240:1H.@entry, 100024720:25.@indef)
+mod:01(103081859:0A.@pl, 114632648:02)
+mod:01(103081859:0A.@pl, 114632648:02)
+cnt(:01, 109315159:10.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6655]
+{org:en}
+At an evaporating barrier calcium carbonate precipitates out of the soil mixture, as do more the soluble gypsum, epsomite, soda, and halite.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200474994:1A.@entry, 201619014:2F)
+and:01(114672224:3Q.@entry, 115668972:3G)
+obj(600000096:1N, 100380083:23.@def)
+obj(200366858:08.@progress, 114936905:0S.@indef)
+aoj:01(302265015:2R, 114677778:2Z.@def)
+man(201619014:2F, 400099341:2I)
+and:01(114672224:3Q.@entry, 115668972:3G)
+obj(600000096:1N, 100380083:23.@def)
+obj(200366858:08.@progress, 114936905:0S.@indef)
+aoj:01(302265015:2R, 114677778:2Z.@def)
+man(201619014:2F, 400099341:2I)
+plc(200474994:1A.@entry, 114936905:0S.@indef)
+and:01(115669649:36, 114677778:2Z.@def)
+agt(201619014:2F, :01)
+man(200474994:1A.@entry, 600000096:1N)
+and:01(115668972:3G, 115669649:36)
+mod(100380083:23.@def, 109335240:1Y)
+and:01(115668972:3G, 115669649:36)
+mod(100380083:23.@def, 109335240:1Y)
+mod(114936905:0S.@indef, 102796623:0K)
+man(400099341:2I, 400099341:5F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6656]
+{org:en}
+The elements that become concentrated at this barrier are Ca, Mg, Sr, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn, Cu and Pb.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 105868954:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(115669302:1R, 500323524:1O)
+and:01(500323559:2A, 500323522:26)
+and:01(500323565:2H, 500323546:2D)
+gol(200149583:0K, 300538565:0R)
+and:01(115669386:1Z, 500323657:1V)
+and:01(115669302:1R, 500323524:1O)
+and:01(500323559:2A, 500323522:26)
+and:01(500323565:2H, 500323546:2D)
+gol(200149583:0K, 300538565:0R)
+and:01(115669386:1Z, 500323657:1V)
+and:01(500323540:2L, 500323565:2H)
+plc(200149583:0K, 102796623:1C)
+and:01(500323552:22, 115669386:1Z)
+and:01(500323562:2S.@entry, 500323540:2L)
+obj(200149583:0K, 105868954:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(500323522:26, 500323552:22)
+obj(200149583:0K, 105868954:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(500323522:26, 500323552:22)
+and:01(500323546:2D, 500323559:2A)
+mod(102796623:1C, 600000017:17)
+and:01(500323657:1V, 115669302:1R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6657]
+{org:en}
+When soil mixtures interact, soil cation exchange occurs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200723349:1G.@entry, 202376958:0L.@should)
+mod(100380083:0C.@pl, 109335240:07)
+mod(109238294:0U, 109335240:0P)
+mod(100380083:0C.@pl, 109335240:07)
+mod(109238294:0U, 109335240:0P)
+obj(100167063:0V.@topic, 109238294:0U)
+obj(200723349:1G.@entry, 100167063:0V.@topic)
+agt(202376958:0L.@should, 100380083:0C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6658]
+{org:en}
+Colloidal soil fractions have a strong ability for cation absorption.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0R.@entry, 103390207:0C.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302903946:02, 103390207:0C.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301068609:0Y, 105200169:15.@indef)
+aoj(302903946:02, 103390207:0C.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301068609:0Y, 105200169:15.@indef)
+pur(105200169:15.@indef, 113423922:1O)
+obj(200065370:0R.@entry, 105200169:15.@indef)
+mod(103390207:0C.@topic.@pl, 109335240:0B)
+mod(103390207:0C.@topic.@pl, 109335240:0B)
+mod(113423922:1O, 109238294:1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6659]
+{org:en}
+Humic substances and clay minerals are charged negatively and absorb cations from non-saturated solutions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200395698:1S.@entry, 200498016:15)
+aoj:01(302744247:02, 100019613:08.@pl)
+and:01(115694938:0N.@entry.@pl.@topic, 100019613:08.@pl.@topic)
+obj(200395698:1S.@entry, 109238294:1Z.@pl)
+man(200498016:15, 400004184:1D)
+aoj:01(302744247:02, 100019613:08.@pl)
+and:01(115694938:0N.@entry.@pl.@topic, 100019613:08.@pl.@topic)
+obj(200395698:1S.@entry, 109238294:1Z.@pl)
+man(200498016:15, 400004184:1D)
+src(200395698:1S.@entry, 100190783:2Q.@pl)
+obj(200498016:15, :01)
+agt(200395698:1S.@entry, :01)
+aoj(300393508:2G.@not, 100190783:2Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6660]
+{org:en}
+They form sorption geochemical barriers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200144850:07.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+aoj(303161173:0L, 102796623:0X.@pl)
+aoj(303161173:0L, 102796623:0X.@pl)
+mod(102796623:0X.@pl, 113558490:0C)
+obj(200144850:07.@entry, 102796623:0X.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6661]
+{org:en}
+The following elements tend to concentrate at this barrier
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202439047:0P.@entry, 105868954:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300127815:06, 105868954:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(200237511:0X, 102796623:1H)
+aoj(300127815:06, 105868954:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(200237511:0X, 102796623:1H)
+pur(202439047:0P.@entry, 200237511:0X)
+obj(202439047:0P.@entry, :4H)
+mod(102796623:1H, 600000017:1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6662]
+{org:en}
+Mg, P, S, K, Ca, Cr, V, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Hg and Pb.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323562:32.@entry, 500323570:2V)
+and(106832248:1Y, 106833112:1V)
+and(500323546:2F, 500323559:2C)
+and(500323565:2N, 500323540:2J)
+and(115669386:25, 500323524:21)
+and(106832248:1Y, 106833112:1V)
+and(500323546:2F, 500323559:2C)
+and(500323565:2N, 500323540:2J)
+and(115669386:25, 500323524:21)
+and(500323539:2R, 500323565:2N)
+and(106832788:1S, 115669302:1P)
+and(106833436:29, 115669386:25)
+and(500323570:2V, 500323539:2R)
+and(106833112:1V, 106832788:1S)
+and(500323559:2C, 106833436:29)
+and(106833112:1V, 106832788:1S)
+and(500323559:2C, 106833436:29)
+and(500323540:2J, 500323546:2F)
+and(500323524:21, 106832248:1Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6663]
+{org:en}
+According to V.M. Shvets's calculations, soil water contains significant concentrations of dissolved organic compounds
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202701210:1I.@entry, 600000046:02)
+aoj(301506258:2L, 114727670:2V.@pl)
+mod(100375071:23.@pl, 114727670:2V.@pl)
+mod(100868910:0T.@pl, 500323168:0F)
+aoj(301506258:2L, 114727670:2V.@pl)
+mod(100375071:23.@pl, 114727670:2V.@pl)
+mod(100868910:0T.@pl, 500323168:0F)
+obj(202701210:1I.@entry, 100375071:23.@pl)
+obj(600000046:02, 100868910:0T.@pl)
+aoj(202701210:1I.@entry, 107935504:1C.@topic)
+mod(107935504:1C.@topic, 109335240:17)
+mod(107935504:1C.@topic, 109335240:17)
+aoj(300625055:1R, 100375071:23.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6664]
+{org:en}
+in the waters of humid climate zones - 35 mg/l of organic carbon
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(115669302:4N.@entry, 107935504:3O.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:4V, 102961851:53)
+aoj(600000025:4P, 115669302:4N.@entry)
+mod(105611062:4C.@pl, 114519366:44)
+aoj(301093142:4V, 102961851:53)
+aoj(600000025:4P, 115669302:4N.@entry)
+mod(105611062:4C.@pl, 114519366:44)
+qua(115669302:4N.@entry, "35":4K)
+aoj(302549393:3Y, 105611062:4C.@pl)
+mod(115669302:4N.@entry, 102961851:53)
+mod(107935504:3O.@def.@pl, 105611062:4C.@pl)
+mod(107935504:3O.@def.@pl, 105611062:4C.@pl)
+obj(600000025:4P, 106832356:4Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6665]
+{org:en}
+in the waters of steppes and deserts - 20 mg/l
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(115669302:6V.@entry, 107935504:5P.@def.@pl)
+and:01(108505573:6E.@entry.@pl, 109445289:62.@pl)
+obj(600000025:6X, 106832356:6Y)
+and:01(108505573:6E.@entry.@pl, 109445289:62.@pl)
+obj(600000025:6X, 106832356:6Y)
+aoj(600000025:6X, 115669302:6V.@entry)
+qua(115669302:6V.@entry, "20":6S)
+mod(107935504:5P.@def.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6666]
+{org:en}
+and in deep pressure ground waters - up to 40 mg/l.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(600000086:89.@entry, :00)
+qua(115669302:8I, "40":8F)
+aoj(300149120:7F, 100113113:7K)
+qua(115669302:8I, "40":8F)
+aoj(300149120:7F, 100113113:7K)
+obj(600000086:89.@entry, 115669302:8I)
+obj(600000025:8K, 106832356:8L)
+plc(600000086:89.@entry, 114847503:7T.@pl)
+aoj(600000025:8K, 115669302:8I)
+aoj(600000025:8K, 115669302:8I)
+mod(114847503:7T.@pl, 100113113:7K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6667]
+{org:en}
+Organic compounds are acidified in the huge areas of waterlogged tundra and taiga, where reducing conditions are formed due to the absence of oxygen.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200264875:0O.@entry.@past, 114727670:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(101234345:3O.@def, 114648100:3Z)
+aoj(303162384:1I, :01)
+aoj(303161154:14, 102735688:19.@def.@pl)
+rsn(200144850:36, 600000001:3D)
+obj(101234345:3O.@def, 114648100:3Z)
+aoj(303162384:1I, :01)
+aoj(303161154:14, 102735688:19.@def.@pl)
+rsn(200144850:36, 600000001:3D)
+plc(200264875:0O.@entry.@past, 102735688:19.@def.@pl)
+obj(200144850:36, 105798863:2R.@pl)
+rsn(200264875:0O.@entry.@past, :01:01)
+obj(200045817:2I.@progress, 105798863:2R.@pl)
+and:01(115668844:25.@entry, 109463226:1U)
+obj(200045817:2I.@progress, 105798863:2R.@pl)
+and:01(115668844:25.@entry, 109463226:1U)
+plc(200144850:36, :01:01)
+obj(600000001:3D, 101234345:3O.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6668]
+{org:en}
+As a consequence, hydrosulfuric and gley waters are formed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200144850:1I.@entry, 600000023:02)
+and:01(115693790:12.@entry, 303162605:0K)
+and:01(115693790:12.@entry, 303162605:0K)
+mod(107935504:11.@pl.@topic, :01)
+obj(200144850:1I.@entry, 107935504:11.@pl.@topic)
+obj(600000023:02, 105170574:07.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6669]
+{org:en}
+Bacteria take oxygen from the mineral compounds, oxidize soluble organic compounds and produce humic acids.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(:02.@entry, 115689384:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:01(302265015:1N, 114727670:1V.@pl)
+obj:01(201621555:2H.@entry, 114909120:2P.@pl)
+aoj:02(301680559:0W, 103081859:14.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(302265015:1N, 114727670:1V.@pl)
+obj:01(201621555:2H.@entry, 114909120:2P.@pl)
+aoj:02(301680559:0W, 103081859:14.@def.@pl)
+and:01(201621555:2H.@entry, 200238867:1F)
+obj:02(200523095:0B, 114648100:0G)
+and:02(:01.@entry, 200523095:0B)
+src:02(200523095:0B, 103081859:14.@def.@pl)
+src:02(200523095:0B, 103081859:14.@def.@pl)
+obj:01(200238867:1F, 114727670:1V.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6670]
+{org:en}
+Bacteria make Fe and Mn switch into bivalent state.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200012267:0B.@entry, 115689384:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301546826:12, 100024720:1B)
+and:01(500323552:0N.@entry, 500323522:0G)
+aoj(301546826:12, 100024720:1B)
+and:01(500323552:0N.@entry, 500323522:0G)
+obj(200012267:0B.@entry, :01:01)
+gol(200012267:0B.@entry, 200380159:0Q)
+gol(200380159:0Q, 100024720:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6671]
+{org:en}
+Gley process occurs where there is a lack of sulfates.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200723349:0F.@entry, 100029677:07.@topic)
+obj(114449405:16.@indef, 115063493:1E.@pl)
+plc(202603699:11, 115689346:0G)
+obj(114449405:16.@indef, 115063493:1E.@pl)
+plc(202603699:11, 115689346:0G)
+mod(100029677:07.@topic, 115693790:02)
+plc(200723349:0F.@entry, 115689346:0G)
+obj(202603699:11, 114449405:16.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6672]
+{org:en}
+When concentrations of sulfates are high, hydrogen sulfide is formed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200144850:1S.@entry, 300705498:12)
+mod(100375071:07.@topic.@pl, 115063493:0P.@pl)
+mod(100375071:07.@topic.@pl, 115063493:0P.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:12, 100375071:07.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200144850:1S.@entry, 114913518:18.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6673]
+{org:en}
+In hydrosulfuric water, the migration capacity of metals decreases as a result of sulfide formation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200151689:1N.@entry, 107935504:0J)
+mod(100720951:14.@topic.@def, 114625458:1G.@pl)
+obj(600000056:1X, 100925207:2K)
+mod(100720951:14.@topic.@def, 114625458:1G.@pl)
+obj(600000056:1X, 100925207:2K)
+man(200151689:1N.@entry, 600000056:1X)
+aoj(303162605:05, 107935504:0J)
+obj(200151689:1N.@entry, 100720951:14.@topic.@def)
+mod(100720951:14.@topic.@def, 101123095:0U)
+mod(100720951:14.@topic.@def, 101123095:0U)
+mod(100925207:2K, 115063699:2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6674]
+{org:en}
+The following elements become concentrated at this barrier
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200149583:0P.@entry, 105868954:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(102796623:1H, 600000017:1C)
+mod(102796623:1H, 600000017:1C)
+gol(200149583:0P.@entry, 300538565:0W)
+plc(200149583:0P.@entry, 102796623:1H)
+aoj(300127815:06, 105868954:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6675]
+{org:en}
+Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ag, Cd, Hg, Pb and As.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323539:2R.@entry, 500323562:2K)
+and(500323565:25, 500323540:21)
+and(500323623:2D, 500323763:29)
+and(500323559:1U, 500323522:1Q)
+and(500323565:25, 500323540:21)
+and(500323623:2D, 500323763:29)
+and(500323559:1U, 500323522:1Q)
+and(500323570:2H, 500323623:2D)
+and(500323546:1X, 500323559:1U)
+and(500323562:2K, 500323570:2H)
+and(500323540:21, 500323546:1X)
+and(500323540:21, 500323546:1X)
+and(500323763:29, 500323565:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6676]
+{org:en}
+Decay of organic compounds enriches ground water with carbonic gas and organic acids, especially humic ones.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200171586:0T.@entry, 111444643:02.@topic)
+aoj(302744247:2R, 600000027:2X.@pl)
+aoj:01(301093142:21, 114607521:29.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000018:1F, :01)
+aoj(400535221:2G, :01)
+aoj(302744247:2R, 600000027:2X.@pl)
+aoj:01(301093142:21, 114607521:29.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000018:1F, :01)
+aoj(400535221:2G, :01)
+obj(200171586:0T.@entry, 114847503:12)
+obj(111444643:02.@topic, 114727670:0B.@pl)
+gol(200171586:0T.@entry, 600000018:1F)
+aoj:01(303158326:1K, 114481080:1T)
+aoj:01(303158326:1K, 114481080:1T)
+and:01(114607521:29.@entry.@pl, 114481080:1T)
+obj(400535221:2G, 600000027:2X.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6677]
+{org:en}
+Dissolved organic substances form organic-mineral compounds with cations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200144850:0V.@entry, 100019613:0K.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000019:1Q, 109238294:1V.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:10, 103081859:1G.@pl)
+obj(600000019:1Q, 109238294:1V.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:10, 103081859:1G.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:1Q, 103081859:1G.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:0C, 100019613:0K.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200144850:0V.@entry, 103081859:1G.@pl)
+aoj(301506258:02, 100019613:0K.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301506258:02, 100019613:0K.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301680559:18, 103081859:1G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6678]
+{org:en}
+This contributes to their migratory capacity in the upper part of the Earth's crust.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202308741:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(103892891:1O.@def, 109260218:28.@def)
+mod(100720951:12, 600000020:0M.@pl)
+mod(103892891:1O.@def, 109260218:28.@def)
+mod(100720951:12, 600000020:0M.@pl)
+scn(100720951:12, 103892891:1O.@def)
+mod(109260218:28.@def, 108562067:20)
+gol(202308741:07.@entry, 100720951:12)
+mod(103892891:1O.@def, 301206318:1I)
+mod(103892891:1O.@def, 301206318:1I)
+aoj(302129007:0S, 100720951:12)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6679]
+{org:en}
+The migratory capacity of chemical elements depends not only on the geochemical situation but also on the forms of their existence in natural waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:1A.@entry, 100720951:0G.@topic.@def)
+mod(100720951:0G.@topic.@def, 105868954:11.@pl)
+mod(103384535:30.@def.@pl, 600000132:2K)
+mod(113925752:2A.@def, 600000119:1I)
+mod(113954253:3F, 600000020:39.@pl)
+mod(100720951:0G.@topic.@def, 105868954:11.@pl)
+mod(103384535:30.@def.@pl, 600000132:2K)
+mod(113925752:2A.@def, 600000119:1I)
+mod(113954253:3F, 600000020:39.@pl)
+obj(202663848:1A.@entry, 113925752:2A.@def)
+aoj(302692624:0S, 105868954:11.@pl)
+plc(113954253:3F, 107935504:40.@pl)
+man(202663848:1A.@entry, 103384535:30.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302129007:06, 100720951:0G.@topic.@def)
+mod(103384535:30.@def.@pl, 113954253:3F)
+aoj(302129007:06, 100720951:0G.@topic.@def)
+mod(103384535:30.@def.@pl, 113954253:3F)
+aoj(303161173:1Y, 113925752:2A.@def)
+mod(107935504:40.@pl, 301335708:3S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6680]
+{org:en}
+In soil and ground water they migrate in colloidal and soluble states.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201856626:0W.@entry, :01:01)
+and:01(114847503:0E.@entry, 109335240:05)
+aoj(:02, 100024720:1T.@pl)
+and:01(114847503:0E.@entry, 109335240:05)
+aoj(:02, 100024720:1T.@pl)
+plc(201856626:0W.@entry, 100024720:1T.@pl)
+obj(201856626:0W.@entry, 600000020:0R.@topic)
+and:02(302265015:1L.@entry, 302903946:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6681]
+{org:en}
+The colloid fraction consists of associations of organic acids, Fe and Al hydroxides, silicic ortho- and meta-acids.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774237:0N.@entry, 103390207:0E.@topic.@def)
+and:01(303162727:2O, 303161903:2G)
+and:03(500323766:21.@entry, 500323522:1U)
+and:02(114914670:24.@entry.@pl, 114607521:1N.@pl)
+mod(114607521:34.@entry.@pl, :01)
+and:01(303162727:2O, 303161903:2G)
+and:03(500323766:21.@entry, 500323522:1U)
+and:02(114914670:24.@entry.@pl, 114607521:1N.@pl)
+mod(114607521:34.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod(101081628:0Z.@pl, :02)
+aoj(303162462:06, 103390207:0E.@topic.@def)
+obj(202774237:0N.@entry, 101081628:0Z.@pl)
+aoj:02(301093142:1F, 114607521:1N.@pl)
+aoj:02(301093142:1F, 114607521:1N.@pl)
+mod:02(114914670:24.@entry.@pl, :03)
+and:01(303162688:2Z.@entry, 303162727:2O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6682]
+{org:en}
+In real soluble states elements migrate in the form of neutral molecules, simple ions and complex compounds which are formed as a result of interactions of simple ions with different charges.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(201856626:0Y.@entry, 103384535:1D.@def)
+obj:01(100039021:3Y.@pl, 109315159:4L.@pl)
+mod(103384535:1D.@def, :01)
+and:01(109315159:2B.@pl, 115694110:1L.@pl)
+aoj(302265015:0A, 105868954:0P.@pl)
+obj:01(600000019:4Q, 100974762:55.@pl)
+man:01(200144850:3C, 600000056:3J)
+obj:01(100039021:3Y.@pl, 109315159:4L.@pl)
+mod(103384535:1D.@def, :01)
+and:01(109315159:2B.@pl, 115694110:1L.@pl)
+aoj(302265015:0A, 105868954:0P.@pl)
+obj:01(600000019:4Q, 100974762:55.@pl)
+man:01(200144850:3C, 600000056:3J)
+aoj(300013662:05, 105868954:0P.@pl)
+aoj:01(301793812:4E, 109315159:4L.@pl)
+obj:01(200144850:3C, 115690892:2K.@entry.@pl)
+plc(201856626:0Y.@entry, 105868954:0P.@pl)
+aoj:01(600000019:4Q, 109315159:4L.@pl)
+and:01(115690892:2K.@entry.@pl, 109315159:2B.@pl)
+aoj:01(600000019:4Q, 109315159:4L.@pl)
+and:01(115690892:2K.@entry.@pl, 109315159:2B.@pl)
+aoj:01(301793812:24, 109315159:2B.@pl)
+mod(105868954:0P.@pl, 100024720:0I.@pl)
+aoj:01(300490413:4V, 100974762:55.@pl)
+obj:01(600000056:3J, 100039021:3Y.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6683]
+{org:en}
+Ions with negative charge are called ligands.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200107231:0W.@entry.@past, 109315159:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000019:07, 100974762:0L)
+obj(600000019:07, 100974762:0L)
+aoj(600000019:07, 109315159:02.@topic.@pl)
+gol(200107231:0W.@entry.@past, 115110307:13.@pl)
+aoj(300075515:0C, 100974762:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6684]
+{org:en}
+Most often an element migrates in several forms—as neutral molecules, ions and complex compounds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201856626:0O.@entry, 400059547:07)
+obj(600000061:1E, :01)
+plc(201856626:0O.@entry, 600000061:1E)
+man(400059547:07, 400536271:02)
+obj(600000061:1E, :01)
+plc(201856626:0O.@entry, 600000061:1E)
+man(400059547:07, 400536271:02)
+plc(201856626:0O.@entry, 103384535:18.@pl)
+and:01(109315159:20.@pl, 115694110:1H.@pl)
+obj(201856626:0O.@entry, 105868954:0G.@topic.@indef)
+and:01(115690892:29.@entry.@pl, 109315159:20.@pl)
+and:01(115690892:29.@entry.@pl, 109315159:20.@pl)
+mod(103384535:18.@pl, 600000059:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6685]
+{org:en}
+Table 3 shows in which forms prevailing elements migrate in subsurface water of different geographic zones.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200923307:0A.@entry, 201856626:1F)
+mod(103384535:0P.@pl, 600000513:0J.@qfocus)
+scn(201856626:1F, 115690282:1Q)
+plc(201856626:1F, 103384535:0P.@pl)
+aoj(301470496:2K, 105611062:2V.@pl)
+mod(103384535:0P.@pl, 600000513:0J.@qfocus)
+scn(201856626:1F, 115690282:1Q)
+plc(201856626:1F, 103384535:0P.@pl)
+aoj(301470496:2K, 105611062:2V.@pl)
+mod(104379243:02.@topic, "3":08)
+aoj(300490413:2A, 105611062:2V.@pl)
+agt(200923307:0A.@entry, 104379243:02.@topic)
+mod(115690282:1Q, 105611062:2V.@pl)
+mod(115690282:1Q, 105611062:2V.@pl)
+obj(201856626:1F, 105868954:16.@pl)
+mod(105868954:16.@pl, 301066787:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6686]
+{org:en}
+The macro-components ( HTM1 , etc.) mostly migrate in the form of simple ions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201856626:1O.@entry, 103081021:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+cnt(103081021:06.@topic.@def.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod(103384535:23.@def, 109315159:2I.@pl)
+cnt(103081021:06.@topic.@def.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod(103384535:23.@def, 109315159:2I.@pl)
+man(201856626:1O.@entry, 400535310:1H)
+and:01(115689145:1B.@entry, HTM1:16)
+scn(201856626:1O.@entry, 103384535:23.@def)
+mod(103081021:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 301388928:05)
+mod(103081021:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 301388928:05)
+aoj(301793812:2B, 109315159:2I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6687]
+{org:en}
+Heavy metals migrate as ions and as complexes with ligands—both organic and mineral.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201856626:0F.@entry, 107065149:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 105870365:12.@pl)
+obj(600000023:0N, 109315159:0Q.@pl)
+and:01(301680559:26.@entry, 301093142:1U)
+aoj(:01, 105870365:12.@pl)
+obj(600000023:0N, 109315159:0Q.@pl)
+and:01(301680559:26.@entry, 301093142:1U)
+man(201856626:0F.@entry, 600000023:0N)
+obj(600000019:1C, 115110307:1H.@pl)
+man(201856626:0F.@entry, 600000023:0Z)
+aoj(600000019:1C, 105870365:12.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:1C, 105870365:12.@pl)
+obj(600000023:0Z, 105870365:12.@pl)
+and:01(301093142:1U, 600000323:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6688]
+{org:en}
+The chemical composition of soil and subsoil waters also obeys the law of geographic zoning.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202542795:1N.@entry, 115669150:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(115669150:06.@topic.@def, :01)
+mod(100611143:1X.@def, 100928751:2F)
+mod(115669150:06.@topic.@def, :01)
+mod(100611143:1X.@def, 100928751:2F)
+man(202542795:1N.@entry, 400047534:1I)
+obj(202542795:1N.@entry, 100611143:1X.@def)
+and:01(115690346:13.@entry.@pl, 109335240:0U)
+and:01(115690346:13.@entry.@pl, 109335240:0U)
+aoj(301470496:24, 100928751:2F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6689]
+{org:en}
+Each climatic zone is characterized by its own set of elements that readily migrate in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202697950:0O.@entry.@past, 108542081:07.@topic)
+obj(201856626:26, 105868954:1K.@pl)
+mod(100625699:1D, 600000016:15)
+mod(108542081:07.@topic, 600000848:02)
+obj(201856626:26, 105868954:1K.@pl)
+mod(100625699:1D, 600000016:15)
+mod(108542081:07.@topic, 600000848:02)
+mod(100625699:1D, 105868954:1K.@pl)
+man(201856626:26, 400161193:1Y)
+aoj(202697950:0O.@entry.@past, 100625699:1D)
+scn(201856626:26, 107935504:2H)
+scn(201856626:26, 107935504:2H)
+mod(100625699:1D, 301768724:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6690]
+{org:en}
+Table 3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "3.":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6691]
+{org:en}
+Main forms of heavy metals in subsurface water in different geographic zones.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103384535:07.@entry.@pl, 107065149:0G.@pl)
+aoj(301470496:1Q, 105611062:21.@pl)
+plc(115690282:0W, 105611062:21.@pl)
+aoj(301470496:1Q, 105611062:21.@pl)
+plc(115690282:0W, 105611062:21.@pl)
+scn(107065149:0G.@pl, 115690282:0W)
+mod(103384535:07.@entry.@pl, 301512527:02)
+aoj(300490413:1G, 105611062:21.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6692]
+{org:en}
+In the permafrost zone soil and subsurface water is mostly in the form of ice.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(202603699:1F.@entry, 105611062:0K.@def)
+and:01(115690282:0Y.@entry.@topic, 109335240:0P.@topic)
+man(103384535:1W.@def, 400535310:1I)
+and:01(115690282:0Y.@entry.@topic, 109335240:0P.@topic)
+man(103384535:1W.@def, 400535310:1I)
+scn(202603699:1F.@entry, 103384535:1W.@def)
+aoj(202603699:1F.@entry, :01)
+mod(105611062:0K.@def, 109390146:09)
+mod(105611062:0K.@def, 109390146:09)
+mod(103384535:1W.@def, 107614198:24)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6693]
+{org:en}
+In tundra water is fresh and ultra-fresh, acid and with high concentrations of HTM1 and organic compounds (up to 220 and 20 mg/l, respectively).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(:05.@entry, 109463226:05)
+qua:04(115669302:3P, :03:03)
+and:02(114727670:2P.@entry.@pl, 100375071:1U.@pl)
+and:01(300205295:11.@entry, 300205295:0L)
+obj:05(600000019:1H.@entry, :02:02)
+and:03("20":3M.@entry, "220":3E)
+man:04(600000086:38.@entry, 400137915:3V)
+qua:04(115669302:3P, :03:03)
+and:02(114727670:2P.@entry.@pl, 100375071:1U.@pl)
+and:01(300205295:11.@entry, 300205295:0L)
+obj:05(600000019:1H.@entry, :02:02)
+and:03("20":3M.@entry, "220":3E)
+man:04(600000086:38.@entry, 400137915:3V)
+and:05(600000019:1H.@entry, 300025470:18)
+obj:04(600000025:3R, 106832356:3S)
+aoj:02(300705498:1P, 100375071:1U.@pl)
+aoj(:05.@entry, 107935504:0C.@topic)
+aoj:04(600000025:3R, 115669302:3P)
+mod:02(100375071:1U.@pl, HTM1:2C)
+aoj:04(600000025:3R, 115669302:3P)
+mod:02(100375071:1U.@pl, HTM1:2C)
+man:01(300205295:11.@entry, 115693187:0V)
+aoj:05(:04.@parenthesis, :02)
+and:05(300025470:18, :01)
+obj:04(600000086:38.@entry, 115669302:3P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6694]
+{org:en}
+The main geochemical barriers are the reductive-oxidative and sorption ones.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000027:21.@entry.@def.@pl, 102796623:0N.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303161173:0B, 102796623:0N.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(600000027:21.@entry.@def.@pl, 113558490:1S)
+aoj(303161173:0B, 102796623:0N.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(600000027:21.@entry.@def.@pl, 113558490:1S)
+aoj(300068883:1E, 600000027:21.@entry.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300050446:14, 600000027:21.@entry.@def.@pl)
+mod(102796623:0N.@topic.@def.@pl, 301512527:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6695]
+{org:en}
+Acid water also dominates in the taiga
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202539334:0L.@entry, 107935504:0A.@topic)
+aoj(300025470:05, 107935504:0A.@topic)
+aoj(300025470:05, 107935504:0A.@topic)
+man(202539334:0L.@entry, 400047534:0G)
+scn(202539334:0L.@entry, 115668844:12.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6696]
+{org:en}
+carbonaceous rocks tend to have neutral water with low mineralization (less than 0.3 g/l) and high concentrations of HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202439047:1Z.@entry, 115693415:1G.@topic.@pl)
+qua:02(115689274:2Z, :01:01.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000019:2Q, :02)
+obj:01(600000025:3U, 106832356:3V)
+aoj(600000019:2Q, 107935504:2K)
+aoj:01(600000025:3U, 106831819:3T)
+aoj:02(300705498:42, 100375071:47.@pl)
+qua:02(115689274:2Z, :01:01.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000019:2Q, :02)
+obj:01(600000025:3U, 106832356:3V)
+aoj(600000019:2Q, 107935504:2K)
+aoj:01(600000025:3U, 106831819:3T)
+aoj:02(300705498:42, 100375071:47.@pl)
+obj(200065370:27, 107935504:2K)
+man:01(400099868:3F.@entry, 400099341:5P)
+obj:02(100375071:47.@pl.@entry, HTM1:4P)
+pur(202439047:1Z.@entry, 200065370:27)
+bas:01(400099868:3F.@entry, 106831819:3T)
+and:02(100375071:47.@pl.@entry, 115689274:2Z)
+bas:01(400099868:3F.@entry, 106831819:3T)
+and:02(100375071:47.@pl.@entry, 115689274:2Z)
+aoj(300359160:2C, 107935504:2K)
+mod:01(106831819:3T, "0.3":3P)
+aoj:02(301206474:2V, 115689274:2Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6697]
+{org:en}
+Heavy metals are a bit higher than in tundra, and their migration capacity is high.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300705498:28.@entry, 300705498:0P)
+aoj(300705498:0P, 107065149:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100720951:1W.@topic, 101123095:1M)
+aoj(300705498:0P, 107065149:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100720951:1W.@topic, 101123095:1M)
+mod(100720951:1W.@topic, 600000020:1G.@pl)
+man(300705498:0P, 400099341:2C)
+aoj(300705498:28.@entry, 100720951:1W.@topic)
+man(300705498:0P, 400501140:0J)
+man(300705498:0P, 400501140:0J)
+scn(300705498:0P, 109463226:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6698]
+{org:en}
+The concentrations of organic compounds in soil and subsoil water may reach 25 mg/l, and the main compounds are humic acids and low molecular weight acids, amino acids, sugars, alcohols, ethers, carbonyl compounds, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(:03.@entry, 200743344:20.@may)
+obj(200743344:20.@may, 100375071:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:03(107884567:4Z.@pl, 107859284:4R.@pl)
+mod(100375071:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 114727670:0O.@pl)
+and:03(115693417:5H.@pl, 103299929:59.@pl)
+aoj(600000025:2B, 115669302:29)
+and:03(115694000:3M.@pl, 114909120:36.@pl)
+obj(200743344:20.@may, 100375071:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:03(107884567:4Z.@pl, 107859284:4R.@pl)
+mod(100375071:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 114727670:0O.@pl)
+and:03(115693417:5H.@pl, 103299929:59.@pl)
+aoj(600000025:2B, 115669302:29)
+and:03(115694000:3M.@pl, 114909120:36.@pl)
+and:03(115689145:61.@entry, 115693417:5H.@pl)
+qua(115669302:29, "25":26)
+and:03(114601829:4E.@pl, 115694000:3M.@pl)
+and:01(115690346:1I.@entry, 109335240:19)
+aoj(:03.@entry, 103081859:2S.@topic.@def.@pl)
+gol(200743344:20.@may, 115669302:29)
+and:03(107859284:4R.@pl, 114601829:4E.@pl)
+gol(200743344:20.@may, 115669302:29)
+and:03(107859284:4R.@pl, 114601829:4E.@pl)
+scn(114727670:0O.@pl, :01:01)
+and:03(103299929:59.@pl, 107884567:4Z.@pl)
+obj(600000025:2B, 106832356:2C)
+mod(103081859:2S.@topic.@def.@pl, 301512527:2N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6699]
+{org:en}
+Geochemical barrier is a sorption one, and in areas of carbonaceous rocks, a carbonaceous barrier.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000027:10.@indef.@entry, 102796623:0E.@topic)
+aoj(302863724:27, 102796623:2K.@entry.@indef)
+and(102796623:2K.@entry.@indef, :00)
+aoj(302863724:27, 102796623:2K.@entry.@indef)
+and(102796623:2K.@entry.@indef, :00)
+aoj(303161173:02, 102796623:0E.@topic)
+mod(600000027:10.@indef.@entry, 113558490:0R)
+mod(102735688:1C.@pl, 115693415:1L.@pl)
+mod(102735688:1C.@pl, 115693415:1L.@pl)
+plc(102796623:2K.@entry.@indef, 102735688:1C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6700]
+{org:en}
+In forest-steppe and steppe, water is generally neutral and alkaline, well mineralized and with few organic compounds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(:03.@entry, :01:01)
+cnt:01(108438533:05, 109445289:0C)
+and:03(303161257:25, :02)
+obj:03(600000019:2L.@entry, 114727670:2U.@pl)
+man:02(300359160:1E, 400041954:14)
+cnt:01(108438533:05, 109445289:0C)
+and:03(303161257:25, :02)
+obj:03(600000019:2L.@entry, 114727670:2U.@pl)
+man:02(300359160:1E, 400041954:14)
+and:03(600000019:2L.@entry, 303161257:25)
+and:02(300025728:1Q.@entry, 300359160:1E)
+aoj(:03.@entry, 107935504:0V.@topic)
+man:03(303161257:25, 400011093:20)
+man:03(303161257:25, 400011093:20)
+qua:03(114727670:2U.@pl, 600000106:2Q)
+and:01(109445289:0N.@entry, 109445289:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6701]
+{org:en}
+Table 4 shows the different migration capacity of elements in different geographic zones.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0A.@entry, 104379243:02.@topic)
+plc(105868954:1G.@pl, 105611062:2D.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:0K, 100720951:14.@def)
+mod(104379243:02.@topic, "4":08)
+plc(105868954:1G.@pl, 105611062:2D.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:0K, 100720951:14.@def)
+mod(104379243:02.@topic, "4":08)
+mod(100720951:14.@def, 105868954:1G.@pl)
+aoj(301470496:22, 105611062:2D.@pl)
+obj(200923307:0A.@entry, 100720951:14.@def)
+aoj(300490413:1S, 105611062:2D.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:1S, 105611062:2D.@pl)
+mod(100720951:14.@def, 101123095:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6702]
+{org:en}
+Clearly, alterations in reductive-oxidative and soda-and-acid conditions, which are observed in marshes, changes the mobility of elements.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200109660:36.@entry, 400039058:02)
+plc(200732552:2L, 109347779:2X.@pl)
+plc(100199707:0B.@topic.@pl, 105798863:1Z.@pl)
+mod(104773351:3I.@def, 105868954:3U.@pl)
+and:01(114607521:1Q.@entry, 115668972:1H)
+plc(200732552:2L, 109347779:2X.@pl)
+plc(100199707:0B.@topic.@pl, 105798863:1Z.@pl)
+mod(104773351:3I.@def, 105868954:3U.@pl)
+and:01(114607521:1Q.@entry, 115668972:1H)
+obj(200109660:36.@entry, 104773351:3I.@def)
+and:02(:01.@entry, 300068883:10)
+agt(200109660:36.@entry, 100199707:0B.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105798863:1Z.@pl, :02)
+mod(105798863:1Z.@pl, :02)
+obj(200732552:2L, 100199707:0B.@topic.@pl)
+and:02(300068883:10, 300050446:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6703]
+{org:en}
+Table 4.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "4.":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6704]
+{org:en}
+Elements' mobility in soil and subsoil water of different types of landscapes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(104773351:0C.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj(300490413:1E, 104504486:1O.@pl)
+and:01(115690346:0X.@entry, 109335240:0O)
+aoj(300490413:1E, 104504486:1O.@pl)
+and:01(115690346:0X.@entry, 109335240:0O)
+mod(:01, 104504486:1O.@pl)
+mod(104773351:0C.@entry, 105868954:02)
+mod(104504486:1O.@pl, 103640011:1X.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6705]
+{org:en}
+Source
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+104263614:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6706]
+{org:en}
+M.A. Glazovskaya.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323392:09.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6707]
+{org:en}
+Longitudinal hydrochemical zoning of soil and subsurface water arises under the influence of landscape, climate, hydrodynamic and lithological factors.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200339738:1T.@entry, 100928751:0T.@topic)
+mod(100928751:0T.@topic, 303160971:0F)
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+aoj(302692624:0K, 100928751:0T.@topic)
+and:02(303163445:3O.@entry, 302979995:37)
+and:03(105858317:41.@entry.@pl, 114519366:2Y)
+aoj(301440776:02, 100928751:0T.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6708]
+{org:en}
+In a number of cases petrochemical composition of rocks may interrupt the zoning of subsurface water composition.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200364064:1Q.@entry.@may, 102974697:0H.@indef.@pl)
+obj(103081660:11.@topic, 100348008:1G.@pl)
+mod(100928751:24.@def, 103081660:2V)
+obj(103081660:11.@topic, 100348008:1G.@pl)
+mod(100928751:24.@def, 103081660:2V)
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+qua(102974697:0H.@indef.@pl, 600000054:07)
+agt(200364064:1Q.@entry.@may, 103081660:11.@topic)
+aoj(303163583:0N, 103081660:11.@topic)
+aoj(303163583:0N, 103081660:11.@topic)
+mod(103081660:2V, 115690282:2E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6709]
+{org:en}
+From tundra to steppe and semi-desert, and from rain forest to dry savanna, water exchange drops
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200057764:2O.@entry, :04)
+aoj:02(300799953:1W, 108645847:20.@entry)
+and:04(:02.@entry, :03)
+mod:01(108505573:10.@entry, 303161901:0V)
+aoj:02(300799953:1W, 108645847:20.@entry)
+and:04(:02.@entry, :03)
+mod:01(108505573:10.@entry, 303161901:0V)
+mod(100167063:2F.@topic, 107935504:29)
+and:01(108505573:10.@entry, 109445289:0K)
+obj(200057764:2O.@entry, 100167063:2F.@topic)
+fmt:03(:01.@entry, 109463226:0A)
+fmt:03(:01.@entry, 109463226:0A)
+fmt:02(108645847:20.@entry, 115695940:1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6710]
+{org:en}
+contact of water with rocks and the ratio rocks/contiguous water increase.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:4V.@entry, 100039297:32.@topic)
+aoj:05(600000025:4D, 100348008:48.@entry.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000019:3J, :05)
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+aoj(600000019:3J, 107935504:3D)
+obj:05(600000025:4D, 107935504:4P)
+obj(100039297:32.@topic, 107935504:3D)
+mod:05(100348008:48.@entry.@def.@pl, 113819207:42)
+mod:05(100348008:48.@entry.@def.@pl, 113819207:42)
+and:05(100348008:48.@entry.@def.@pl, 100348008:3O.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6711]
+{org:en}
+Water mineralization increases with permanent changes from bicarbonate-silicon water rich in iron and silicon to bicarbonate-calcium and magnesia, and bicarbonate-calcium-sodium waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:0N.@entry, 115689274:08.@topic)
+and:01(114654541:2W.@entry, 103584829:2N)
+aoj(301754421:12, 100191142:1C.@pl)
+and:02(115301335:3V.@entry, 114632648:3J)
+src(100191142:1C.@pl, 107935504:29)
+mod:03(107935504:50.@entry.@pl, 114655371:4T)
+mod(107935504:29, 114654541:21)
+and:01(114654541:2W.@entry, 103584829:2N)
+aoj(301754421:12, 100191142:1C.@pl)
+and:02(115301335:3V.@entry, 114632648:3J)
+src(100191142:1C.@pl, 107935504:29)
+mod:03(107935504:50.@entry.@pl, 114655371:4T)
+mod(107935504:29, 114654541:21)
+obj(600000018:0X, 100191142:1C.@pl)
+mod:03(107935504:50.@entry.@pl, 114775729:49)
+mod(107935504:29, 114775729:1P)
+mod(115689274:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+man(200153263:0N.@entry, 600000018:0X)
+and:03(107935504:50.@entry.@pl, :02)
+aoj(303161590:2F, 107935504:29)
+and:03(107935504:50.@entry.@pl, :02)
+aoj(303161590:2F, 107935504:29)
+cnt:02(114775729:37, 114632648:3J)
+gol(100191142:1C.@pl, :03)
+cnt:03(114775729:49, 114632648:4L)
+obj(303161590:2F, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6712]
+{org:en}
+Concentrations of organic compounds in water and the number of biogenic elements entering water during the process of vegetation decay decline in the same direction.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200431826:3T.@entry, :01:01.@topic)
+mod:01(111444643:3N, 101065057:3C)
+aoj:01(300901161:1T, 105868954:22.@entry.@pl)
+and:01(103835412:1J.@def.@topic.@entry, 100375071:02.@topic.@pl)
+gol:01(201082606:2B.@progress, 107935504:2K)
+mod:01(111444643:3N, 101065057:3C)
+aoj:01(300901161:1T, 105868954:22.@entry.@pl)
+and:01(103835412:1J.@def.@topic.@entry, 100375071:02.@topic.@pl)
+gol:01(201082606:2B.@progress, 107935504:2K)
+aoj(300355611:48, 106197215:4D)
+plc:01(114727670:0K.@pl, 107935504)
+dur:01(201082606:2B.@progress, 100029677:31.@def)
+scn(200431826:3T.@entry, 106197215:4D)
+mod:01(100375071:02.@pl.@topic, 114727670:0K.@pl)
+obj:01(201082606:2B.@progress, 105868954:22.@entry.@pl)
+mod:01(100375071:02.@pl.@topic, 114727670:0K.@pl)
+obj:01(201082606:2B.@progress, 105868954:22.@entry.@pl)
+mod:01(103835412:1J.@def.@topic.@entry, 105868954:22.@entry.@pl)
+mod:01(100029677:31.@def, 111444643:3N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6713]
+{org:en}
+The influence of physico-chemical factors such as weathering of rocks increases, and the influence of soil water chemical composition on subsurface water decreases.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200151689:4C.@entry, 200153263:20)
+obj(600000029:18, 115669040:1G)
+mod(115669150:37, 107935504:31)
+plc(115669150:37, 115690282:3V)
+aoj(600000029:18, 105858317:10.@pl)
+obj(600000029:18, 115669040:1G)
+mod(115669150:37, 107935504:31)
+plc(115669150:37, 115690282:3V)
+aoj(600000029:18, 105858317:10.@pl)
+obj(100157081:2J.@topic.@def, 115669150:37)
+obj(100157081:06.@topic.@def, 105858317:10.@pl)
+obj(200151689:4C.@entry, 100157081:2J.@topic.@def)
+obj(115669040:1G, 100348008:1U.@pl)
+obj(200153263:20, 100157081:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(115669040:1G, 100348008:1U.@pl)
+obj(200153263:20, 100157081:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(115669150:37, 109335240:2W)
+aoj(303161875:0J, 105858317:10.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6714]
+{org:en}
+The chemical composition of deeper water depends on mainly the interactions between water and rock.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:17.@entry, 115669150:06.@topic.@def)
+and:01(100348008:2O.@entry, 107935504:2E)
+aoj(600000024:26, 100039021:1T.@def.@pl)
+man(300149120:0U, 400099341:2R)
+and:01(100348008:2O.@entry, 107935504:2E)
+aoj(600000024:26, 100039021:1T.@def.@pl)
+man(300149120:0U, 400099341:2R)
+man(202663848:17.@entry, 400535216:1I)
+aoj(300149120:0U, 107935504:11)
+obj(202663848:17.@entry, 100039021:1T.@def.@pl)
+mod(115669150:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:11)
+mod(115669150:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:11)
+obj(600000024:26, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6715]
+{org:en}
+The strength of the interaction is mostly determined by the duration of contact between water and rock, and the duration depends on water exchange intensity of the given hydrogeological structure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202663848:3F.@entry, 200699815:18)
+agt(200699815:18, 105051249:1Q.@def)
+mod(100167063:3W, 107935504:3Q)
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+mod(105036394:45, 104931965:58.@def)
+aoj(600000024:2A, 100039297:22)
+aoj(302905591:4X, 104931965:58.@def)
+agt(200699815:18, 105051249:1Q.@def)
+mod(100167063:3W, 107935504:3Q)
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+mod(105036394:45, 104931965:58.@def)
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+aoj(302905591:4X, 104931965:58.@def)
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+mod(104931965:58.@def, 303160971:4S)
+aoj(202663848:3F.@entry, 105051249:36.@topic.@def)
+man(200699815:18, 400535310:11)
+mod(104931965:58.@def, 300028280:4M)
+man(200699815:18, 400535310:11)
+mod(104931965:58.@def, 300028280:4M)
+mod(105029706:06.@topic.@def, 100039021:0M.@def)
+mod(105036394:45, 100167063:3W)
+obj(600000024:2A, :01)
+obj(200699815:18, 105029706:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6716]
+{org:en}
+In a zone of active water exchange the hydrogeological structure is actively washed out
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200280112:2A.@entry, 104931965:1O.@topic.@def)
+mod(105611062:0A.@indef, 100167063:0V.@entry)
+mod(104931965:1O.@topic.@def, 303160971:18)
+mod(105611062:0A.@indef, 100167063:0V.@entry)
+mod(104931965:1O.@topic.@def, 303160971:18)
+plc(200280112:2A.@entry, 105611062:0A.@indef)
+mod(100167063:0V.@entry, 107935504:0P)
+man(200280112:2A.@entry, 400079617:21)
+aoj(300031974:0I, 100167063:0V.@entry)
+aoj(300031974:0I, 100167063:0V.@entry)
+aoj(302905591:1D, 104931965:1O.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6717]
+{org:en}
+intensive leaching of chlorides and sulfates occurs, fresh bicarbonate water is formed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200144850:51.@entry, 200723349:42)
+obj(115669517:33.@topic, :01:01)
+mod(107935504:4S.@topic, 114775729:4G)
+obj(115669517:33.@topic, :01:01)
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+aoj(300205295:4A, 107935504:4S.@topic)
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+obj(200144850:51.@entry, 107935504:4S.@topic)
+aoj(301512275:2T, 115669517:33.@topic)
+aoj(301512275:2T, 115669517:33.@topic)
+obj(200723349:42, 115669517:33.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6718]
+{org:en}
+This is a zone of river network drainage.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105611062:0C.@entry.@indef, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(103820474:0K, 109411430:0J)
+mod(103820474:0K, 109411430:0J)
+mod(115668933:0Y, 103820474:0K)
+mod(105611062:0C.@entry.@indef, 115668933:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6719]
+{org:en}
+The zone typically consists of medium-sized intermountain basins—often artesian basins supply areas.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774237:0L.@entry, 102735688:2P.@pl)
+aoj(302223659:0X, 102801525:1O.@pl)
+mod(102735688:2P.@pl, 113563522:2I)
+aoj(300098933:22, 102801525:2B.@pl)
+aoj(302223659:0X, 102801525:1O.@pl)
+mod(102735688:2P.@pl, 113563522:2I)
+aoj(300098933:22, 102801525:2B.@pl)
+man(202774237:0L.@entry, 400128168:0B)
+aoj(102801525:2B.@pl, 102801525:1O.@pl)
+aoj(202774237:0L.@entry, 105611062:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(303163397:1A, 102801525:1O.@pl)
+aoj(303163397:1A, 102801525:1O.@pl)
+mod(102735688:2P.@pl, 102801525:1O.@pl)
+man(300098933:22, 400059547:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6720]
+{org:en}
+In the zone of slow water exchange the deeper water-bearing rocks have the worst water exchange characteristics and lowest water velocity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200065370:1W.@entry, 105611062:09.@def)
+aoj(300149120:15, 100348008:1Q.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(115689301:3K.@entry, 107935504:3E)
+aoj(300980527:0H, 100167063:0S)
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+obj(300217297:1C, 107935504:1D)
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+mod(100348008:1Q.@topic.@def.@pl, 300217297:1C)
+aoj:01(300478311:25, 104731497:2Q.@pl)
+mod(100348008:1Q.@topic.@def.@pl, 300217297:1C)
+aoj:01(300478311:25, 104731497:2Q.@pl)
+mod(100167063:0S.@entry, 107935504:0M)
+aoj:01(301206474:3A, 115689301:3K.@entry)
+mod(105611062:09.@def, 100167063:0S)
+man:01(300478311:25, 400536271:5N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6721]
+{org:en}
+This zone is up to 500 m deep in artesian basins on plateaus and up to 1000 to 2000 m deep in folded structures.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300149120:2G.@entry, 300149120:0R)
+man(300149120:0R, 600000047:0F)
+qua(106832464:2E, :01:01)
+mod(105611062:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
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+plc(102801525:18.@pl, 109453008:1I.@pl)
+aoj(300149120:0R, 105611062:07.@topic)
+man(300149120:0R, 600000047:0F)
+qua(106832464:2E, :01:01)
+mod(105611062:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+man(300149120:2G.@entry, 600000047:1V)
+plc(102801525:18.@pl, 109453008:1I.@pl)
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+scn(300149120:2G.@entry, 104931965:2V.@pl)
+qua(106832464:0P, "500":0L)
+aoj(303162213:2O, 104931965:2V.@pl)
+aoj(300149120:2G.@entry, 105611062:07.@topic)
+obj(600000047:0F, 106832464:0P)
+fmt:01("2000":29.@entry, "1000":21)
+obj(600000047:0F, 106832464:0P)
+fmt:01("2000":29.@entry, "1000":21)
+obj(600000047:1V, 106832464:2E)
+aoj(300098933:0Z, 102801525:18.@pl)
+plc(300149120:0R, 102801525:18.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6722]
+{org:en}
+Bicarbonate sulfate-chloride water is a specific trait of this zone.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104616059:1F.@entry.@indef, 107935504:0V.@topic)
+cnt(115063493:0E, 115016852:0M)
+mod(105611062:1T, 600000017:1O)
+cnt(115063493:0E, 115016852:0M)
+mod(105611062:1T, 600000017:1O)
+aoj(301099951:16, 104616059:1F.@entry.@indef)
+mod(104616059:1F.@entry.@indef, 105611062:1T)
+mod(115063493:0E, 114775729:02)
+mod(115063493:0E, 114775729:02)
+mod(107935504:0V.@topic, 115016852:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6723]
+{org:en}
+In the zone of difficult water exchange water velocity is less than 1 mm/year.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(400099868:1V.@entry, 105611062:0C.@def)
+obj(600000025:29, 115201505:2A)
+qua(115698866:27, "1":25)
+aoj(300744916:0K, 100167063:10)
+obj(600000025:29, 115201505:2A)
+qua(115698866:27, "1":25)
+aoj(300744916:0K, 100167063:10)
+bas(400099868:1V.@entry, 115698866:27)
+mod(105611062:0C.@def, 100167063:10)
+qua(115689301:1J.@topic, 400099868:1V.@entry)
+mod(115689301:1J.@topic, 107935504:1D)
+mod(115689301:1J.@topic, 107935504:1D)
+aoj(600000025:29, 115698866:27)
+mod(100167063:10, 107935504:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6724]
+{org:en}
+Deep sedimentary complexes containing ancient buried highly-mineralized chlorine-sodium-calcium brines belong to this zone
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202719930:2X.@entry, 105870365:0J.@topic.@pl)
+mod(107937203:2Q.@pl, 114632648:2I)
+aoj(302952109:07, 105870365:0J.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(202701210:0T.@progress, 105870365:0J.@topic.@pl)
+man(303161257:1Q, 400089267:1J)
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+aoj(303161257:1Q, 107937203:2Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6725]
+{org:en}
+in hydrogeological massifs bicarbonate sodium water is often formed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(302905591:3R, 109348460:42.@pl)
+mod(114655371:4M, 114775729:4A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6726]
+{org:en}
+In Table 5 the relationship between vertical hydrodynamic and hydrochemical zoning of hydrogeological structures is clearly traced.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(302979995:1B, 100928751:26)
+aoj(302905591:2L, 104931965:2W.@pl)
+aoj(302979995:1B, 100928751:26)
+obj(600000024:0U, 100928751:26)
+aoj(302692624:1X, 100928751:26)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6727]
+{org:en}
+Table 5.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "5.":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6728]
+{org:en}
+Changes in water exchange characteristics of geological structures.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(100191142:02.@entry.@pl, 104731497:0S.@pl)
+mod(104731497:0S.@pl, 100167063:0J)
+mod(104731497:0S.@pl, 100167063:0J)
+mod(104731497:0S.@pl, 107935504:0D)
+mod(104731497:0S.@pl, 104931965:1M.@pl)
+aoj(302905591:1B, 104931965:1M.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6729]
+{org:en}
+Source
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+104263614:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6730]
+{org:en}
+S.L. Shwartsev.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323156:0A.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6731]
+{org:en}
+The deeper the water is located, the slower is the water exchange, and the higher its mineralization.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6732]
+{org:en}
+Gas and chemical compositions change significantly with depth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000018:1H, 105094725:1M)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6733]
+{org:en}
+In artesian basins bicarbonate waters gives place to chlorine-sodium water, and concentrations of organic compounds and microelements increase.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200153263:3R.@entry, 202775109:19)
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+
+[S:6734]
+{org:en}
+The main cause of these changes is the merging of infiltration water into sedimentation water, with depth.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:6735]
+{org:en}
+The chemical composition of the water takes on great significance.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(202775803:14.@entry, 105169813:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6736]
+{org:en}
+In artesian basins where the mantle is composed of salt-bearing sediments, brines can have very high mineralization—more than 270 g/l (in the plains of Siberia, Eastern European, North America, China and elsewhere).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300705498:2Q, 115689274:2V)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6737]
+{org:en}
+Most researchers believe that initial source of deep brines is sea water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301011973:0Z, 104263614:17.@topic)
+aoj(115693081:1W, 104263614:17.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6738]
+{org:en}
+As a result of long term metamorphosis and complex interaction between rocks and solutions, brines are formed with ion-salt compositions very different from sea water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200144850:2X.@entry, 600000056:02)
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+obj(600000056:02, :02:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6739]
+{org:en}
+The problem of the origin of different deep brines has not yet been solved.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300490413:0V, 107937203:1A.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6740]
+{org:en}
+Groundwater biological characteristics.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104731497:0S.@entry.@pl, 115669379:05)
+aoj(301405904:0H, 104731497:0S.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6741]
+{org:en}
+Soil is rich in microelements.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161590:0A.@entry, 109335240:02.@topic)
+obj(303161590:0A.@entry, 115690208:0I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6742]
+{org:en}
+In fertile soils the biomass of microorganisms may reach several tons per hectare.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200743344:1H.@entry.@may, 109335240:0D.@pl)
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+mod(105024691:0N.@topic.@def, 101326291:0Y.@pl)
+mod(115668835:1V.@pl, 600000059:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6743]
+{org:en}
+In soil and ground water concentrations of bacteria, fungi and protozoa may be up to 500 000 or more in 1 ml of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000047:29.@entry.@may, 115668729:30)
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+mod(100375071:0R.@pl, 114847503:0E)
+mod(100375071:0R.@pl, :01)
+qua(107935504:36, 115668729:30)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6744]
+{org:en}
+The number of cells depends mainly on the presence of nutrients, especially organic compounds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0M.@entry, 103835412:06.@def.@topic)
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+obj(400535221:1V, 114727670:26.@entry.@pl)
+mod(103835412:06.@def.@topic, 100006484:0G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6745]
+{org:en}
+Microflora is a main factor of decay of organic compounds entering soil, particularly from leaf fall and root excretions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105858317:0N.@entry.@indef, 111530008:02.@topic)
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+and:01(115669367:34.@entry.@pl, 100076884:2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6746]
+{org:en}
+At the same time soil microflora deposits nutrients in its own biomass, not letting them leach from the soil profile.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(100021734:18.@entry.@pl, 400535235:02)
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+obj(200496673:26.@progress.@not, 600000020:2E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6747]
+{org:en}
+Microflora development occurs in capillaries (with a diameter of more than 1 micrometer) filled with water, and microflora even exists in physically bound water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{org:en}
+The ecological role of microflora is not confined, however, just to mineralization of organic substances and nurient deposition.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Interaction of plants with several kinds of fungi facilitates uptake of phosphorus compounds that would otherwise be difficult to access.
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+{org:en}
+There are bacteria that concentrate sulfur in their cells (sulfur-bacteria)—also iron hydroxides (iron-bacteria), and other elements.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+A lot of iron, sulfur and manganese deposits were formed by the activity of microorganisms.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6753]
+{org:en}
+During the decomposition of organic compounds, water becomes enriched with carbonic gas, hydrocarbonate-ions, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, organic acids, carbohydrates and other compounds.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+In waterlogged soils there is a decrease in reductive-oxidative potential, and growth of anaerobic bacteria that can use nitrates, sulfates, carbonic acid, and organic compounds as oxygen sources.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:6755]
+{org:en}
+Their activity produces gases such as nitrogen, nitrous oxide, hydrogen sulfide, and methane.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6756]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the activity of microorganisms has a powerful influence on the geochemical situation of ground water, thereby influencing the migration of chemical elements.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6757]
+{org:en}
+Anthropogenic influence on ground water chemistry.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6758]
+{org:en}
+Ground water is widely used as a source of household and drinking water supply.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+It has several advantages over surface water
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+it is less vulnerable to pollution
+{/org}
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+it has better composition and smaller seasonal change.
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+{org:en}
+The share of ground water in household and drinking water supply is approximately 60% in European countries, 75% in the USA, and 35% in Russia.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+A lot of economic activities, such as fertilizer application, deforestation, construction, and mining, lead to deterioration of ground water quality.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Mineralization increases, with elevated levels of sulfates, chlorides, biogenic elements, heavy metals, and pesticides.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Contamination of ground water by oil and related products in areas of oil production, refining, storage and transportation represents a serious danger.
+{/org}
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+Rehabilitation work in the USA has shown that, despite enormous financial expenditure, it is impossible to achieve complete remediation of past oil pollution.
+{/org}
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+agt(200923307:11.@entry.@complete, 115694303:02.@topic)
+aoj(301385255:1O, 115689361:27)
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+aoj(301385255:1O, 115689361:27)
+obj(115693044:3L, 114516743:49)
+aoj(301823092:2Q, 202526085:34)
+mod(114516743:49, 103843092:45)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6767]
+{org:en}
+Usually ground water contamination has a local character and only in a few cases does the polluted area reach dozens of square kilometers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200743344:2Y.@entry.@emphasis, 200065370:11)
+aoj(200065370:11, 100276987:0N.@topic)
+qua(115690839:3E.@pl, 400305683:34)
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+aoj(200065370:11, 100276987:0N.@topic)
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+obj(200743344:2Y.@entry.@emphasis, 102735688:2T.@topic.@def)
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+qua(102974697:25.@indef.@pl, 600000106:21)
+man(200743344:2Y.@entry.@emphasis, 600000093:52)
+aoj(301106405:17, 104616916:1D.@indef)
+obj(600000093:52, 102974697:25.@indef.@pl)
+man(200743344:2Y.@entry.@emphasis, 400535197:1R)
+obj(200065370:11, 104616916:1D.@indef)
+obj(200492706:2K, 102735688:2T.@topic.@def)
+obj(200065370:11, 104616916:1D.@indef)
+obj(200492706:2K, 102735688:2T.@topic.@def)
+gol(200743344:2Y.@entry.@emphasis, 115690839:3E.@pl)
+man(200065370:11, 400535718:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6768]
+{org:en}
+;According to data from the State water cadastre of Russia, in the year 2000, only in 24 cases of ground water pollution was the area more than 100 HTM1 , out of 2776 cases.According to data from the State water cadastre of Russia, in the year 2000, only in 24 cases of ground water pollution was the area more than 100 square kilometer , out of 2776 cases.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(102735688:3M.@entry.@past.@def, 600000046:02)
+mod(106502192:15.@def, 107935504:0Z)
+qua(102974697:4M.@pl, "2776":4H)
+aoj(600000235:4A, 102735688:3M.@entry.@past.@def)
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+man(102735688:3M.@entry.@past.@def, 600000093:7D)
+qua(102974697:2I.@pl, "24":2F)
+qua(115690839:45, "100":41)
+mod(106502192:15.@def, 107935504:0Z)
+qua(102974697:4M.@pl, "2776":4H)
+aoj(600000235:4A, 102735688:3M.@entry.@past.@def)
+obj(600000046:02, 108462320:0F.@pl)
+man(102735688:3M.@entry.@past.@def, 600000093:7D)
+qua(102974697:2I.@pl, "24":2F)
+qua(115690839:45, "100":41)
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+man(102735688:3M.@entry.@past.@def, 400535197:27)
+qua(114847503:2R, 102974697:2I.@pl)
+bas(400099341:3R, 115690839:45)
+mod(106502192:15.@def, 500004285:1H)
+tim(102735688:3M.@entry.@past.@def, 115201505:1W.@def)
+obj(600000093:7D, 102974697:2I.@pl)
+qua(102735688:3M.@entry.@past.@def, 400099341:3R)
+obj(600000093:7D, 102974697:2I.@pl)
+qua(102735688:3M.@entry.@past.@def, 400099341:3R)
+frm(108462320:0F.@pl, 106502192:15.@def)
+aoj(102735688:3M.@entry.@past.@def, 114516743:34.@topic)
+mod(115201505:1W.@def, "2000":21)
+obj(600000235:4A, 102974697:4M.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6769]
+{org:en}
+It should be noted that more than 70% of cases of contamination are concerned only with the uppermost aquifer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201020005:0F.@entry.@should.@past, :01:01.@topic)
+mod:01(109201998:2Z.@def, 303162895:2P)
+man:01(202678438:21.@entry.@past, 400535197:2B)
+bas:01(400099341:0T, "%":15)
+mod:01(109201998:2Z.@def, 303162895:2P)
+man:01(202678438:21.@entry.@past, 400535197:2B)
+bas:01(400099341:0T, "%":15)
+man:01(202678438:21.@entry.@past, 600000018:2G)
+qua:01(102974697:1A.@entry.@pl, 400099341:0T)
+obj:01(202678438:21.@entry.@past, 100276987:1J.@topic)
+qua:01(100276987:1J.@topic, 102974697:1A.@entry.@pl)
+qua:01(100276987:1J.@topic, 102974697:1A.@entry.@pl)
+obj:01(600000018:2G, 109201998:2Z.@def)
+qua:01("%":15, "70":13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6770]
+{org:en}
+Vulnerability of aquifers to economic activity and, in particular, pollution, is not the same.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300355611:2J.@entry.@not, 105042871:02.@topic)
+aoj:01(300840212:0V, 100407535:14)
+and:01(114516743:1X.@entry, 100407535:14)
+aoj:01(300840212:0V, 100407535:14)
+and:01(114516743:1X.@entry, 100407535:14)
+to(109201998:0J.@pl, :01:01)
+obj(105042871:02.@topic, 109201998:0J.@pl)
+man:01(114516743:1X.@entry, 400535321:1I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6771]
+{org:en}
+Pressure aquifers with a clayey bed are better protected from the penetration of contaminants from the Earth's surface.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201128193:1D.@entry.@past, 109201998:0B.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104362025:35.@def, 108562067:2X)
+obj(100051525:1W.@def, 114821984:2B.@pl)
+obj(600000019:0K, 102818832:0Y.@indef)
+mod(104362025:35.@def, 108562067:2X)
+obj(100051525:1W.@def, 114821984:2B.@pl)
+obj(600000019:0K, 102818832:0Y.@indef)
+man(201128193:1D.@entry.@past, 105143558:16)
+mod(109201998:0B.@topic.@pl, 100113113:02)
+src(201128193:1D.@entry.@past, 100051525:1W.@def)
+aoj(600000019:0K, 109201998:0B.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:0K, 109201998:0B.@topic.@pl)
+frm(114821984:2B.@pl, 104362025:35.@def)
+aoj(300502487:0R, 102818832:0Y.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6772]
+{org:en}
+Subsoil waters are more vulnerable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302326482:0Q.@entry, 115690346:02.@topic.@pl)
+man(400099341:0L, 400099341:0Z)
+man(302326482:0Q.@entry, 400099341:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6773]
+{org:en}
+Ground water vulnerability is a characteristic of natural systems where water quality is within established standards for a given period of time.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104731497:0Y.@entry.@indef, 105042871:0F.@topic)
+mod(106843520:3O.@indef, 300028280:3I)
+aoj(600000006:2J, 104723816:28.@topic)
+plc(600000006:2J, 104377057:1G.@pl)
+mod(104301140:32.@pl, 301035422:2Q)
+mod(106843520:3O.@indef, 300028280:3I)
+aoj(600000006:2J, 104723816:28.@topic)
+plc(600000006:2J, 104377057:1G.@pl)
+mod(104301140:32.@pl, 301035422:2Q)
+mod(104377057:1G.@pl, 301335708:1F)
+mod(105042871:0F.@topic, 114847503:02)
+dur(104301140:32.@pl, 106843520:3O.@indef)
+mod(104731497:0Y.@entry.@indef, 104377057:1G.@pl)
+mod(104723816:28.@topic, 107935504:22)
+obj(600000006:2J, 104301140:32.@pl)
+mod(104723816:28.@topic, 107935504:22)
+obj(600000006:2J, 104301140:32.@pl)
+mod(106843520:3O.@indef, 100028270:3Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6774]
+{org:en}
+Ground water vulnerability depends on many factors
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0T.@entry, 105042871:0F.@topic)
+mod(105042871:0F.@topic, 114847503:02)
+mod(105042871:0F.@topic, 114847503:02)
+qua(105858317:19.@pl, 600000028:14)
+obj(202663848:0T.@entry, 105858317:19.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6775]
+{org:en}
+climatic peculiarities of the territory, degree of interaction between soil and subsurface water, level and character of contamination, thickness of the zone of suspended water and its filtration characteristics, presence of geochemical barriers, lithology, duration of penetration of contaminating substances into the aquifer, and ground water migration capacity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105094565:2N.@entry, 104763925:1R.@pl)
+mod:03(104731497:6Y.@entry.@pl, 100191980:6N)
+mod:05(105051249:8O.@entry, 100051525:90)
+mod(:02, :05)
+mod:04(100720951:BD.@entry, 114847503:AQ)
+obj:05(101233802:7F, 102796623:83.@pl)
+obj(600000024:39, :02)
+mod:03(104936403:5A, 105611062:5R.@def)
+and:05(115669550:8D, 101233802:7F)
+and:01(115690282:3Q.@entry, 109335240:3H)
+mod:03(104731497:6Y.@entry.@pl, 100191980:6N)
+mod:05(105051249:8O.@entry, 100051525:90)
+mod(:02, :05)
+mod:04(100720951:BD.@entry, 114847503:AQ)
+obj:05(101233802:7F, 102796623:83.@pl)
+obj(600000024:39, :02)
+mod:03(104936403:5A, 105611062:5R.@def)
+and:05(115669550:8D, 101233802:7F)
+and:01(115690282:3Q.@entry, 109335240:3H)
+aoj(303055374:1I, 104763925:1R.@pl)
+mod:03(104731497:6Y.@entry.@pl, 600000016:6J)
+aoj(600000024:39, 100039021:2X)
+mod:03(104936403:5A, 115691001:5Z)
+aoj:05(303162484:9F, 100019613:9T.@pl)
+and:02(104616916:4I.@entry, 105093890:48)
+mod(104763925:1R.@pl, 105999134:2C.@def)
+and:03(104731497:6Y.@entry.@pl, 104936403:5A)
+mod(105094565:2N.@entry, 100039021:2X)
+and:03(104936403:5A, 100276987:4V)
+obj:05(100051525:90, 100019613:9T.@pl)
+mod(:02, :01)
+and:03(104936403:5A, 100276987:4V)
+obj:05(100051525:90, 100019613:9T.@pl)
+mod(:02, :01)
+mod:04(100720951:BD.@entry, 101123095:B3)
+aoj:05(303161173:7R, 102796623:83.@pl)
+to(:02, :04:04)
+and:04(100720951:BD.@entry, 109201998:AD.@def)
+and:05(101233802:7F, :03)
+and:05(105051249:8O.@entry, 115669550:8D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6776]
+{org:en}
+For pressure ground water the main factors determining its vulnerability to contamination are
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(:3U.@entry.@pl, 114847503:0F)
+obj(105042871:1P, 100276987:26)
+mod(105858317:11.@topic.@def.@pl, 301512527:0W)
+obj(105042871:1P, 100276987:26)
+mod(105858317:11.@topic.@def.@pl, 301512527:0W)
+agt(200699815:19.@progress, 105858317:11.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(114847503:0F, 100113113:06)
+aoj(:3U.@entry.@pl, 105858317:11.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(105042871:1P, 600000016:1L)
+mod(105042871:1P, 600000016:1L)
+gol(200699815:19.@progress, 105042871:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6777]
+{org:en}
+the ratio of the pressure aquifer to overlying head of free-flow aquifer
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(113819207:09.@entry.@def, 109201998:0V.@def)
+aoj(303163274:1O, 109201998:1Y)
+mod(101318381:1G, 109201998:1Y)
+aoj(303163274:1O, 109201998:1Y)
+mod(101318381:1G, 109201998:1Y)
+mod(109201998:0V.@def, 100113113:0M)
+to(109201998:0V.@def, 101318381:1G)
+aoj(302349149:16, 101318381:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6778]
+{org:en}
+waterproof characteristic of the superstratum
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104731497:2P.@entry, 115696163:3B.@def)
+aoj(303162118:2E, 104731497:2P.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6779]
+{org:en}
+water conductivity, and
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(:00.@entry, 115669512:42)
+mod(115669512:42, 107935504:3W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6780]
+{org:en}
+infiltration supply and duration of water exchange of the aquifer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(:01.@entry, 100167063:5Q)
+obj(100167063:5Q, 109201998:66.@def)
+obj(100167063:5Q, 109201998:66.@def)
+mod:01(113563522:4X, 100976698:4K)
+and:01(105051249:58.@entry, 113563522:4X)
+mod(100167063:5Q, 107935504:5K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6781]
+{org:en}
+Nowadays there are techniques allowing researchers to estimate ground water vulnerability to contamination and such estimates are used when planning action to ameliorate ecological situations and in water protection strategies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201158572:3O.@entry.@past, 202603699:0H)
+mod(100875246:3A.@topic.@pl, 600001411:35)
+pur(100037396:47, 202776242:4H)
+pur(115670073:15.@pl, 200672433:1K)
+tim(201158572:3O.@entry.@past, 200704690:3Y.@progress)
+agt(200723545:0W.@progress, 105665146:0L.@pl)
+mod(106249177:62.@pl, 107935504:5L)
+mod(100875246:3A.@topic.@pl, 600001411:35)
+pur(100037396:47, 202776242:4H)
+pur(115670073:15.@pl, 200672433:1K)
+tim(201158572:3O.@entry.@past, 200704690:3Y.@progress)
+agt(200723545:0W.@progress, 105665146:0L.@pl)
+mod(106249177:62.@pl, 107935504:5L)
+mod(105042871:26, 114847503:1T)
+plc(201158572:3O.@entry.@past, 106249177:62.@pl)
+man(202603699:0H, 115691838:02)
+aoj(302906478:4S, 113925752:53.@pl)
+obj(105042871:26, 100276987:2N)
+obj(201158572:3O.@entry.@past, 100875246:3A.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202603699:0H, 105665146:0L.@pl)
+obj(202776242:4H, 113925752:53.@pl)
+obj(202603699:0H, 105665146:0L.@pl)
+obj(202776242:4H, 113925752:53.@pl)
+gol(200672433:1K, 105042871:26)
+obj(200704690:3Y.@progress, 100037396:47)
+obj(200723545:0W.@progress, 115670073:15.@pl)
+mod(106249177:62.@pl, 100784755:5R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6782]
+{org:en}
+The essence of such strategies is to support life on Earth and avoid hydrosphere pollution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200811375:1T.@entry, 201720773:13.@will)
+obj(201720773:13.@will, 100006269:1B)
+mod(114516743:2B, 109307902:1Z)
+mod(106249177:0M.@pl, 600001411:0H)
+obj(201720773:13.@will, 100006269:1B)
+mod(114516743:2B, 109307902:1Z)
+mod(106249177:0M.@pl, 600001411:0H)
+obj(200811375:1T.@entry, 114516743:2B)
+obj(105921123:06.@topic.@def, 106249177:0M.@pl)
+agt(200811375:1T.@entry, 105921123:06.@topic.@def)
+plc(100006269:1B, 108562067:1J)
+plc(100006269:1B, 108562067:1J)
+agt(201720773:13.@will, 105921123:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6783]
+{org:en}
+Success depends on development of production technologies, reduction of water consumption, planned reduction of waste discharge (until its total elimination), and development of ecological understanding in the population.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0A.@entry, 100063652:02.@topic)
+aoj:02(:01.@parenthesis, 100123234:36)
+plc:02(105805475:5B, 101257969:5W.@def)
+obj:02(100192300:1P, 100356367:28)
+and:02(100250259:4L.@entry, 100192300:2T)
+qua:01(100223720:43.@entry, 303160907:3X)
+obj:02(100192300:2T, 100123234:36)
+aoj:02(:01.@parenthesis, 100123234:36)
+plc:02(105805475:5B, 101257969:5W.@def)
+obj:02(100192300:1P, 100356367:28)
+and:02(100250259:4L.@entry, 100192300:2T)
+qua:01(100223720:43.@entry, 303160907:3X)
+obj:02(100192300:2T, 100123234:36)
+obj(100250259:0L, :02)
+mod:01(100223720:43.@entry, 600000016:3T)
+and:02(100192300:2T, 100192300:1P)
+mod:02(100949619:1B.@pl, 100522736:10)
+obj(202663848:0A.@entry, 100250259:0L)
+obj:02(100123234:36, 100742645:35)
+aoj:02(302906478:50, 105805475:5B)
+obj:02(100123234:36, 100742645:35)
+aoj:02(302906478:50, 105805475:5B)
+mod:02(100356367:28, 107935504:22)
+obj:02(100250259:4L.@entry, 105805475:5B)
+and:02(100192300:1P, 100949619:1B.@pl)
+obj:02(200704690:2L, 100192300:2T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6784]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6785]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:0Q.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6786]
+{org:en}
+Artesian water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115691991:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6787]
+{org:en}
+all ground water, excluding subsoil water, bedded between waterproof rocks and having a water head.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:2Q.@progress, 114847503:0N.@entry)
+man(201500082:1Q, 600000010:1X)
+mod(114847503:0N.@entry, 300521584:0J)
+obj(200065370:2Q.@progress, 115696309:2Z.@indef)
+man(201500082:1Q, 600000010:1X)
+mod(114847503:0N.@entry, 300521584:0J)
+obj(200065370:2Q.@progress, 115696309:2Z.@indef)
+aoj(600000791:11, 114847503:0N.@entry)
+aoj(303162118:25, 100348008:2G.@pl)
+obj(201500082:1Q, 114847503:0N.@entry)
+obj(600000010:1X, 100348008:2G.@pl)
+obj(600000010:1X, 100348008:2G.@pl)
+obj(600000791:11, 115690346:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6788]
+{org:en}
+Form of element
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103384535:02.@entry, 105868954:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6789]
+{org:en}
+a compound where element retains its migration capacity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200610010:19, 103081859:0M.@entry.@indef)
+mod(100720951:1V, 600000016:1H)
+mod(100720951:1V, 600000016:1H)
+obj(200610010:19, 100720951:1V)
+agt(200610010:19, 105868954:11)
+mod(100720951:1V, 101123095:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6790]
+{org:en}
+An element can migrate as a dredge, a colloid, or in a solution as an ion or a complex compound.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201856626:0H.@entry.@ability, 105868954:05.@topic.@indef)
+and:02(114588219:14.@entry.@indef, 103236217:0U.@indef)
+man(201856626:0H.@entry.@ability, 600000023:0P)
+and:02(114588219:14.@entry.@indef, 103236217:0U.@indef)
+man(201856626:0H.@entry.@ability, 600000023:0P)
+plc(201856626:0H.@entry.@ability, 100190783:1L.@indef)
+or:01(115690892:29.@entry.@indef, 109315159:20.@indef)
+man(201856626:0H.@entry.@ability, 600000023:1U)
+obj(600000023:1U, :01)
+obj(600000023:1U, :01)
+obj(600000023:0P, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6791]
+{org:en}
+Geochemical barrier
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161173:02, 102796623:0E.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6792]
+{org:en}
+a transition zone where one geochemical situation meets another.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201079480:22, 115696225:0Q.@entry.@indef)
+mod(113925752:1S, 600000089:1C)
+mod(113925752:1S, 600000089:1C)
+obj(201079480:22, 600000116:28)
+agt(201079480:22, 113925752:1S)
+aoj(303161173:1G, 113925752:1S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6793]
+{org:en}
+Ground water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+114847503:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6794]
+{org:en}
+water situated in the Earth’s crust as a liquid, vapor or solid substance, bedded in soils, sedimentary and massive-crystal rocks.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303156813:0Q, 107935504:0H.@entry)
+and:04(100348008:4E.@entry.@pl, 109335240:34.@pl)
+or:01(100019613:2C.@entry, 115055633:1X)
+mod(109260218:1E.@def, 108562067:16)
+and:02(303161298:42.@entry, 301185916:3U)
+obj(201500082:2R, :01)
+and:04(100348008:4E.@entry.@pl, 109335240:34.@pl)
+or:01(100019613:2C.@entry, 115055633:1X)
+mod(109260218:1E.@def, 108562067:16)
+and:02(303161298:42.@entry, 301185916:3U)
+obj(201500082:2R, :01)
+plc(303156813:0Q, 109260218:1E.@def)
+and:03(:02.@entry, 302952109:3B)
+or:01(115055633:1X, 107119643:1P.@indef)
+man(303156813:0Q, 600000023:1K)
+aoj:04(:03, 100348008:4E.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(300291181:26, 100019613:2C.@entry)
+aoj:04(:03, 100348008:4E.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(300291181:26, 100019613:2C.@entry)
+obj(600000023:1K, :01)
+plc(201500082:2R, :04:04)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6795]
+{org:en}
+Hydrogeological structure
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104931965:0I.@entry, 303160971:02)
+aoj(302905591:07, 104931965:0I.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6796]
+{org:en}
+a geological structure with similar hydrogeological characteristics determining the character of water distribution and peculiarities of chemical composition.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000019:1H, 104931965:17.@entry.@indef)
+mod:01(104616916:36.@def, 101083077:3P)
+mod(104731497:2A.@pl, 303160971:1U)
+agt(200699815:2Q.@progress, 104731497:2A.@pl)
+and:01(104763925:46.@entry.@pl, 104616916:36.@def)
+mod:01(104616916:36.@def, 101083077:3P)
+mod(104731497:2A.@pl, 303160971:1U)
+agt(200699815:2Q.@progress, 104731497:2A.@pl)
+and:01(104763925:46.@entry.@pl, 104616916:36.@def)
+obj(600000019:1H, 104731497:2A.@pl)
+obj(200699815:2Q.@progress, :01:01)
+aoj(302905591:0W, 104931965:17.@entry.@indef)
+mod:01(101083077:3P, 107935504:3J)
+aoj(302905591:1Z, 104731497:2A.@pl)
+mod:01(101083077:3P, 107935504:3J)
+aoj(302905591:1Z, 104731497:2A.@pl)
+aoj(301409581:1M, 104731497:2A.@pl)
+mod:01(104763925:46.@entry.@pl, 115669150:4N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6797]
+{org:en}
+Migration capacity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100720951:0C.@entry, 101123095:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6798]
+{org:en}
+the capacity of a chemical element to be in a solute state under defined geochemical conditions and, therefore, retaining its mobility.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200610010:3R.@entry.@progress, 100720951:0R.@def)
+aoj(300697188:2G, 105798863:30.@pl)
+pur(114622893:15.@indef, 202603699:1P)
+mod(104773351:45, 600000016:41)
+aoj(303161524:1X, 100024720:24.@indef)
+aoj(300697188:2G, 105798863:30.@pl)
+pur(114622893:15.@indef, 202603699:1P)
+mod(104773351:45, 600000016:41)
+aoj(303161524:1X, 100024720:24.@indef)
+obj(200610010:3R.@entry.@progress, 104773351:45)
+mod(100024720:24.@indef, 600000009:2A)
+man(200610010:3R.@entry.@progress, 400043003:3G)
+aoj(303161173:2O, 105798863:30.@pl)
+plc(202603699:1P, 100024720:24.@indef)
+aoj(303161173:2O, 105798863:30.@pl)
+plc(202603699:1P, 100024720:24.@indef)
+obj(100720951:0R.@def, 114622893:15.@indef)
+obj(600000009:2A, 105798863:30.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6799]
+{org:en}
+Monomeric
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+303161864:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6800]
+{org:en}
+consisting of a single component
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774237:0E.@entry.@progress, 103081021:11.@indef)
+aoj(300539389:0U, 103081021:11.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6801]
+{org:en}
+Permittivity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668968:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6802]
+{org:en}
+the quality of a material that allows it to store a given amount of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104723816:0L.@entry.@def, 103729951:0Y.@indef)
+mod(100033615:23.@indef, 107935504:2D)
+obj(200723545:1C, 600000016:1J)
+mod(100033615:23.@indef, 107935504:2D)
+obj(200723545:1C, 600000016:1J)
+gol(200723545:1C, 202281093:1P)
+agt(200723545:1C, 103729951:0Y.@indef)
+mod(100033615:23.@indef, 300028280:1X)
+mod(100033615:23.@indef, 300028280:1X)
+obj(202281093:1P, 100033615:23.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6803]
+{org:en}
+Soil water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107935504:07.@entry, 109335240:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6804]
+{org:en}
+water solution located in the porous zones in soils in different forms and phase states.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302126430:0U, 100190783:0L.@entry)
+plc(109335240:1P.@pl, :01:01)
+plc(105611062:1G.@def.@pl, 109335240:1P.@pl)
+aoj:01(300490413:1Y, 103384535:28.@pl)
+plc(109335240:1P.@pl, :01:01)
+plc(105611062:1G.@def.@pl, 109335240:1P.@pl)
+aoj:01(300490413:1Y, 103384535:28.@pl)
+plc(302126430:0U, 105611062:1G.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(100024720:2O.@entry.@pl, 104676540:2I)
+mod(100190783:0L.@entry, 107935504:0F)
+and:01(100024720:2O.@entry.@pl, 103384535:28.@pl)
+and:01(100024720:2O.@entry.@pl, 103384535:28.@pl)
+aoj(300329396:19, 105611062:1G.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6805]
+{org:en}
+Subsoil water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115690346:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6806]
+{org:en}
+water of the first permanently existing aquifer, closest to the land surface.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107935504:0I.@entry, 109201998:1M)
+obj(200352137:1V, 104362025:2F.@def)
+obj(202603699:1D.@progress, 109201998:1M)
+obj(200352137:1V, 104362025:2F.@def)
+obj(202603699:1D.@progress, 109201998:1M)
+aoj(200352137:1V, 109201998:1M)
+mod(104362025:2F.@def, 109334396:2A)
+mod(107935504:0I.@entry, "1":0V.@def)
+man(200352137:1V, 400536271:2M)
+man(200352137:1V, 400536271:2M)
+man(202603699:1D.@progress, 400087916:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6807]
+{org:en}
+This is a saturation zone.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105611062:0N.@entry.@indef, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(105611062:0N.@entry.@indef, 100402671:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6808]
+{org:en}
+Water exchange zone
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105611062:0H.@entry, 100167063:08)
+mod(100167063:08, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6809]
+{org:en}
+a zone of active, slow or difficult water exchange, in which a defined volume of water can pass through it in a defined period of time.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105611062:0Q.@entry.@indef, 100167063:1U)
+aoj(300697188:3S, 106843520:40.@indef)
+or:01(300980527:16, 300031974:0Y)
+mod(100167063:1U, 107935504:1O)
+opl(202053190:37.@ability, 600000016:3K)
+aoj(300697188:3S, 106843520:40.@indef)
+or:01(300980527:16, 300031974:0Y)
+mod(100167063:1U, 107935504:1O)
+opl(202053190:37.@ability, 600000016:3K)
+aoj(:01, 100167063:1U)
+aoj(300697188:2F, 104990220:2N.@indef)
+tim(202053190:37.@ability, 106843520:40.@indef)
+plc(202053190:37.@ability, 100167063:1U)
+qua(107935504:2X, 104990220:2N.@indef)
+obj(202053190:37.@ability, 107935504:2X)
+qua(107935504:2X, 104990220:2N.@indef)
+obj(202053190:37.@ability, 107935504:2X)
+or:01(300744916:1E.@entry, 300980527:16)
+mod(106843520:40.@indef, 100028270:4A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6810]
+{org:en}
+Zone of hypergenesis
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105611062:02.@entry, 115691794:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6811]
+{org:en}
+a zone characterized by the formation of specific rocks and hypergene bodies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202697950:0W.@entry.@past, 105611062:0R.@topic.@indef)
+aoj:01(301099951:1U, 100348008:23.@pl)
+and:01(102861886:2N.@entry.@pl, 100348008:23.@pl)
+aoj:01(301099951:1U, 100348008:23.@pl)
+and:01(102861886:2N.@entry.@pl, 100348008:23.@pl)
+obj(100925207:1H.@def, :01:01)
+met(202697950:0W.@entry.@past, 100925207:1H.@def)
+aoj:01(303163340:2D, 102861886:2N.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6812]
+{org:en}
+Zone of suspended water (unsaturated zone)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105611062:02.@entry, 115691001:0A)
+cnt(115691001:0A, 115694578:0R.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6813]
+{org:en}
+zone of soil situated between the land surface and subsoil water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105611062:1B.@entry, 109335240:1J)
+mod:01(104362025:2E.@def, 109334396:29)
+obj(600000010:1X, :01)
+mod:01(104362025:2E.@def, 109334396:29)
+obj(600000010:1X, :01)
+man(303156813:1O, 600000010:1X)
+aoj(303156813:1O, 109335240:1J)
+and:01(115690346:2Q.@entry.@def, 104362025:2E.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6814]
+{org:en}
+The porous zone contains liquid and gaseous water, and air.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202701210:0I.@entry, :02:02)
+and:01(302262542:12.@entry, 300432453:0R)
+and:02(104727214:1L.@entry, 107935504:1A)
+and:01(302262542:12.@entry, 300432453:0R)
+and:02(104727214:1L.@entry, 107935504:1A)
+aoj(300329396:06, 105611062:0D.@topic.@def)
+aoj(202701210:0I.@entry, 105611062:0D.@topic.@def)
+aoj:02(:01, 107935504:1A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6815]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6816]
+{org:en}
+Biogeochemical cycles in the biosphere (1976).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(107341038:0E.@entry.@pl, 108499504:0S.@def)
+tim(108499504:0S.@def, "1976":13.@parenthesis)
+aoj(302664932:02, 107341038:0E.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6817]
+{org:en}
+Moscow, "Nauka".
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500004288:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115692940:0B.@double_quote.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6818]
+{org:en}
+This symposium volume depicts cycles of various substances in the biosphere
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202777369:0O.@entry, 104990220:0H.@topic)
+mod(104990220:0H.@topic, 600000017:02)
+scn(100019613:1E.@pl, 108499504:1W.@def)
+mod(104990220:0H.@topic, 600000017:02)
+scn(100019613:1E.@pl, 108499504:1W.@def)
+obj(107341038:0W.@pl, 100019613:1E.@pl)
+obj(202777369:0O.@entry, 107341038:0W.@pl)
+mod(104990220:0H.@topic, 108327616:07)
+mod(104990220:0H.@topic, 108327616:07)
+aoj(303160904:16, 100019613:1E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6819]
+{org:en}
+Bloch A.M.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323198:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6820]
+{org:en}
+Water structure and geological processes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100029677:0X.@entry.@pl, 104931965:08)
+mod(104931965:08, 107935504:02)
+aoj(302905591:0M, 100029677:0X.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6821]
+{org:en}
+Leningrad, "Nedra".
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323575:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323607:0E.@double_quote.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6822]
+{org:en}
+This book reveals the links between the physical structure and chemical peculiarities of water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202144243:0C.@entry, 102870092:07.@topic)
+mod:01(104763925:22.@entry.@pl, 107935504:2J)
+obj(600000024:0U, :01)
+mod:01(104763925:22.@entry.@pl, 107935504:2J)
+obj(600000024:0U, :01)
+aoj(600000024:0U, 103673971:0O.@def.@pl)
+mod(102870092:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+obj(202144243:0C.@entry, 103673971:0O.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(302692624:1T, 104763925:22.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(302692624:1T, 104763925:22.@entry.@pl)
+and:01(104763925:22.@entry.@pl, 115695844:16.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6823]
+{org:en}
+Glazovskaya M.A. (1988).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323311:02.@entry, "1988":0K.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6824]
+{org:en}
+Geochemistry of natural and anthropogenic landscapes in the USSR.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106090304:02.@entry, 103640011:18.@pl)
+and:01(303161088:0U.@entry, 301335708:0I)
+and:01(303161088:0U.@entry, 301335708:0I)
+aoj(:01, 103640011:18.@pl)
+plc(103640011:18.@pl, 500323525:1Q.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6825]
+{org:en}
+Moscow, "Vyshaya shkola".
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500004288:1W.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323952:25.@double_quote.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6826]
+{org:en}
+Fundamentals of landscape geochemistry are given.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200108604:19.@entry.@past, 105719958:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(106090304:0S, 103640011:0I)
+mod(105719958:02.@topic.@pl, 106090304:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6827]
+{org:en}
+The peculiarities of elements’ migration in different landscapes are described
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200987071:1Z.@entry.@past, 104763925:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(101123095:0X, 105868954:0N)
+mod(101123095:0X, 105868954:0N)
+plc(101123095:0X, 103640011:1K.@pl)
+mod(104763925:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 101123095:0X)
+aoj(300490413:1A, 103640011:1K.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6828]
+{org:en}
+Dobrovolskiy V.V. (1998).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323499:02.@entry, "1998":0L.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6829]
+{org:en}
+Biogeochemistry fundamentals.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105719958:0F.@entry.@pl, 106079620:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6830]
+{org:en}
+Moscow, "Vyshaya shkola".
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500004288:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323952:0B.@double_quote.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6831]
+{org:en}
+This book presents fundamentals of biogeochemistry
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200772967:0C.@entry, 102870092:07.@topic)
+mod(102870092:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(102870092:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(105719958:0L.@pl, 106079620:11)
+obj(200772967:0C.@entry, 105719958:0L.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6832]
+{org:en}
+Zektser I.S.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323110:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6833]
+{org:en}
+Ground water as an environmental component.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000032:10, 114847503:0N.@entry)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6834]
+{org:en}
+Moscow, "Nauchniy mir".
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500004288:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500324200:0B.@double_quote.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6835]
+{org:en}
+This book is all about groundwater and its role in the environment
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000013:0J.@entry, 102870092:07.@topic)
+mod:01(100722061:19.@entry, 600000016:15)
+and:01(100722061:19.@entry, 115669379:0P)
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+and:01(100722061:19.@entry, 115669379:0P)
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+scn:01(100722061:19.@entry, 108567235:1L.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6836]
+{org:en}
+Kirukhin V.A., Korotkov A.I., Shwatsev S.A. Hydrogeochemistry (1993).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323467:0W.@entry, 500323070:0H)
+tim(115691792:1A.@entry, "1993":1T.@parenthesis)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6837]
+{org:en}
+Moscow, "Nedra".
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500004288:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323607:0B.@double_quote.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6838]
+{org:en}
+This book presents the basic processes of groundwater chemical composition
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6839]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161322:02, 104227144:0F.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6840]
+{org:en}
+Andrey G. Kocharyan HTM1 graduated from the Geological Faculty, Institute of Chemistry and Oil, Baku, in 1960.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6841]
+{org:en}
+He received his Ph. D. in geochemical techniques of deposits’ search in 1968 at Baku State University, Geological faculty.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200117346:33.@entry.@past, 600000021:30.@topic)
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+pof(105650329:66, 500323776:58)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6842]
+{org:en}
+Since 1979 he has held a position of Head of the Laboratory of Water Quality, Institute of Water Problems, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6843]
+{org:en}
+Dr. Kocharyan is the author of more then 150 scientific publications.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115689740:0N.@entry.@def, 500323120:06.@topic)
+aoj(500323541:02, 500323120:06.@topic)
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+bas(400099341:0X, "150":17)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6844]
+{org:en}
+His research interests are in the fields of water quality and water resources protection.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:6845]
+{org:en}
+He is currently concerned with water quality formation in catchment areas.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774643:0I.@entry, 600000021:02.@topic)
+mod(100925207:1B, 104723816:13)
+plc(100925207:1B, 115689952:1O.@pl)
+mod(100925207:1B, 104723816:13)
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+mod(100925207:1B, 107935504:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6846]
+{org:en}
+Main publications
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101101958:07.@entry.@pl, 301512527:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6847]
+{org:en}
+Kocharyan A.G.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500322990:0L.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6848]
+{org:en}
+Forms of heavy metal migration in waters, bottom sediments, and makrophits in Volga reservoirs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103384535:02.@entry.@pl, 101123095:0N)
+mod:01(104078574:2F.@pl, 500005894:29)
+and:01(115691102:1U.@entry.@pl, 115691671:18.@pl)
+mod:01(104078574:2F.@pl, 500005894:29)
+and:01(115691102:1U.@entry.@pl, 115691671:18.@pl)
+mod(101123095:0N, 107065149:0B)
+plc(101123095:0N, :01:01)
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+and:01(115691671:18.@pl, 107935504:10.@pl)
+plc:01(115691102:1U.@entry.@pl, 104078574:2F.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6849]
+{org:en}
+Actual problems of regional use of reservoirs’ biological resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105687338:09.@entry.@pl, 100947128:0U)
+aoj(301405904:02, 105154676:0D.@pl)
+mod(100947128:0U, 302408977:0L)
+aoj(301405904:02, 105154676:0D.@pl)
+mod(100947128:0U, 302408977:0L)
+obj(100947128:0U, 105154676:0D.@pl)
+mod(105687338:09.@entry.@pl, 300043765:02)
+mod(105154676:0D.@pl, 104078574:11.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6850]
+{org:en}
+Rybinsk, 2005, pp. 151-161.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324271:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+"2005":03.@entry
+[/W]
+mod(115669681:0H.@entry, "151-161":0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6851]
+{org:en}
+in Russian
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000051:02.@entry, 109728403:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6852]
+{org:en}
+Kocharyan A.G.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500322990:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6853]
+{org:en}
+On the choice of water quality priority indexes for local standardization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000108:02.@entry, 100161243:09.@def)
+mod(105047279:0X, 104723816:0P)
+mod(105567381:16.@pl, 107935504:0J)
+mod(105047279:0X, 104723816:0P)
+mod(105567381:16.@pl, 107935504:0J)
+pur(105567381:16.@pl, 101158690:1O)
+obj(100161243:09.@def, 105567381:16.@pl)
+aoj(301106405:1I, 101158690:1O)
+aoj(301106405:1I, 101158690:1O)
+mod(105567381:16.@pl, 105047279:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6854]
+{org:en}
+Safety of energetic facilities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100188620:02.@entry, 115689574:0M.@pl)
+aoj(300873603:0C, 115689574:0M.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6855]
+{org:en}
+Vol. 12, NIIES, 2003, pp. 429-436.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689976:02.@entry, "12":07)
+[W]
+500324209:0A.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6856]
+{org:en}
+in Russian
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000051:02.@entry, 109728403:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6857]
+{org:en}
+Dolgonosov B.M., Kocharyan A.G.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500322990:0J.@entry, 500323219:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6858]
+{org:en}
+Methodology of ecological state amelioration in river basins.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105661400:0Y.@entry, 100261029:1U)
+mod(100261029:1U, 100024720:1O)
+mod(100261029:1U, 100024720:1O)
+aoj(302906478:1D, 100261029:1U)
+plc(100261029:1U, 108518940:2A.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6859]
+{org:en}
+Water HTM1 economy of Russia.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104893787:08.@entry, 500004285:0J)
+mod(104893787:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6860]
+{org:en}
+Vol. 5, ? 4, 2003, pp. 289-302.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689976:0R.@entry, "5":0V)
+mod(107205104:0X.@entry, "4":0Y)
+[W]
+"2003":0Z.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6861]
+{org:en}
+in Russian
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000051:02.@entry, 109728403:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6862]
+{org:en}
+Arkhipova N.A., Kocharyan A.G., Lebedeva I.P., Safronova K.I.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323356:1D.@entry, 500323109:0Y)
+and(500322990:0I, 500323411:02)
+and(500323109:0Y, 500322990:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6863]
+{org:en}
+The role of reservoirs in chemical composition transformation HTM1 of river waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100722061:1W.@entry.@def, 104078574:24.@pl)
+mod(100398704:33, 115669150:2I)
+mod(100398704:33, 115669150:2I)
+obj(100398704:33, 107935504:3R.@pl)
+scn(104078574:24.@pl, 100398704:33)
+mod(107935504:3R.@pl, 109411430:3L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6864]
+{org:en}
+Water economy of Russia.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104893787:08.@entry, 500004285:0J)
+mod(104893787:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6865]
+{org:en}
+Vol. 4, ? 4, 2002, pp. 297-307.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689976:0R.@entry, "4":0V)
+mod(107205104:0X.@entry, "4":0Y)
+[W]
+"2002":0Z.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6866]
+{org:en}
+in Russian
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000051:02.@entry, 109728403:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6867]
+{org:en}
+HUMAN INTERACTION WITH LAND AND WATER
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000019:0K, 100039021:08.@entry)
+and:01(107935504:0Y.@entry, 109334396:0P)
+and:01(107935504:0Y.@entry, 109334396:0P)
+obj(600000019:0K, :01)
+aoj(301258617:02, 100039021:08.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6868]
+{org:en}
+A HYDROLOGIST’S CONCEPTION
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100844847:1L.@entry.@indef, 110194775:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6869]
+{org:en}
+HUMAN INTERACTION WITH LAND AND WATER
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000019:0K, 100039021:08.@entry)
+and:01(107935504:0Y.@entry, 109334396:0P)
+and:01(107935504:0Y.@entry, 109334396:0P)
+obj(600000019:0K, :01)
+aoj(301258617:02, 100039021:08.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6870]
+{org:en}
+A HYDROLOGIST’S CONCEPTION
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100844847:1L.@entry.@indef, 110194775:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6871]
+{org:en}
+Malin Falkenmark
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323133:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6872]
+{org:en}
+Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI), Sweden
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500003252:1E.@entry, 500323613:02)
+equ(500323916:17.@parenthesis, 500323613:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6873]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6874]
+{org:en}
+Freshwater, Biosphere, Technosphere, Upstream, Downstream, Water Scarcity Syndrome, Water Predicament, Sectorization Scourge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(104149968:3L.@entry, 114408646:2U)
+and(108499504:0O, 115689095:0C)
+mod(105870790:2E, 105116953:25)
+mod(114408646:2U, 107935504:2O)
+and(115394048:1D, 115693149:0Z)
+and(108499504:0O, 115689095:0C)
+mod(105870790:2E, 105116953:25)
+mod(114408646:2U, 107935504:2O)
+and(115394048:1D, 115693149:0Z)
+and(114408646:2U, 105870790:2E)
+and(115692677:1N, 115394048:1D)
+mod(104149968:3L.@entry, 115693085:37)
+mod(105116953:25, 107935504:1Z)
+mod(105116953:25, 107935504:1Z)
+and(105870790:2E, 115692677:1N)
+and(115693149:0Z, 108499504:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6875]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6876]
+{org:en}
+Freshwater
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689095:04.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6877]
+{org:en}
+Our Joint Lifeblood
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105195796:0Q.@entry, 600000005:0G)
+mod(105195796:0Q.@entry, 300238189:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6878]
+{org:en}
+Man and the Water Cycle
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(107341038:0M.@entry.@def, 110287213:04)
+mod(107341038:0M.@entry.@def, 107935504:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6879]
+{org:en}
+The Water Scarcity Syndrome
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105870790:0N.@entry.@def, 105116953:0E)
+mod(105116953:0E, 107935504:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6880]
+{org:en}
+Overcoming the Sectorization Scourge
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201108627:04.@entry.@progress, 104149968:0X.@def)
+mod(104149968:0X.@def, 115693085:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6881]
+{org:en}
+Challenge for the Future
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(107191569:04.@entry, 103408721:0M.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6882]
+{org:en}
+Handling Complexity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201210737:0U.@entry.@progress, 104766275:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6883]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6884]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6885]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+Biographical Sketch
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+Summary
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+This paper presents an overview of key relationships between humans and the water flowing through the landscape where they live.
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+The basic water resource is the precipitation supporting vegetation, society, and ecosystems with water.
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+Out of the precipitation over the catchment, one part goes back to the atmosphere as vapor flow or green water flow while the other part goes as liquid flow or blue water flow above and below the land surface.
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+Water is an extremely complex resource with many different functions
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+it has a health function for humans, a habitat function for aquatic biota, production functions both in terms of biomass production (food, fodder, fiber, fuelwood and timber) and socioeconomic production (industrial production, energy).
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+In their activities, humans tend to alter landscape components in order to be able to meet various societal needs (water, food, energy, goods, etc).
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+Water thereby generates changes both physically in the green/blue water partitioning and chemically through the introduction of pollutants along the water pathways.
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+Water mobility links upstream activities in a catchment with downstream problems and opportunities.
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+Humanity’s genuine dependence on freshwater is reflected in particular development problems experienced in dry climate tropics and subtropics.
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+Water management is a crucial component of socioeconomic development and improved quality of life in these countries.
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+Most of the low-income countries are in fact lying in the water-deficient region.
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+{org:en}
+In terms of blue water availability, the world can be divided into five regional clusters with radically different water resources.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
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+[S:6906]
+{org:en}
+Different professions differ in their water interests and perspectives.
+{/org}
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+[S:6907]
+{org:en}
+Each must participate in developing an integrated approach to the linkages between land, water, and ecosystems, and cultivate an holistic, rather than purely disciplinary, view.
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+[S:6909]
+{org:en}
+Freshwater
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+[S:6910]
+{org:en}
+Our Joint Lifeblood
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+{org:en}
+Civilization on our planet is fundamentally water-based.
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+{org:en}
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+{org:en}
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+Water is a main agent in the generation of environmental side-effects from human activities, and in causing problems related to both water shortage and crop failures, and to surpluses of water, floods, and inundations.
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+Man’s water dependence has forced society to seek ways to cope with natural water-related constraints
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+this is the origin of human civilization.
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+Engineers developed early the art to channel water in pipelines and canals, to pump water from rivers to higher-located irrigation schemes, and to build reservoirs where water could be stored from the rainy period when there was surplus, to the dry period when there was deficiency.
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+{org:en}
+One of water’s functions in the natural landscape (until now not much focused upon) is as a mobile solvent, picking up everything that is water-soluble (for instance, waste products or agricultural chemicals not taken up by the plants), and carrying it along.
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+{org:en}
+Since flora and fauna are also genuinely water-dependent, the result is that higher-order side-effects tend to develop wherever polluted water is moving around above and below the ground surface.
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+{org:en}
+In that sense, the water in the landscape plays the role of a silent messenger, translating human activities into unintended side effects, spoken of as environmental impacts.
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+[S:6930]
+{org:en}
+More people means more food needed, which means larger consumptive use to produce that food, which means less usable water left in rivers and aquifers.
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+{org:en}
+More people also means more pollution, adding to the dilemma of less usable water.
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+With less usable water, water supply problems will follow, leading to increased morbidity and mortality, partly balancing population growth.
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+{org:en}
+Figure 1 sketches in a system-based way the interaction between a growing population and the water-based life support system.
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+The system contains a demographic pressure branch, a socioeconomic production branch, a pollution branch, and a life support feedback branch.
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+There are, in other words, several links joining population and the amount of usable water
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+increasing population pressure on a finite resource reduces the amount per capita (branch d)
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+more people produce more waste, polluting the water and reducing the usable amount (branch c)
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+with wealth goes increasing amounts of industrial waste, further reducing the amount of usable water (branch b)
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+Figure 1
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+The Ongoing Paradigm Shift
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+All this focus was on the liquid water in rivers and aquifers, what we now speak of as HTM1 blue water flow HTM2 , and how to manage its quantity and quality.
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+
+[S:6972]
+{org:en}
+Water is accessible in the natural landscape where it moves around above and below the ground surface on its way from the precipitation that fell over a sloping landscape to the flow of surface water, and as groundwater towards the river mouth at the coast or in a desert lake.
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+
+[S:6973]
+{org:en}
+Biosphere and Technosphere Share the Same Water
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:6974]
+{org:en}
+Whether people are involved or not, the incoming precipitation, when reaching the ground, is partitioned between a vapor flow back to the atmosphere linked to evaporation from wet surfaces and transpiration of plants and vegetation systems, and a liquid flow of groundwater and river runoff, flowing downhill towards the river mouth.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6975]
+{org:en}
+The vapor flow includes the water consumed in plant production and in the life of terrestrial ecosystems.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:6976]
+{org:en}
+Biomass production represents a huge water demand in terms of a truly consumptive use of water.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:6977]
+{org:en}
+A recent calculation, biome by biome in temperate and tropical zones, shows that almost 90 percent of the evaporation from the continents is linked to photosynthesis in these vegetation systems (tropical and temperate forests, grasslands, wetlands, and croplands).
+{/org}
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+[S:6978]
+{org:en}
+This water vapor flow is moreover twice as large as the liquid water flow through aquifers and rivers.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:6979]
+{org:en}
+In other words, out of the precipitation over the continents, two-thirds goes back to the atmosphere as vapor flow and one-third goes as liquid flow (as surface water and groundwater flows).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:6980]
+{org:en}
+This liquid flow is the basis for societal water use for different purposes
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6981]
+{org:en}
+offstream after withdrawal for households, industry and irrigated agriculture
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+instream for evacuation of waste products, navigation, hydropower production, etc.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Societal use is dominantly non-consumptive in the sense that after use the water ends up as a return flow, often loaded with pollutants.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6984]
+{org:en}
+Principally, this water can be reused further downstream, over and over again.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6985]
+{org:en}
+Ideally, one can imagine a system of sequential reuse all the way down the river valley, hindered only by excessive pollution or increasing salinity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+The consumptive water use, on the other hand, is represented by the water returned to the atmosphere after diversion and use for irrigation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+This flow (plus, of course, any out-of-basin transfers) represents a loss from the side of the catchment where it is reflected in a corresponding river depletion.
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+{org:en}
+Clear illustrations are the cases of the Aral Sea and the Colorado River in North America.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+From the side of biomass production this "loss" evidently represents a productive use, however.
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+Summarizing water’s multiple functions for human life, in society and landscape, water is an extremely complex resource
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:6991]
+{org:en}
+for humans it has a health function both in the sense that it is necessary for sheer survival, and that it plays a crucial role in transfering diseases to human settlements
+{/org}
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+
+[S:6992]
+{org:en}
+a habitat function for aquatic biota
+{/org}
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+
+[S:6993]
+{org:en}
+production functions both in terms of biomass production (food, fodder, fiber, fuelwood and timber) and socioeconomic production (industrial production, energy).
+{/org}
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+
+[S:6994]
+{org:en}
+But besides these societally-linked functions, it creates problems by its carrier functions of water-soluble pollutants and of silt.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Finally, it has fundamental psychological and religious functions related to human well-being, and as a component of religious ceremonies.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:6996]
+{org:en}
+In all the main religions, water in fact appears in crucial roles in the stories of the original creation of mankind.
+{/org}
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+mod(105946687:0H.@def.@pl, 300521584:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6997]
+{org:en}
+Human ingenuity is ever-more challenged as survival problems increase with unabated population growth, increasing erosion of the life support base, and a continuously "willful neglect" of the escalating pollution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6998]
+{org:en}
+But before we look more closely at this dilemma, let us direct our attention to the main interactions between society and the phenomena in the landscape that provide the life support, and to some key challenges involved.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:6999]
+{org:en}
+We will also look more closely at fundamental water-related differences between different climatic zones, and at food production difficulties in dry climates.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7000]
+{org:en}
+Human Activities Involve Land and Water Manipulation
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Efforts to satisfy societal needs for water, food, and energy, involve manipulations of the landscape where the natural resources may be harvested
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7002]
+{org:en}
+that is, in areas where water sources may be found, where biomass is produced, and where energy can be harvested.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:7003]
+{org:en}
+But to harness these resources the land and the water systems must be changed, both physically and chemically.
+{/org}
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+and:02(400129089:2T.@entry, 400115254:2E)
+{/unl}
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+[S:7004]
+{org:en}
+Human activities also involve the production of waste products representing a chemical interaction with landscape components.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7005]
+{org:en}
+They are disposed through chimneys to the atmosphere, through landfills and dry waste deposits to the land, and through waste water outlets to the water bodies.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:7006]
+{org:en}
+Since water is a unique solvent, all water-soluble waste products will sooner or later end up in water (see Figure 2).
+{/org}
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+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:7007]
+{org:en}
+Figure 2
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7008]
+{org:en}
+Human activities in the landscape
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100407535:08.@entry.@pl, 301258617:02)
+{/unl}
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+[S:7009]
+{org:en}
+Since natural laws operate in the landscape, these manipulations will be reflected in side-effects.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:7010]
+{org:en}
+As human activities expand these side-effects tend to intensify and develop into land degradation, water quality degradation, and as higher-order effects in terms of ecosystem degradation and biodiversity depletion.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7011]
+{org:en}
+If the needs and aspirations of the inhabitants are not satisfied or as a response to frustration raised by the environmental side effects, reactive responses occur in the social sphere
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:7012]
+{org:en}
+these can include passive responses such as malnutrition, poverty, disease, disputes, and suffering, or active responses from riots and environmental migration at one end of the scale, to altered expectations, policy changes, and altered manipulation routines in the landscape, etc., at the other.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:7013]
+{org:en}
+A Land-Use Decision is also a Water Decision
+{/org}
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+cnt(109334396:08, 100947128:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7014]
+{org:en}
+Besides air movement, the generation of side-effects of such unavoidable manipulations with land and water is closely linked to water’s function in the landscape.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+On one hand, water partitioning may be altered when land-use changes, influencing infiltration, evaporation, and transpiration
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+on the other, water’s role as a mobile solvent, transporting pollutants around so that they may reach flora and fauna.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7017]
+{org:en}
+Finally, water cycle continuity tends to generate a long series of chain effects, cascading impacts from the atmosphere to the land and the terrestrial ecosystems, and on to the groundwater, the rivers, lakes and aquatic ecosystems, and the coastal waters and their ecosystems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Changes caused in terms of water partitioning alterations and introduction of pollutants to the flowing water are carried downstream in the aquifer or river.
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+Water mobility therefore links upstream activities in a catchment with downstream problems and opportunities.
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+{org:en}
+In that sense, downstreamers are basically the "prisoners" of the upstreamers.
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+Their main tool is advocacy, convincing the upstreamers that they have to enter certain constraints on their interactions with the passing water for the benefits of the downstreamers.
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+Principally they may offer some sort of compensation in terms of money, oil or other mode of exchange.
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+Upstream/Downstream Compromise Building
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+The downstream phenomena and activities that may be impacted by activities upstream include both direct water use by various groups of stakeholders (households, industry, irrigated agriculture, etc.), and ecological services provided by riparian wetlands, aquatic ecosystems, and coastal ecosystems respectively.
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+[S:7026]
+{org:en}
+Since downstream effects are felt both as a result of water partitioning changes upstream that are linked to land-use changes (clearing, reforestation, etc.), and to water-carried pollutants (wastewater outlets, leached agricultural chemicals, etc,), sound freshwater management has to include both land- and water-use.
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+Conflicting water interests and goal conflicts involved between those upstream and those downstream leads to the need for compromise building and reconciliation of stakeholder and ecosystem interests.
+{/org}
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+In such compromise building, criteria are needed to secure environmental sustainability.
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+A straightforward set of such criteria are that land must remain productive
+{/org}
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+water must remain usable all the way down to the mouth
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+crops, fish, and meat must remain edible
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+and crucial ecosystem services must be protected.
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+[S:7033]
+{org:en}
+Figure 3
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+Key linkages between land, water, and ecosystems
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+[S:7035]
+{org:en}
+The simple graph in Figure 3 shows key linkages between land, water, and ecosystems, and three ways by which human activities influence land, vegetation, and terrestrial ecosystems, on the one hand, and the water in rivers and aquifers, and the aquatic ecosystems there, on the other
+{/org}
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+dams, reservoirs, etc. to change the seasonality of the river flow, generally increasing the dry season flow by saving water from the wet season, thereby also reducing flood flows
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+[S:7040]
+{org:en}
+indirectly by manipulation of the land and vegetation through clearing, agricultural chemicals, etc.
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+This often influences the soil permeability increasing the surface runoff and hurting the vegetation through soil degradation.
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+{org:en}
+When land-use involves intensified biomass production, green water flow may increase at the expense of the blue water flow.
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+
+[S:7043]
+{org:en}
+This is the reason why the earlier indicated permits are required in South Africa for afforestation and reforestation after more than five years.
+{/org}
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+[S:7044]
+{org:en}
+Another example of the linkages is the large-scale campaign at present in South Africa, employing 42 000 people in clearing the land of an alien vegetation (earlier introduced by forest companies) that lacks natural enemies and is highly water-consumptive.
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+
+[S:7045]
+{org:en}
+By this country-wide operation, South Africa hopes to gain an additional 10 percent of runoff for the benefit of meeting growing water needs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:7046]
+{org:en}
+The Water Scarcity Syndrome
+{/org}
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+mod(105116953:0F, 107935504:09)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:7047]
+{org:en}
+Water Shortage Problems for Plant Production
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7048]
+{org:en}
+The value for vegetation and for human activities of a certain amount of rainfall depends entirely on the thirstyness of the atmosphere, in other words the evaporative demand.
+{/org}
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+This demand is higher the warmer and drier the atmosphere is.
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+{org:en}
+The global pattern of surplus rainfall over this evaporative demand is shown in Figure 4.
+{/org}
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+[S:7051]
+{org:en}
+It is thought-provoking to note that most of the low income countries with rapid population growth are within the deficiency region.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+This means that in order to secure an acceptable quality of life for their burgeoning populations, these countries have to cope with water shortages.
+{/org}
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+[S:7053]
+{org:en}
+As populations have grown, this has become more and more difficult, and since these countries are poor, they face additional hardship from poor access to trained manpower, knowledge, and technology, as well as the possibility of financing the structures that are needed to cope with the difficulties linked to the climatically-based water deficiency.
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+obj(202217266:6F.@progress, 104931965:6T.@def.@pl)
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+and:01(100949619:59.@entry, 100023271:4U)
+man:02(400099341:1I, 400099341:9T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7054]
+{org:en}
+Figure 4
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "4":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7055]
+{org:en}
+The global pattern of surplus of rainfall over evaporative demand
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105938795:0D.@entry.@def, 115669511:0O)
+aoj(302924428:1D, 101061333:1P)
+aoj(600000049:18, 115689316:0Z)
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+aoj(600000049:18, 115689316:0Z)
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+obj(600000049:18, 101061333:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7056]
+{org:en}
+In the deficiency regions food production has also met difficulties.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201079480:1H.@entry.@complete, 105221895:0K.@def.@pl)
+mod(105221895:0K.@def.@pl, 105113133:09)
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+mod(100522736:0X.@topic, 100021265:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7057]
+{org:en}
+The water requirements of crops depend on the length of growing season.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0Y.@entry, 115669633:0C.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(115669633:0C.@topic.@def.@pl, 107935504:06)
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+obj(115669633:0C.@topic.@def.@pl, 103134496:0S.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7058]
+{org:en}
+It basically corresponds to the evaporative demand during the rainy season or vegetation period.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201006810:0F.@entry, 600000016:02)
+obj(600000415:1P, 303161889:1S)
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+aoj(303161889:1S, :01.@entry)
+aoj(600000415:1P, 101061333:1A.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7059]
+{org:en}
+It varies somewhat between different crops dependent on whether they take in the carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis in daytime or at night.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303160998:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+obj(201189113:2Q, 114796969:2B.@def)
+aoj(300490413:0T, 103134496:13.@pl)
+obj(600000010:0L, 103134496:13.@pl)
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+obj(201189113:2Q, 114796969:2B.@def)
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+obj(600000010:0L, 103134496:13.@pl)
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+tim(113537429:31, :01:01)
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+aoj(300047406:19, 103134496:13.@pl)
+obj(200304100:1Z.@should, 114796969:2B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7060]
+{org:en}
+The resulting crop yields depend on the degree to which water and nutrient requirements are being met.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0S.@entry, 104612722:0L.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(115669633:25.@entry.@pl, 100021734:1W)
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+obj(201079480:2S.@progress, :01:01)
+gol(201079480:2S.@progress, 105094565:16.@def)
+mod(104612722:0L.@topic.@def.@pl, 103134496:0G)
+obj(202663848:0S.@entry, 105094565:16.@def)
+obj(200340704:06.@progress, 104612722:0L.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200340704:06.@progress, 104612722:0L.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(115669633:25.@entry.@pl, 107935504:1M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7061]
+{org:en}
+They may therefore be deficient for several alternative reasons
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300052012:0O.@entry.@may, 600000020:02.@topic)
+mod(105651680:1M.@pl, 600000059:12)
+mod(105651680:1M.@pl, 600000059:12)
+obj(300052012:0O.@entry.@may, 105651680:1M.@pl)
+man(300052012:0O.@entry.@may, 400043003:0B)
+mod(105651680:1M.@pl, 300564667:1A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7062]
+{org:en}
+climatic deficiency, or lack of rainfall where rainfall is lower than the water requirements of the crop
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:01.@entry, 115689316:0Y)
+bas(301206474:1P, 115669633:2A.@def.@pl)
+plc(301206474:1P, 115689316:0Y)
+mod(115669633:2A.@def.@pl, 107935504:24)
+bas(301206474:1P, 115669633:2A.@def.@pl)
+plc(301206474:1P, 115689316:0Y)
+mod(115669633:2A.@def.@pl, 107935504:24)
+aoj:01(303055374:02, 105113133:0B)
+obj(115669633:2A.@def.@pl, 103134496:2U.@def)
+or:01(114449405:0Q.@entry, 105113133:0B)
+man(301206474:1P, 400099341:8L)
+man(301206474:1P, 400099341:8L)
+aoj(301206474:1P, 115689316:1D.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7063]
+{org:en}
+soil deficiency, that is, lack of soil permeability so that the rain cannot infiltrate properly into the soil, or lack of water holding capacity so that water will not stay in the root zone.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000189:3H, 105113133:35.@entry)
+or:02(114449405:66.@entry, 109335240:5X.@def)
+mod(104940496:43, 109335240:3Y)
+obj:02(600000084:71, 200117985:7O.@should.@will.@not)
+pur(114449405:3Q, 600000084:4G)
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+gol(201913363:54.@should.@ability.@not, :02)
+or:02(114449405:66.@entry, 109335240:5X.@def)
+mod(104940496:43, 109335240:3Y)
+obj:02(600000084:71, 200117985:7O.@should.@will.@not)
+pur(114449405:3Q, 600000084:4G)
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+gol(201913363:54.@should.@ability.@not, :02)
+mod:02(105611062:85.@def, 105308310:80)
+obj(600000189:3H, 114449405:3Q)
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+obj(201913363:54.@should.@ability.@not, 105045208:4S.@def)
+plc:02(200117985:7O.@should.@will.@not, 105611062:85.@def)
+mod(105113133:35.@entry, 109335240:30)
+obj:02(114449405:66.@entry, 107935504:6E)
+obj(600000084:4G, 201913363:54.@should.@ability.@not)
+obj:02(114449405:66.@entry, 107935504:6E)
+obj(600000084:4G, 201913363:54.@should.@ability.@not)
+agt:02(200117985:7O.@should.@will.@not, 107935504:79)
+obj(114449405:3Q, 104940496:43)
+obj:02(200004492:6K.@progress, 100720951:6S)
+man(201913363:54.@should.@ability.@not, 400196203:5F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7064]
+{org:en}
+Also in this case water requirements cannot be met
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201079480:1D.@entry.@past.@ability.@not, 600000186:07)
+man(600000186:07, 400047534:02)
+man(600000186:07, 400047534:02)
+mod(115669633:0Q.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0K)
+obj(201079480:1D.@entry.@past.@ability.@not, 115669633:0Q.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7065]
+{org:en}
+plant deficiency, or lack of root uptake capacity due to plant damage during periods of dry spells or otherwise.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:01.@entry, 100720951:2N)
+man(107159791:42.@pl, 600000301:4C)
+mod(113571580:2G, 105308310:2B)
+aoj(300137725:2W, 100720951:2N)
+mod(100403092:39, 100017222:33)
+man(107159791:42.@pl, 600000301:4C)
+mod(113571580:2G, 105308310:2B)
+aoj(300137725:2W, 100720951:2N)
+mod(100403092:39, 100017222:33)
+mod:01(105113133:1O, 100017222:1I)
+dur(100403092:39, 106843520:3N.@pl)
+or:01(114449405:23.@entry, 105113133:1O)
+aoj(300799953:3Y, 107159791:42.@pl)
+obj(300137725:2W, 100403092:39)
+aoj(300799953:3Y, 107159791:42.@pl)
+obj(300137725:2W, 100403092:39)
+mod(100720951:2N, 113571580:2G)
+mod(106843520:3N.@pl, 107159791:42.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7066]
+{org:en}
+In this case the plant cannot benefit from the existing soil water around the roots
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202290956:0W.@entry.@ability.@not, 600000186:02)
+mod(107935504:1R.@def, 109335240:1M)
+plc(107935504:1R.@def, 600000077:1X)
+mod(107935504:1R.@def, 109335240:1M)
+plc(107935504:1R.@def, 600000077:1X)
+rsn(202290956:0W.@entry.@ability.@not, 107935504:1R.@def)
+obj(202290956:0W.@entry.@ability.@not, 100017222:0J.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000077:1X, 105308310:28.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000077:1X, 105308310:28.@def.@pl)
+mod(107935504:1R.@def, 301731786:1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7067]
+{org:en}
+nutrient deficiency, or lack of enough nutrients in the soil.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:01.@entry, 100021734:3I.@pl)
+plc(100021734:3I.@pl, 109335240:3Z.@def)
+plc(100021734:3I.@pl, 109335240:3Z.@def)
+mod:01(105113133:2O, 100021734:2F)
+or:01(114449405:33.@entry, 105113133:2O)
+mod(100021734:3I.@pl, 600001343:3B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7068]
+{org:en}
+Where all rain infiltrates the situation in Figure 5 prevails.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200777793:1J.@entry, 115689346:02)
+obj(201913363:0H, 105045208:0C)
+mod(100556992:1A, "5":1H)
+obj(201913363:0H, 105045208:0C)
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+plc(113925752:0X.@topic.@def, 100556992:1A)
+obj(200777793:1J.@entry, 113925752:0X.@topic.@def)
+mod(105045208:0C, 300521584:08)
+mod(105045208:0C, 300521584:08)
+plc(201913363:0H, 115689346:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7069]
+{org:en}
+The zero line indicates that there is exactly enough water to meet crop water requirements.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200923793:0G.@entry, 202603699:14)
+pur(107935504:1M, 201079480:1V)
+aoj(202603699:14, 107935504:1M)
+mod(115669633:2B.@pl, 107935504:25)
+pur(107935504:1M, 201079480:1V)
+aoj(202603699:14, 107935504:1M)
+mod(115669633:2B.@pl, 107935504:25)
+qua(101204294:0B.@topic.@def, "0":06)
+obj(201079480:1V, 115669633:2B.@pl)
+aoj(200923793:0G.@entry, 101204294:0B.@topic.@def)
+mod(107935504:1M, 600001343:1F)
+mod(107935504:1M, 600001343:1F)
+man(202603699:14, 400535569:17)
+mod(107935504:25, 103134496:20)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7070]
+{org:en}
+Below that line there is green water deficiency and reduced crop yields, beyond it there is blue water surplus, recharging rivers and aquifers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202603699:2J.@entry, 202603699:0O)
+man(202603699:0O, 600000091:02)
+and:02(109411430:3K.@pl, 115669511:30)
+mod:01(104612722:1V.@entry.@pl, 103134496:1Q)
+obj(600000261:23, 600000016:2A)
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+mod:01(104612722:1V.@entry.@pl, 103134496:1Q)
+obj(600000261:23, 600000016:2A)
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+man(202603699:2J.@entry, 600000261:23)
+mod(101204294:0D, 600000050:08)
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+mod:01(105113133:13, 107935504:0X)
+aoj(202603699:2J.@entry, :02)
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+obj:02(200518288:39.@progress, 109411430:3K.@pl)
+bas(600000091:02, 101204294:0D)
+obj:02(200518288:39.@progress, 109411430:3K.@pl)
+aoj:01(300375969:0R, 105113133:13)
+and:02(109201998:3V.@entry.@pl, 109411430:3K.@pl)
+aoj:01(301213090:1I, 104612722:1V.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(202603699:0O, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7071]
+{org:en}
+If rainfall is below the zero line, blue water has to be added to achieve full yield.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200182406:1N.@entry.@obligation, 600000131:0H)
+aoj(300364881:12, 107935504:17.@topic)
+obj(202526085:1W, 104612722:29)
+qua(101204294:0W.@def, "0":0R)
+aoj(300364881:12, 107935504:17.@topic)
+obj(202526085:1W, 104612722:29)
+qua(101204294:0W.@def, "0":0R)
+pur(200182406:1N.@entry.@obligation, 202526085:1W)
+bas(600000131:0H, 101204294:0W.@def)
+obj(200182406:1N.@entry.@obligation, 107935504:17.@topic)
+aoj(600000131:0H, 115689316:05.@topic)
+aoj(600000131:0H, 115689316:05.@topic)
+aoj(300106020:24, 104612722:29)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7072]
+{org:en}
+Even if there is rainfall enough but only part of it infiltrates, a similar deficiency situation emerges so that blue water has to be added
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200423971:2R.@entry, 113925752:2H.@topic.@indef)
+obj:01(201913363:1J.@entry, 103892891:18)
+aoj(301409581:1Y, 113925752:2H.@topic.@indef)
+obj(600000137:02, :01:01)
+obj(200182406:3S.@obligation, 107935504:3C)
+aoj:01(202603699:0G.@entry, 115689316:0J)
+obj:01(201913363:1J.@entry, 103892891:18)
+aoj(301409581:1Y, 113925752:2H.@topic.@indef)
+obj(600000137:02, :01:01)
+obj(200182406:3S.@obligation, 107935504:3C)
+aoj:01(202603699:0G.@entry, 115689316:0J)
+man(200423971:2R.@entry, 600000137:02)
+obj(600000084:2Z, 200182406:3S.@obligation)
+mod:01(103892891:18, 303161004:13)
+man(200423971:2R.@entry, 600000084:2Z)
+mod:01(103892891:18, 600000016:1G)
+mod:01(103892891:18, 600000016:1G)
+mod(113925752:2H.@topic.@indef, 105113133:26)
+and:01(201913363:1J.@entry, 202603699:0G)
+aoj(300364881:37, 107935504:3C)
+aoj:01(600001343:0S, 115689316:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7073]
+{org:en}
+Figure 5
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "5":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7074]
+{org:en}
+Rain infiltrates
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201913363:07.@entry, 105045208:02.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7075]
+{org:en}
+The diagram illustrates the prevailing hydroclimate in sub-Saharan Africa and southern Asia, and shows the effects of interannual rainfall fluctuations between rather wet and rather dry years (the extreme years are outside the ribbon).
+{/org}
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+:03.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7076]
+{org:en}
+Therefore, the diagram suggests that green water scarcity and deficient crop yields would be typical over large parts of those regions, at least during dry years even if all rainfall infiltrates.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:7077]
+{org:en}
+Green water scarcity can be expected most years in the semi-arid region, often in the dry subhumid region, and during drought years in the wet subhumid region.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:7078]
+{org:en}
+Extra Water is Crucial in Dry Climate Regions
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7079]
+{org:en}
+Dry climate regions do not allow for fair crop yields unless extra water is added through some sort of irrigation.
+{/org}
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+[S:7080]
+{org:en}
+Different water sources may provide the irrigation water.
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+
+[S:7081]
+{org:en}
+Irrigation can be based on water withdrawal from a passing river, on pumped water from a groundwater aquifer, or on water harvesting of local rainfall or runoff collection from flashfloods in small rivulets.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7082]
+{org:en}
+Irrigation may also have the aim of allowing a second or even a third crop.
+{/org}
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+[S:7083]
+{org:en}
+Recent research has shown that, by simple drought-proofing devices and supplementary irrigation, yield gaps due to dryspells or low rainfall during dry years can be reduced.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7084]
+{org:en}
+We can therefore conclude that humanity’s genuine dependence on freshwater is reflected in particular development problems experienced in dry climate tropics and subtropics with high evaporative demand.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:7085]
+{org:en}
+These difficulties are compounded by the fact that the lowest-income countries tend to be largely concentrated in these regions, i.e. the regions with monsoon climate (dry and wet seasons), highly-variable precipitation, high evaporative demand, recurrent drought years, and low rainwater surpluses available to recharge aquifers and rivers.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:7086]
+{org:en}
+This makes water management a crucial component of socioeconomic development and improved quality of life in these countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7087]
+{org:en}
+Basic Regional Differences in Water Predicament
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7088]
+{org:en}
+We have concluded that there are considerable problems with crop production in large parts of the tropics and subtropics, and that secure food production depends on irrigation, whether by withdrawal from rivers and aquifers, by rainfall harvesting, or by runoff collection in small local rivulets.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200715074:0A.@entry.@complete, :04:04)
+aoj:04(202603699:0Y, 105687338:1F.@pl)
+mod:03(101014066:7O.@entry, 100183357:7H)
+man:04(202663848:4L.@entry, 600000088:58)
+mod:04(100522736:1Y, 103134496:1T)
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+obj:04(600000019:1O, 100522736:1Y)
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+or:03(101014066:7O.@entry, 115689835:6Z)
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+mod:04(100522736:1Y, 103134496:1T)
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+aoj:04(202663848:4L.@entry, 100522736:4A.@topic)
+obj:04(600000019:1O, 100522736:1Y)
+or:03(115689835:6Z, 100053913:5M)
+or:03(101014066:7O.@entry, 115689835:6Z)
+and:01(108674344:36.@entry, 108665281:2U.@def.@pl)
+mod:04(100522736:4A.@topic, 100021265:45)
+and:04(202663848:4L.@entry, 202603699:0Y)
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+aoj:03(301106405:88, 109415938:8E.@pl)
+obj:04(600000065:59, :03)
+aoj:04(300527870:2C, 103892891:2I)
+aoj:04(302093305:3Y, 100522736:4A.@topic)
+agt(200715074:0A.@entry.@complete, 600000005:02.@topic)
+aoj:04(600000019:1O, 105687338:1F.@pl)
+aoj:03(301391351:82, 109415938:8E.@pl)
+obj:04(600000088:58, 600000065:59)
+aoj:04(600000019:1O, 105687338:1F.@pl)
+aoj:03(301391351:82, 109415938:8E.@pl)
+obj:04(600000088:58, 600000065:59)
+mod:04(103892891:2I, :01)
+and:02(109201998:6D.@entry.@pl, 109411430:62.@pl)
+obj:04(202663848:4L.@entry, 100695448:4W)
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+mod:03(115689835:6Z, 115689316:6Q)
+plc:03(101014066:7O.@entry, 109415938:8E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7089]
+{org:en}
+Let us now proceed to a study of blue water availability in rivers and shallow aquifers when linked to the population size.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(200496673:02.@entry, 200341560:0D)
+aoj:01(300691696:21, 109201998:29.@entry.@pl)
+obj(104345028:0Q.@indef, 115668897:1A)
+gol(200341560:0D, 104345028:0Q.@indef)
+mod(115668897:1A, 107935504:14)
+aoj:01(300691696:21, 109201998:29.@entry.@pl)
+obj(104345028:0Q.@indef, 115668897:1A)
+gol(200341560:0D, 104345028:0Q.@indef)
+mod(115668897:1A, 107935504:14)
+tim(200341560:0D, 202774319:2N)
+mod(105095691:3C.@def, 101257969:31)
+aoj(300364881:0Z, 115668897:1A)
+obj(200496673:02.@entry, 600000005:06)
+gol(202774319:2N, 105095691:3C.@def)
+plc(115668897:1A, :01:01)
+gol(202774319:2N, 105095691:3C.@def)
+plc(115668897:1A, :01:01)
+man(200341560:0D, 115119919:09)
+and:01(109201998:29.@entry.@pl, 109411430:1Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7090]
+{org:en}
+How large is the population pressure on the available water?
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100113113:0U.@entry.@interrogative.@def, :01)
+aoj(300183053:1A, 107935504:1K.@def)
+aoj(300183053:1A, 107935504:1K.@def)
+mod(100113113:0U.@entry.@interrogative.@def, 101257969:0J)
+plc(100113113:0U.@entry.@interrogative.@def, 107935504:1K.@def)
+man:01(300527870:06.@entry, 400536278:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7091]
+{org:en}
+How many individuals collectively depend on each flow unit of water available in the landscape?
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:10.@entry.@interrogative, 110203839:0B.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105869857:1K, 100329227:1F)
+mod(105869857:1K, 107935504:1S)
+qua(110203839:0B.@topic.@pl, 600000028:06.@qfocus)
+mod(105869857:1K, 100329227:1F)
+mod(105869857:1K, 107935504:1S)
+qua(110203839:0B.@topic.@pl, 600000028:06.@qfocus)
+man(202663848:10.@entry.@interrogative, 400535547:0N)
+scn(300183053:1Y, 103640011:2F.@def)
+obj(202663848:10.@entry.@interrogative, 105869857:1K)
+aoj(300183053:1Y, 107935504:1S)
+aoj(300183053:1Y, 107935504:1S)
+mod(105869857:1K, 600000848:1A)
+man(600000028:06.@qfocus, 400536278:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7092]
+{org:en}
+How much of that water is already put to use and what is the remaining potential?
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(114482620:21.@interrogative.@entry.@def, 202775369:14)
+qua(107935504:0J.@topic, 600000277:02)
+obj(202775369:14, 107935504:0J.@topic)
+qua(107935504:0J.@topic, 600000277:02)
+obj(202775369:14, 107935504:0J.@topic)
+mod(114482620:21.@interrogative.@entry.@def, 303162326:1R)
+aoj(114482620:21.@interrogative.@entry.@def, 600000048:1F.@topic)
+mod(107935504:0J.@topic, 600000050:0E)
+mod(107935504:0J.@topic, 600000050:0E)
+man(202775369:14, 400031798:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7093]
+{org:en}
+Figure 6
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "6":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7094]
+{org:en}
+The main world regions when categorized in terms of use-to-availability ratio
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(105221895:0H.@entry.@def.@pl, 200657260:0U.@past)
+mod(113819207:22, 600000256:1I)
+man(200657260:0U.@past, 600000087:16)
+mod(113819207:22, 600000256:1I)
+man(200657260:0U.@past, 600000087:16)
+mod(105221895:0H.@entry.@def.@pl, 303161269:0B)
+mod(105221895:0H.@entry.@def.@pl, 301512527:06)
+obj(600000087:16, 113819207:22)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7095]
+{org:en}
+Figure 6 shows the main world regions when categorized in terms of use-to-availability ratio (how large a part of the available water that is already put to use) and population pressure (how many individuals that have to share each flow unit of water).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0B.@entry, 100556992:02.@topic)
+aoj:01(300527870:2S.@entry, 103892891:30.@indef)
+agt:02(201063930:67.@obligation, 110203839:5I.@entry.@pl)
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+man:01(202775369:4C, 400031798:40)
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+obj:01(202775369:4C, 107935504:3M.@def)
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+man:03(100113113:4Z.@entry, :02.@parenthesis)
+aoj:01(300527870:2S.@entry, 103892891:30.@indef)
+agt:02(201063930:67.@obligation, 110203839:5I.@entry.@pl)
+man(200657260:19, 600000087:1L)
+man:01(202775369:4C, 400031798:40)
+mod:02(105869857:6N, 600000848:6D)
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+obj:01(202775369:4C, 107935504:3M.@def)
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+mod:03(113819207:2H, 600000256:1X)
+obj(200923307:0B.@entry, 105221895:0W.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(103892891:30.@indef, 107935504:3M.@def)
+man:02(600000028:5D.@qfocus, 400536278:59)
+and:03(100113113:4Z.@entry, 113819207:2H)
+cnt:03(113819207:2H, :01.@parenthesis)
+tim(200923307:0B.@entry, 200657260:19)
+man:01(300527870:2S.@entry, 400536278:2O)
+qua:02(110203839:5I.@entry.@pl, 600000028:5D.@qfocus)
+obj(600000087:1L, :03)
+man:01(300527870:2S.@entry, 400536278:2O)
+qua:02(110203839:5I.@entry.@pl, 600000028:5D.@qfocus)
+obj(600000087:1L, :03)
+mod(100556992:02.@topic, "6":09)
+mod:02(105869857:6N, 100329227:6I)
+mod(105221895:0W.@def.@pl, 303161269:0Q)
+aoj:01(300183053:3C, 107935504:3M.@def)
+mod:02(105869857:6N, 107935504:6V)
+mod:03(100113113:4Z.@entry, 101257969:4O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7096]
+{org:en}
+The diagram demonstrates tremendous differences in terms of the water resources management predicament
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202521816:0E.@entry, 103186399:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(114408646:2L.@def, 101133281:2A)
+aoj(303161779:0R, 104748836:12.@pl)
+mod(114408646:2L.@def, 101133281:2A)
+aoj(303161779:0R, 104748836:12.@pl)
+aoj(600000118:1E, 104748836:12.@pl)
+mod(105154676:20.@pl, 107935504:1U)
+obj(202521816:0E.@entry, 104748836:12.@pl)
+mod(101133281:2A, 105154676:20.@pl)
+mod(101133281:2A, 105154676:20.@pl)
+obj(600000118:1E, 114408646:2L.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7097]
+{org:en}
+the world divides into five clusters with clearly different current situations
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200642098:38.@entry, 105670972:32.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300490413:4C, 113925752:4U.@pl)
+qua(115668974:3Q.@pl, "5":3L)
+aoj(300490413:4C, 113925752:4U.@pl)
+qua(115668974:3Q.@pl, "5":3L)
+aoj(600000019:3Z, 115668974:3Q.@pl)
+man(300490413:4C, 400039058:44)
+gol(200642098:38.@entry, 115668974:3Q.@pl)
+aoj(300666058:4M, 113925752:4U.@pl)
+aoj(300666058:4M, 113925752:4U.@pl)
+obj(600000019:3Z, 113925752:4U.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7098]
+{org:en}
+truly water-scarce regions with high population pressure on water resources, technically close to the ceiling, altogether 1.6 billion inhabitants in 1995 with rapid population expansion
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000019:0T, 105221895:0L.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300979697:4O, 100365709:55)
+man(600000143:2J, 600000018:4J)
+plc(100113113:1E, 105154676:1W.@pl)
+man:01(109620078:3V.@entry.@pl, 600000252:38)
+obj(300016756:0E, 107935504:08)
+man(600000143:2J, 400126837:27)
+aoj(600000143:2J, 105154676:1W.@pl)
+aoj(300979697:4O, 100365709:55)
+man(600000143:2J, 600000018:4J)
+plc(100113113:1E, 105154676:1W.@pl)
+man:01(109620078:3V.@entry.@pl, 600000252:38)
+obj(300016756:0E, 107935504:08)
+man(600000143:2J, 400126837:27)
+aoj(600000143:2J, 105154676:1W.@pl)
+obj(600000018:4J, 100365709:55)
+man(300016756:0E, 400037226:02)
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+qua:01("1000000000000":3N, "1.6":3J)
+aoj(300016756:0E, 105221895:0L.@entry.@pl)
+mod(100365709:55, 101257969:4U)
+tim(600000143:2J, "1995":4E)
+aoj(300705498:0Y, 100113113:1E)
+mod(100365709:55, 101257969:4U)
+tim(600000143:2J, "1995":4E)
+aoj(300705498:0Y, 100113113:1E)
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+obj(600000019:0T, 100113113:1E)
+and:01(109620078:3V.@entry.@pl, 102990373:2Z.@def)
+mod(105154676:1W.@pl, 107935504:1Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7099]
+{org:en}
+the "water spenders", i.e. regions with moderate to high use-to-availability ratio, moderate population pressure, and very high per capita water use due to large-scale, low efficiency irrigation, altogether 0.3 billion and a rather stable population
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115689159:0O, :01.@entry.@double_quote)
+mod:03(100695448:56, 105644527:4V)
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+and:03("1000000000000":5X, 100695448:56)
+aoj(301509367:16, 105221895:0T.@pl)
+aoj:04(301509367:2E, 100113113:2Y)
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+and:02(301206474:4R.@entry, 301388418:4E)
+obj:04(300137725:47, :03)
+rsn:04(100947128:43.@entry, 300137725:47)
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+man:04(400501291:3M, 600000261:3H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7100]
+{org:en}
+an average set of regions, moderate in all three senses (use-to-availability ratio, population pressure, and per capita use), altogether 2.5 billion, some with ongoing population expansion
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(100113113:2P, 113819207:27)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7101]
+{org:en}
+a group of water-rich regions with low use-to-availability ratio, low population pressure, and moderate per capita use, altogether 0.8 billion, and a rather stable population
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100031264:04.@entry.@indef, 105221895:0O.@pl)
+qua:02("1000000000000":3T, "0.8":3P)
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+aoj:02(300894551:4F, 101257969:4M.@entry.@indef)
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+man:02("1000000000000":3T, 600000252:3E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7102]
+{org:en}
+an outlying group with low use-to-availability ratio and per capita use, altogether 0.4 billion, but a rapidly growing population.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000019:0K, 100031264:0E.@entry.@indef)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7103]
+{org:en}
+Water management involves different kinds of problems in different positions in the diagram.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200401538:0J.@entry, 101133281:08.@topic)
+plc(100083448:1X.@pl, 103186399:2E.@def)
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+aoj(300490413:0S, 105839024:12.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7104]
+{org:en}
+When use-to-availability is already high, there is not much more water to mobilize to meet rising demands.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(202603699:1E.@entry, 300705498:12)
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+man(400099341:1Q, 400053744:1L)
+mod(101061333:2S.@pl, 301642843:2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7105]
+{org:en}
+The solution is therefore to control the demands or transfer water from one use to another, for example from irrigated farms to growing cities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7106]
+{org:en}
+To move vertically in the diagram involves more and more reservoirs where wet season water can be stored for dry season needs, more and more canals and pipelines to bring water to urban areas with high water needs, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(202281093:2S.@ability, 107935504:2F)
+aoj(301159405:24, 107935504:2F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7107]
+{org:en}
+It is also getting increasingly costly.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+gol(200120796:0D.@entry.@progress, 300933599:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7108]
+{org:en}
+European experience suggests an increase in national spending of the order of 20 percent by ratio.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(101122149:1J, 301105840:1A)
+aoj(302968325:02, 105758059:0B.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7109]
+{org:en}
+When, on the other hand, the "water crowding" is growing, competition for water increases.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200153263:2A.@entry, 200094460:1F.@progress)
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+obj(200094460:1F.@progress, :01:01.@double_quote)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7110]
+{org:en}
+To move horizontally in the diagram in other words involves increasing dispute proneness between sectors and between upstream and downstream populations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200401538:1H.@entry, 104943578:29)
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+obj:02(600000024:33.@entry, 101257969:3Z.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7111]
+{org:en}
+It also means increasing pollution load, since more and more people tend to increase pollution for each flow unit of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7112]
+{org:en}
+Most industrial countries in the temperate zone have less than 600 people per million cubic meters of water (one flow unit).
+{/org}
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+mod:01(105869857:3C.@entry, 100329227:37)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7113]
+{org:en}
+Signs of water stress are evident above 600 p/flow unit.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161365:0S.@entry, 106646243:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000025:1B, 105869857:1H)
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+mod(105869857:1H, 100329227:1C)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7114]
+{org:en}
+By 1 000 p/flow unit chronic water scarcity starts to be evident.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(201075164:19.@entry, 303161365:1M)
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+mod(105116953:10, 107935504:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7115]
+{org:en}
+The result is that managing water scarcity in regions with rapid population growth tends to be demanding.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(105116953:13.@topic, 107935504:0X)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7116]
+{org:en}
+For regions where most water resources have already been mobilized and made accessible for use, i.e. in the upper part of the diagram, there is no potential water left to mobilize and put to use.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7117]
+{org:en}
+In some regions in the lower part of the diagram, like the outlying group of the sub-Saharan African regions, it is difficult to get hold of more water, although for a different reason
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7118]
+{org:en}
+small rivers are ephemeral and carry water only during rain storms, i.e. a limited period of the year, and the large rivers are international and accessible only after international agreements.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7119]
+{org:en}
+Tremendous efforts are needed to make more water accessible
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201189113:0P.@entry.@past, 100621627:0D.@topic.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7120]
+{org:en}
+reservoirs and distribution networks to store and distribute the rainy season rainfall, and skilful negotiation with neighboring countries to arrive at allocation agreements on the shared rivers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:02(600000019:4V, 108168978:5C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7121]
+{org:en}
+Implications for Food Production
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(107238102:07.@entry.@pl, 100522736:0T)
+mod(100522736:0T, 100021265:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7122]
+{org:en}
+Since crop production is so water-intensive, the diagram can also be used to get an idea of the difficulties involved in growing enough food for the increasing world population.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(201158572:1Z.@entry.@ability, 301512275:10)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7123]
+{org:en}
+Let us consider the population growth during say the next 25 years
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+dur(108438067:0X.@def, 115201505:1R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7124]
+{org:en}
+the water needed for food self-sufficiency may be calculated and compared to the available resources, assuming that infiltrated rainwater supplies half of the water requirement of the crop, while the rest has to be provided by blue water irrigation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:01.@entry, 107935504:22.@topic.@def)
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+obj(115669633:6M.@def, 103134496:75.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7125]
+{org:en}
+The results suggest the risk of severe global food insecurity in regions that will host more than half the world population by 2025.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+tim(201194418:2D.@will, "2025.":3L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7126]
+{org:en}
+Large populations live in countries which are already close to the "ceiling", where there is no more water available to satisfy demand.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300099290:0K.@entry, 101257969:08.@topic.@pl)
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+qua(107935504:2V, 400099341:2Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7127]
+{org:en}
+Other regions will most probably meet massive problems in mobilizing enough water, although it may well be available in principle.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7128]
+{org:en}
+Lack of data on the resource base, lack of trained manpower, and lack of financial resources for all the structures needed will most probably form an effective barrier to self-sufficient food production.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7129]
+{org:en}
+Thus, major changes in global food production, food transfer, and trade patterns, may be foreseen.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202775222:2J.@entry.@past.@may, 400121135:02)
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+mod:01(100522736:11, 100021265:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7130]
+{org:en}
+Adding the Coping Capability Dimension
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200182406:07.@entry.@progress, 105093581:10.@def)
+mod(105093581:10.@def, 105202497:0P)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7131]
+{org:en}
+As already indicated, climbing up the vertical use-to-availability axis in the diagram in order to mobilize a larger part of the available water resource and make it accessible for use depends upon access to reservoirs, energy, coping capability, and money to finance the structures involved.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(200012267:4G.@entry, 200270005:2T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7132]
+{org:en}
+This makes coping capability crucial.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7133]
+{org:en}
+Table 1 shows the relative population distribution in 1995 in terms of use-to-availability ratio and access to coping capability (using the GNP per capita as proxy).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7134]
+{org:en}
+The table suggests that there is massive deficiency in terms of technical competence, a competence which seems to be mainly concentrated in countries hosting only about 20 percent of the world population.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{org:en}
+Table 1
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+The relative population distribution in 1995 in terms of use-to-availability ratio and access to coping capability (using the GNP per capita as proxy)
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+Overcoming the Sectorization Scourge
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+Many Different Water Functions to be Mastered
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+the health authorities are interested in water supply and sanitation in order to protect against water-related diseases, which otherwise lead to high morbidity and mortality
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+the agricultural authorities are responsible for crop production in order to keep famines away and improve nutrition levels, thereby generating raised water requirements and frequently causing land degradation
+{/org}
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+[S:7144]
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+the economic development authority is responsible for industrial production and generation of income, thereby generating increasing water requirements for production processes, cooling water, etc., but generally also increasing pollution loads.
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+{org:en}
+Figure 7
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7146]
+{org:en}
+Cycling water – its multiple function
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+
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+Not only are there many different sectors of society involved in water management, but there are also many different professions involved with differing water interests and different perspectives to the water in the landscape.
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+One can therefore say that each exposes the disciplinarity characterizing the profession
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+listening to HTM1 engineers HTM2 , it is easy to get the impression that water management is mainly equal to provision of water supply, pipes, well drilling, pumps, dams behind which water can be stored, hydropower stations contributing to the energy supply, etc.
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+listening to HTM1 limnologists HTM2 , one might think that water is equal to a body surrounding fish and algae, where samples are taken to follow how the concentrations of dissolved substances change with time
+{/org}
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+with HTM1 hydrologists HTM2 , the focus is mainly on water balance or water partitioning, relating to questions of which pathways take water through the landscape, the water flow in rivers, the water stages in lakes, and water tables of groundwater aquifers.
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+finally, HTM1 agronomists HTM2 often have their water interests focused on irrigation
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+The water needed in rainfed agriculture often tends to be seen as part of the soil.
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+[S:7156]
+{org:en}
+Linking Professionals
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+All these professionals are of course right in a limited sense, but exposing tunnel views
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+they see only a limited part of water reality.
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+Water biases are met everywhere.
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+In the temperate zone, for instance, widespread water blindness manifests among both politicians and the general public.
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+Water scarcity is seldom a problem since the climate is humid and evaporative demand is low or moderate.
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+This means that water can often be taken for granted.
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+In terms of constraints of plant production, focus is directed to energy and nutrients, and in terms of water management in general the focus is on water supply tarriffs, water pollution, ecological consequences, the deterioration of biodiversity, and so on.
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+While much interest is paid to water pollution, not much is done to mitigate its effects.
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+In developed as well as developing regions, there is somewhat of a water pollution paralysis, i.e. a willful neglect of the fact that water pollution continues to expand.
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+One possible scenario is that society will be threatened with a hydrocide, i.e. a situation when the water available in the landscape can no longer be used for any practical purpose.
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+The developed regions have been more or less successful in waste water treatment from municipalities and industries.
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+In terms of waste water and the production and disposal of industrial waste, the developing regions have tended to copy the approach from the western countries
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+Challenge for the Future
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+Handling Complexity
+{/org}
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+This would be equivalent to a corresponding river depletion.
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+Such river depletion phenomena are already identifiable, for example, in the Yellow River, the Aral Sea basin, the Colorado River, the River Nile, and the Pangani.
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+In such a situation the conventional conception about freshwater needs referring only to the use of liquid water will turn out to be grossly insufficient.
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+Instead, the original freshwater resource has to be seen as the precipitation over a river basin.
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+This resource is to support consumptive water use from an intensified biomass production, including attention to ecological services from terrestrial ecosystems.
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+It is only the surplus that can go to recharge aquifers and rivers.
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+The scale of the efforts required during the next few decades have been identified in the huge World Water Vision project, involving 15 000 people from different regions of the world.
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+This study has brought attention to the major shifts in governance that will be needed in order to cope with the massive challenges ahead.
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+Each discipline must agree to participate in that approach and learn to bridge their respective understandings.
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+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
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+Annually recharged amount of liquid freshwater flow.
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+Comparative hydrology
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+Physical, chemical, and biological processes of an ecosystem benefiting humanity.
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+Peaceful sharing of water between different stakeholders along a river.
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+Approach by which parallel attention is paid to several perspectives
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+water quantity and quality
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+aoj(303162290:02, 100201671:0F.@entry)
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+overall way of seeing a phenomenon or problematique.
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+Liquid with capacity to dissolve other substances.
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+Water with adequate quality for use.
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+Large number of individuals per unit of blue water availability.
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+mod(100581772:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
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+{org:en}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:7278]
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+Cosgrove W. J. and Rijbersman F. R. (2000).
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+[S:7283]
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+Population and the Future of Renewable Water Supplies
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+Population Action International, Washington D.C.
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+Richly illustrated with data from 100 countries by 1955, 1990 and 2025.
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+{org:en}
+Falkenmark M.
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+Meeting water requirements of an expanding world population.
+{/org}
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+Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Biological Sciences
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+The Royal Society, London. pp. 929-936.
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+A study of water availability constraints to food selfsufficiency in different regions of the world, indicating that already by 2025 more than half the world population will be living in regions where water accessibility constraints will hinder food self-sufficiency.
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+[S:7296]
+{org:en}
+Falkenmark M
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7297]
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+Forward to the future
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+[S:7298]
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+AMBIO
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+[/S]
+
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+Stockholm. pp. 356-361.
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+A short and clear exposition of key relations between society and water in the landscape, presented as 1998 Volvo Environment Prize Lecture.
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+Water for a Starving World
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+[/S]
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+[S:7305]
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+Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
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+[S:7307]
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+Falkenmark M. and Lundqvist J. (1997).
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+[S:7308]
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+World freshwater problems
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+mod(115689095:08, 105670972:02)
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+[S:7309]
+{org:en}
+Call for a new realism.
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+aoj(300024996:14, 105151869:18.@indef)
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+[S:7310]
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+Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater Resources of the World. Background Report No. 1, 53 pp.
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+Stockholm Environment Institute.
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+[S:7312]
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+The publication was produced as a background report to the international Comprehensive Assessment study presented to the Special Session of the UN General Assembly in June 1997.
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+[S:7314]
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+Falkenmark M. and Chapman C., eds (1989).
+{/org}
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+tim(200200397:0W.@past.@entry, "1989":11.@parenthesis)
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+[/S]
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+[S:7315]
+{org:en}
+Comparative Hydrology.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302990954:02, 106119729:0E.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7316]
+{org:en}
+An Ecological Approach to Land and Water Resources.
+{/org}
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+to(100280853:0G.@entry.@indef, 105154676:17.@pl)
+mod(105154676:17.@pl, 107935504:11)
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+[S:7317]
+{org:en}
+Paris
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+[W]
+112469372:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7318]
+{org:en}
+UNESCO.
+{/org}
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+[W]
+500323519:09.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7319]
+{org:en}
+Basic source, summarizing similarities and differences of hydrological phenomena in temperate as opposed to tropical, arid as opposed to humid climate, and slopelands as opposed to flatlands.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7320]
+{org:en}
+Lundqvist J., ed. (2000).
+{/org}
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+agt(200200397:0G.@past.@entry, 500323005:02)
+tim(200200397:0G.@past.@entry, "2000":0L.@parenthesis)
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+[S:7321]
+{org:en}
+New Dimensions in Water Security
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+mod(100823316:0Q, 107935504:0K)
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+[S:7322]
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+82 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115669681:13.@entry, "82":10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7323]
+{org:en}
+AGL/MISC/25/2000.
+{/org}
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+[W]
+500323975:1A.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7324]
+{org:en}
+FAO, Rome.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(115690910:02.@entry, 500002215:07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7325]
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+Up-to-date interdisciplinary exposition of conceptual renewal, key interactions between human society, freshwater and ecosystems in the landscape, and different generations of water management approaches.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:7326]
+{org:en}
+Murakami M.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323387:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7327]
+{org:en}
+Managing Water for Peace in the Middle East
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202436349:02.@entry.@progress, 107935504:0B)
+plc(106773976:0L, 115668722:0Y.@def)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:7328]
+{org:en}
+Alternative Strategies
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106249177:1N.@pl.@entry, 300564667:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7329]
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+309 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115669681:23.@entry, "309":1Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7330]
+{org:en}
+UN University Press, Tokyo.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500324328:27.@entry, 500003907:2S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7331]
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+A set of review studies on arid zone hydrology and water resources development and management in the main river basins across the Middle East.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:02(101133281:2J.@entry, 100250259:23)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7332]
+{org:en}
+Ohlsson L. ed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200200397:0D.@past.@entry, 500323365:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7333]
+{org:en}
+Hydropolitics
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7334]
+{org:en}
+Conflicts over Water as a Development Constraint
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:7335]
+{org:en}
+Zed Books, London.
+{/org}
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+plc(500323968:02.@entry, 500008271:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7336]
+{org:en}
+A book bringing together a number of articles on different aspects on the relations between human society and water resources and their political implications.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(107935504:34.@entry, 107966140:2S)
+and:02(107238102:44.@entry.@pl, 105154676:3A.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7337]
+{org:en}
+Rockstr?m J., Gordon L., Falkenmark M., Folke C., and Engval, M. (1999).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323385:1L.@entry, 500323012:17)
+and(500323018:0H, 500323114:02)
+and(500323018:0H, 500323114:02)
+and(500322983:0S, 500323018:0H)
+and(500323012:17, 500322983:0S)
+[W]
+"1999":1X.@parenthesis.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7338]
+{org:en}
+Humanity’s dependence on water vapor flows for terrestrial ecosystem services and food production.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(100522736:2H.@entry, 100098625:1Z.@pl)
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+and:01(100522736:2H.@entry, 100098625:1Z.@pl)
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+mod:01(100522736:2H.@entry, 100021265:2C)
+mod(100329227:13.@pl, 115055633:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7339]
+{org:en}
+Conservation Ecology
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106070929:03.@entry, 100819274:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7340]
+{org:en}
+August.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115212455:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7341]
+{org:en}
+Exposition of the green water flows involved in plant production in forests and woodlands, grasslands, wetlands, and croplands, defining the overall human appropriation of green water flow.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(106741993:02.@entry, 100329227:0W.@def.@pl)
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+obj:02(200957378:3M.@progress, 100083975:4D.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7342]
+{org:en}
+Rockstr?m J. and Falkenmark M. (2000).
+{/org}
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+[W]
+"2000":0Z.@parenthesis.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7343]
+{org:en}
+Semi-arid crop production from a hydrological perspective
+{/org}
+{unl}
+frm(100522736:0H.@entry, 104676308:1C.@indef)
+man(300806991:07, 600000658:02)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7344]
+{org:en}
+gap between potential and actual yields.
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+and:01(300043765:2F.@entry, 300044353:21)
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+
+[S:7345]
+{org:en}
+Critical Reviews in Plant Science
+{/org}
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+scn(100897811:0B.@pl.@entry, 105999797:0S)
+mod(105999797:0S, 100017222:0M)
+mod(100897811:0B.@pl.@entry, 300647542:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7346]
+{org:en}
+A recent article identifying the huge window of opportunity in terms of yield increase in rainfed semiarid agriculture, provided that the roots can be protected from plant damage during frequent dryspells.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(100022903:0B.@entry.@indef, 201128193:4C.@past.@ability)
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+aoj(600000118:1Q, 115669527:1E)
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+mod(104587648:14.@def, 115669527:1E)
+dur(100403092:4X, 115692686:5K.@pl)
+mod(100363260:28, 104612722:22)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:7347]
+{org:en}
+The tool is protective irrigation based on local water harvesting.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(115689835:1L, 107935504:1F)
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+aoj(302351064:10, 100695448:0P.@entry)
+aoj(301106405:19, 115689835:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7348]
+{org:en}
+Shiklomanov I. A. (1997).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323325:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+"1997":0L.@parenthesis.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7349]
+{org:en}
+Assessment of water resources and water availability of the world.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115668897:16.@entry, 105146055:02)
+obj(105146055:02, 105154676:0M.@pl)
+obj(105146055:02, 105154676:0M.@pl)
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+mod(115668897:16.@entry, 105670972:1Q.@def)
+mod(105154676:0M.@pl, 107935504:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7350]
+{org:en}
+Background Report to the Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater Resources of the World.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+to(106681551:0D.@entry, 105146055:15.@def)
+mod(105154676:1Y.@def.@pl, 115689095:1N)
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+aoj(300525453:0R, 105146055:15.@def)
+obj(105146055:15.@def, 105154676:1Y.@def.@pl)
+mod(106681551:0D.@entry, 102769075:02)
+mod(105154676:1Y.@def.@pl, 105670972:2F.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7351]
+{org:en}
+Stockholm Environment Institute and World Meteorological Organization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(108302919:12.@entry, 500323923:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7352]
+{org:en}
+Compilation of global data on water availability, quality and use, dividing the world into 26 more or less homogenous regions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200642098:1X.@progress, 101014731:02.@entry)
+aoj(303162231:31, 105221895:3C.@pl)
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+obj(200642098:1X.@progress, 105670972:2A.@def)
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+and:01(100947128:1S.@entry, 104723816:1G)
+qua(105221895:3C.@pl, "26":2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7353]
+{org:en}
+Widstrand C., ed. (1978).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200200397:0G.@past.@entry, 500323082:02)
+tim(200200397:0G.@past.@entry, "1978":0L.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7354]
+{org:en}
+Water and Society, Conflicts in Development
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(107966140:0C.@entry, 107935504:02)
+scn(100958896:0M.@entry.@pl, 100250259:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7355]
+{org:en}
+Part I
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103892891:1C.@entry, "1":1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7356]
+{org:en}
+The Social and Ecological Effects of Water Development in Developing Countries
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02, 104809642:2A.@entry.@def.@pl)
+mod(108168978:3H.@pl, 301302544:36)
+plc(100250259:2R, 108168978:3H.@pl)
+mod(108168978:3H.@pl, 301302544:36)
+plc(100250259:2R, 108168978:3H.@pl)
+mod(104809642:2A.@entry.@def.@pl, 100250259:2R)
+and:02(302906478:1Z.@entry, 301076634:1O)
+mod(100250259:2R, 107935504:2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7357]
+{org:en}
+127 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115669681:3V.@entry, "127":3R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7358]
+{org:en}
+Pergamon Press, Oxford.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323892:3Z.@entry, 103868406:4F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7359]
+{org:en}
+Studies presented at a seminar on the exploitation of water resources in Africa and India.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200772967:0A.@entry.@past, 104345028:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105154676:1Q.@pl, 107935504:1K)
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+mod(105154676:1Q.@pl, 107935504:1K)
+obj(100418903:14.@def, 105154676:1Q.@pl)
+plc(100892145:0P.@indef, 100418903:14.@def)
+plc(200772967:0A.@entry.@past, 100892145:0P.@indef)
+and:01(500003815:2E.@entry, 500005179:23)
+and:01(500003815:2E.@entry, 500005179:23)
+plc(105154676:1Q.@pl, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7360]
+{org:en}
+Two major areas are highlighted
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200041206:0M.@entry.@past, 102735688:0C.@topic.@pl)
+mod(102735688:0C.@topic.@pl, 301471002:06)
+qua(102735688:0C.@topic.@pl, "2":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7361]
+{org:en}
+problems of arranging public water supply and problems of irrigated agriculture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105687338:0Z.@entry.@pl, 200735571:1B.@progress)
+aoj:01(300493297:1L, 113563522:1Y)
+mod:01(105687338:29.@entry.@pl, 108075287:2V)
+aoj:01(300493297:1L, 113563522:1Y)
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+and:01(105687338:29.@entry.@pl, 113563522:1Y)
+obj(200735571:1B.@progress, :01:01)
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+mod:01(113563522:1Y, 107935504:1S)
+obj:01(200079951:2L.@past, 108075287:2V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7362]
+{org:en}
+Widstrand C., ed. (1980).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200200397:0G.@past.@entry, 500323082:02)
+tim(200200397:0G.@past.@entry, "1980":0L.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7363]
+{org:en}
+Water and Society
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(107966140:0C.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7364]
+{org:en}
+Conflicts in Development
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(100958896:0M.@entry.@pl, 100250259:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7365]
+{org:en}
+Part 2
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103892891:1C.@entry, "2":1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7366]
+{org:en}
+Water Conflicts and Research Priorities
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105047279:2D.@pl.@entry, 100958896:1Q.@pl)
+mod(100958896:1Q.@pl, 107935504:1K)
+mod(105047279:2D.@pl.@entry, 100636921:24)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7367]
+{org:en}
+199 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115669681:2T.@entry, "199":2P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7368]
+{org:en}
+Pergamon Press, Oxford.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323892:2X.@entry, 103868406:3D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7369]
+{org:en}
+An analysis of conflicts in the use and development of water resources, highlighting social aspects and knowledge gaps.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(:02.@entry, 100634276:05.@indef)
+obj(100634276:05.@indef, 100958896:0H.@pl)
+mod:02(104752859:38.@entry.@pl, 100023271:2Y)
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+and:02(104752859:38.@entry.@pl, 104733118:2M.@pl)
+obj(:01, 105154676:1R.@pl)
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+mod:02(104733118:2M.@pl, 301076634:2F)
+mod(105154676:1R.@pl, 107935504:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7370]
+{org:en}
+Particular attention is paid to linkages between land use and water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200737884:0Q.@entry.@past, 101228645:0D.@topic)
+mod:01(100947128:1K, 109334396:1F)
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+gol(200737884:0Q.@entry.@past, 100148978:0Y.@pl)
+mod(101228645:0D.@topic, 300311044:02)
+mod(101228645:0D.@topic, 300311044:02)
+and:01(107935504:1S.@entry, 100947128:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7371]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161322:02, 104227144:0F.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7372]
+{org:en}
+Malin Falkenmark HTM1 , Professor Emerita of Applied and International Hydrology at the Natural Science Research Council, is tied to the Dept of Systems Ecology at Stockholm University, and to the Stockholm International Water Insitute (SIWI) where she is in charge of the scientific programme of the annual Stockholm Water Symposia.
+{/org}
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+In the 1990s, she became increasingly clear about the crucial role of the global water cycle as the bloodstream of the biosphere, deeply involved not only in human life support but also in generating environmental side effects from human efforts to harvest water, energy, and biomass from the natural landscape.
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+
+[S:7378]
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+Professor Falkenmark is a Global 500 Laureate and has been awarded the Swedish KTH Great Prize, the International Hydrology Prize and the prestigious Volvo Environment Prize.
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+{org:en}
+INDUSTRIAL WATER
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+INDUSTRIAL WATER
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+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7381]
+{org:en}
+Yasumoto Magara
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7382]
+{org:en}
+Professor of Engineering, HTM1 Hokkaido HTM2 University HTM3 Sapporo HTM4 Japan
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7383]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7384]
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+circulated use, concentration rate, cooling water, resistivity, ultra-pure water.
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+
+[S:7385]
+{org:en}
+Contents
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+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7386]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
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+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+Industrial water consumption
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+Cooling water
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+Ultra-pure water
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+
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+Circulated use of water in main industries
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+
+[S:7391]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7392]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7393]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7394]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7395]
+{org:en}
+Summary
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+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+Many industries use water for their production, and this water often requires particular properties such as solubility, transportation potential, or heat exchanging potential.
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+Water in industries is consumed for boiler make-up, processing, product treatment and cleaning, cooling, etc.
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+{org:en}
+The quantity of water consumption differs between the types of industries.
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+The steel, chemical, and pulp and paper industries are major users of large quantities of water per unit price of products because they use fresh water for cooling, cleaning and product processing.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Cooling water comprise the majority of the consumption of industrial water.
+{/org}
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+Ultra-pure wateris the result of currently available technologies which remove the impurities as much as possible to approach theoretical HTM1.
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+Ultra-pure water removes those impurities such as suspended solid components, dissolved gas components, and microbes as much as possible with state-of-art technologies.
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+[S:7409]
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+Therefore, ultra-pure water cannot be defined chemically but it is a general term that has a certain range of the quality.
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+[S:7410]
+{org:en}
+LSI manufacturing processes require ultra-pure water with very high quality for cleaning not to cause contamination to silicon wafers or computer chips from water.
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+Industrial water consumption affects the production cost as well as the conservation of limited water resources
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+therefore, many industrial installations make efforts to reduce their water consumption by introducing in-factory water recycling systems in combination with wastewater treatment systems.
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+The circulated use of water is usually applied to indirect systems, which are easily maintained due to absence of pollution in the systems.
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+In the circulated use of water, soluble salts are concentrated in the system as evaporation proceeds.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7415]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the quality of water should be controlled to avoid corrosion, deposition of scale, or generation of slime.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7416]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7417]
+{org:en}
+Many industries use water for their production, and this water often requires particular properties of water such as solubility, transportation potential, or heat exchanging potential.
+{/org}
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+[S:7418]
+{org:en}
+Water in industries is consumed for boiler make-up, processing, product treatment and cleaning, cooling, etc.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:7419]
+{org:en}
+Boilers are used to produce hot water, steam, or hyper-thermal water.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7420]
+{org:en}
+The required water quality is usually different for each purpose since many types of boilers are used for generating electricity, heating processes or products, providing steam or hot water, etc.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:7421]
+{org:en}
+Generally speaking, the boiler water must be at least non-corrosive and non-scale forming in the boiler and in the heat exchange piping, or power generating system.
+{/org}
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+or:02(104377057:45.@entry, 100101708:3F.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7422]
+{org:en}
+Processing water is used as a raw material or additive in brewery, ice making, beverages, food processing, synthetic fiber processing, and dissociation bath application.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7423]
+{org:en}
+The purpose of processing water thus differs between these and the quality must comply with the requirements.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7424]
+{org:en}
+The processing water, especially in food related factories, must be clean and pathogen free.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7425]
+{org:en}
+Water for product treatment and cleaning is used for physical processes such as cleaning, swelling, or dissolving raw material, intermediate products and final products.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:7426]
+{org:en}
+The quality and quantity of water for product treatment and cleaning vary owing to manufacturing process and final product.
+{/org}
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+[S:7427]
+{org:en}
+The quality level required for chemical, food, textile and pulp/paper industry is high.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7428]
+{org:en}
+Semiconductor processing water, in particular, requires the highest quality of water, so called 'ultra-pure water', because silicon wafers or computer chips need sub-micron precision and no contaminants, regardless of particulate or dissolved forms, are allowed on the surface.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:7429]
+{org:en}
+Previously, semiconductor factories used organic solvents to clean the products, but this caused serious soil and groundwater contamination.
+{/org}
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+Ultra-pure water works as the optimal cleaning agent with no contamination or hazard to humans or the environment.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7431]
+{org:en}
+Industrial water consumption affects the production cost as well as the conservation of limited water resources, so many industrial installations make efforts to reduce their water consumption by introducing in-factory water recycling systems in combination with wastewater treatment systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7432]
+{org:en}
+Industrial water consumption
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100356367:0I.@entry, 107935504:0C)
+aoj(301188648:02, 107935504:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7433]
+{org:en}
+The quantity of water consumption differs between the types of industries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202666239:0Z.@entry, 105108740:06.@topic.@def)
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+man(202666239:0Z.@entry, 600000010:17)
+mod(105108740:06.@topic.@def, 100356367:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7434]
+{org:en}
+In order to evaluate water consumption many industries use unit consumption, i.e. the quantity of water needed to produce a product in monetary term, e.g. HTM1 day-1 to produce one hundred million yen (or one million US ) of industrial product per year.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201158572:1K.@entry, 115689159:26)
+aoj(600000025:4J, HTM1:4B)
+mod(105108740:2F.@def, 107935504:2R)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7435]
+{org:en}
+Figure 1 shows the trends of unit consumption in HTM1 Japan HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0B.@entry, 100556992:02.@topic)
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+mod(100356367:10, 105869857:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7436]
+{org:en}
+The average quantity of water consumption is almost steady at 50 HTM1 day-1 (100 mil. yen year-1)-1 in total.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7437]
+{org:en}
+However, there is a big difference between the type of industries, which depends on the purpose of water utilization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202603699:0H.@entry, 600000010:11)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7438]
+{org:en}
+The steel, chemicals, and pulp and paper industries are major industries which uses a large quantity of water per unit price of products because they use fresh water for cooling, cleaning and product processing.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:7439]
+{org:en}
+Figure 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "1":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7440]
+{org:en}
+Unit consumption of industrial water in various industries
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(100356367:07.@entry, 100923444:1D.@pl)
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+aoj(303160904:15, 100923444:1D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7441]
+{org:en}
+There is wide difference in unit consumption of water between the types of industry.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000010:1K, 104504486:1W.@def.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7442]
+{org:en}
+No clear trend has been observed in these values in the last ten years or so.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300004296:1M, 115201505:1V.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7443]
+{org:en}
+The total consumption of industrial water increased from 17.9 billion HTM1 year-1 in 1965 to 54.1 billion HTM2 year-1 in 1995, as shown in Figure 2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:17.@entry.@past, 100356367:0C.@topic.@def)
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+tim(HTM2:3A, "1995":40)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7444]
+{org:en}
+The source of industrial water is classified into recycled water and make-up water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7445]
+{org:en}
+Recycled water is used repeatedly with or without water treatment in the factory, and make-up water means fresh water either supplied by public water supply sector or treated by the factory itself.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7446]
+{org:en}
+As shown in Figure 2, significant amounts of water are recycled year by year.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201162425:1L.@entry, 600000008:02)
+obj(600000008:02, 200923307:05.@past)
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+aoj(300625055:0O, 100033615:10.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7447]
+{org:en}
+On the other hand, make-up water is almost constant in these years.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300583239:13.@entry, 600000146:02)
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+tim(300583239:13.@entry, 115201505:1L.@pl)
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+aoj(300583239:13.@entry, 107935504:0M)
+man(300583239:13.@entry, 400073033:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7448]
+{org:en}
+Figure 2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "2":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7449]
+{org:en}
+Consumption and recycle rate of industrial water in HTM1 Japan
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7450]
+{org:en}
+There are two major reasons for increasing the recycling rate.
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+
+[S:7451]
+{org:en}
+Firstly, the exploitation of new water sources, either surface water or groundwater, has become more and more difficult from the viewpoint of water resource conservation and environmental protection.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7452]
+{org:en}
+Increasing the water resource for industry means constructing new facilities such as a reservoir, for more effective utilization of run-off water during heavy rain, because surface water resources in HTM1 Japan HTM2 as in other countries, are fully utilized by traditional and conventional irrigation and public water supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(400535865:61, 103593222:5Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7453]
+{org:en}
+The development of water resource has been increasingly difficult due to reduced opportunities to acquire appropriate dam sites and high costs of compensation to local residents.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7454]
+{org:en}
+The unit development cost for dams in HTM1 Japan HTM2 ranges from 10 to 30 HTM3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201204439:1K.@entry, 113275847:0N.@topic.@def)
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+mod(113275847:0N.@topic.@def, 100250259:0B)
+plc(113275847:0N.@topic.@def, 103593222:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7455]
+{org:en}
+If industrial water is acquired from a reservoir, there will be additional cost for transportation, treatment, and distribution facilities, so newly developed industrial water will cost 50 to 200 HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+src(202288295:0R, 104078574:17.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7456]
+{org:en}
+Although industrial water is essential for their activities, a limitation is imposed by the additional cost on the price of products.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(202774421:26.@entry, 600000038:02)
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+mod(113275847:2W.@def, 303161014:2L)
+mod(100407535:1E.@pl, 600000020:18.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7457]
+{org:en}
+Groundwater is the most attractive alternative for industrial water because it only needs a well, a pumping facility and, if necessary, a treatment plant in the factory.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7458]
+{org:en}
+Groundwater exploitation has, therefore, been implemented by many industries, but soil subsidence has often occurred as a result of over-exploitation of groundwater.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000169:0W.@entry, 202408965:1C.@complete)
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+man(200723349:32.@complete, 600000056:3B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7459]
+{org:en}
+Groundwater has been extracted at a rate much higher than the natural recharge to the aquifer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+to(115689206:20.@def, 109201998:2G.@def)
+man(300705498:1C, 400053744:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7460]
+{org:en}
+Soil subsidence has worsened in many urban and industrial areas and caused adverse effects on buildings, roads, bridges and other structures.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7461]
+{org:en}
+The use of groundwater for industrial purposes has, therefore, been restricted by the soil subsidence prevention law.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(400043003:1I.@entry, 200233335:1Y.@complete)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7462]
+{org:en}
+As a result, many factories have to reduce their consumption of fresh water and enhance the reuse of wastewater after appropriate treatment.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7463]
+{org:en}
+Another reason to enforce water reuse is the national regulation regarding wastewater discharge to ambient water environment by total mass pollutants.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7464]
+{org:en}
+In order to protect water bodies from pollution, wastewater discharge from industries is regulated by very stringent law.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:7465]
+{org:en}
+Many industries have consequently reduced their fresh water consumption and increased wastewater reuse in the factories.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100356367:1P, 107935504:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7466]
+{org:en}
+As shown in Figure 2, the recycling rate of industrial water to total consumption of industrial water increased from 36% in 1965 to 77% in 1995.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301188648:19, 107935504:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7467]
+{org:en}
+Table 1 shows the consumption of recycled water and make-up water (fresh water) by industry and the recycling rate of the industrial water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0A.@entry, 104379243:02.@topic)
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+obj:01(201162425:18.@past, 107935504:1G)
+ins:03(100356367:0Q.@def, 100923444:2R)
+mod:03(113325010:3O.@entry.@def, 100948868:3F)
+mod:01(107935504:1X.@entry, 115690084:1Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7468]
+{org:en}
+Table 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "1":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7469]
+{org:en}
+Consumption of make-up water and recycled water by industry (1996)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100356367:02.@entry, :01:01)
+mod:01(107935504:0O, 115690084:0H)
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+tim(100356367:02.@entry, "1996":1P.@parenthesis)
+obj:01(201162425:0Y.@past, 107935504:16.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7470]
+{org:en}
+Many different industries use recycled water, but they have some common applications, i.e. product treatment and cleaning, cooling water, boiler and temperature control.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201158572:0S.@entry, 600000037:1B)
+qua(100036061:21.@pl, 600000034:1P)
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+obj(201158572:0S.@entry, 107935504:14)
+obj(115689159:2F, 100803617:4I)
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+agt(201158572:0S.@entry, 100923444:0H.@topic.@pl)
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+qua(100923444:0H.@topic.@pl, 600000028:02)
+and:02(105011790:46.@entry, 102863750:3V)
+aoj(115689159:2F, 100036061:21.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7471]
+{org:en}
+Table 2 shows the consumption of industrial water and the recycling rate in each purpose.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0A.@entry, 104379243:02.@topic)
+mod:01(113325010:1W.@entry.@def, 100948868:1N)
+obj(100356367:0K.@def, :01:01)
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+mod:01(113325010:1W.@entry.@def, 100948868:1N)
+obj(100356367:0K.@def, :01:01)
+mod(104379243:02.@topic, "2":08)
+obj(200923307:0A.@entry, 100356367:0K.@def)
+mod(105982152:29, 600000848:24)
+plc(200923307:0A.@entry, 105982152:29)
+aoj:01(301188648:0Z, 107935504:19.@def)
+aoj:01(301188648:0Z, 107935504:19.@def)
+and:01(113325010:1W.@entry.@def, 107935504:19.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7472]
+{org:en}
+Cooling water is largely consumed in every industry so that more efficient use has been devised.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(200600903:0Q.@entry, 600000084:1H)
+mod(107935504:09.@topic, 113453160:02)
+man(200600903:0Q.@entry, 400006105:0I)
+aoj(300839619:1U, 100947128:24)
+mod(107935504:09.@topic, 113453160:02)
+man(200600903:0Q.@entry, 400006105:0I)
+aoj(300839619:1U, 100947128:24)
+scn(200600903:0Q.@entry, 100923444:18)
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+obj(200600903:0Q.@entry, 107935504:09.@topic)
+obj(600000084:1H, 202229412:2H.@complete)
+obj(600000084:1H, 202229412:2H.@complete)
+mod(100923444:18, 600000301:12)
+man(300839619:1U, 400099341:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7473]
+{org:en}
+As a result, the recycling rate is high.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300705498:10.@entry, 600000159:02)
+mod(113325010:0S.@topic.@def, 100948868:0J)
+aoj(300705498:10.@entry, 113325010:0S.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7474]
+{org:en}
+Almost 90% of water is repeatedly used.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:10.@entry, :1C.@topic)
+qua(:1C.@topic, "90%":09)
+qua(:1C.@topic, "90%":09)
+mod(:1C.@topic, 107935504:0G)
+man(201158572:10.@entry, 400176880:0P)
+man("90%":09, 400073033:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7475]
+{org:en}
+Table 2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "2":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7476]
+{org:en}
+Water consumption and recycling rate
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(113325010:0W.@entry, :01)
+obj(:01, 107935504:02)
+and:01(100948868:0N.@entry, 100356367:07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7477]
+{org:en}
+Cooling water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689501:09.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7478]
+{org:en}
+Water quality management of cooling water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(101133281:0G.@entry, 115689501:0U)
+mod(104723816:08, 107935504:02)
+mod(101133281:0G.@entry, 104723816:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7479]
+{org:en}
+Cooling water comprises the largest part of the consumption of industrial water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774449:0G.@entry, 115689501:02.@topic)
+obj(100356367:1E.@def, 115693888:1T)
+aoj(300527870:0U, 103892891:12.@def)
+obj(100356367:1E.@def, 115693888:1T)
+aoj(300527870:0U, 103892891:12.@def)
+mod(103892891:12.@def, 100356367:1E.@def)
+obj(202774449:0G.@entry, 103892891:12.@def)
+man(300527870:0U, 400536271:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7480]
+{org:en}
+Due to the huge water consumption in each plant, cooling water is generally reused in order to save the acquisition cost and the water resource.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774308:26.@entry, 600000001:02)
+aoj(303161154:0D, 115691631:0I.@def)
+obj(200549552:2P, :01)
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+obj(202774308:26.@entry, 115689501:1F.@topic)
+man(100017222:18, 400535919:13)
+and:01(105154676:3T.@entry.@def, 115694704:2Y.@def)
+man(100017222:18, 400535919:13)
+and:01(105154676:3T.@entry.@def, 115694704:2Y.@def)
+obj(600000044:2D, 200549552:2P)
+plc(115691631:0I.@def, 100017222:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7481]
+{org:en}
+The cooling water reuse may result in impairment by scale, slime, or corrosion caused by the concentration of soluble salts inside the circulation systems, due to evaporation or emission of cooling water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774178:0U.@entry.@may, 115689531:0K.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000187:3G, 105717342:3A.@pl)
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+obj(600000035:75, :01)
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+met(201645601:28, 100375071:2M.@def)
+aoj(600000187:3G, 105717342:3A.@pl)
+or:01(113453428:1Y.@entry, 115690053:1P)
+obj(:02, 115689501:5A)
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+met(201645601:28, 100375071:2M.@def)
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+obj(600000187:3G, 104377057:43.@def.@pl)
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+obj(202774178:0U.@entry.@may, 100403334:14)
+aoj(302265015:33, 105717342:3A.@pl)
+or:01(115690053:1P, 101902877:1I)
+aoj(302265015:33, 105717342:3A.@pl)
+or:01(115690053:1P, 101902877:1I)
+or:02(101253060:4Y.@entry, 113572436:4J)
+obj(201645601:28, :01)
+obj(600000001:4C, :02)
+obj(100375071:2M.@def, 105717342:3A.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7482]
+{org:en}
+Therefore, quality control of cooling water is a very important factor in the operation of cooling water systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(400043003:02.@entry, 105858317:1T.@indef)
+obj(100409211:27.@def, 104377057:2Y.@pl)
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+aoj(301275562:1J, 105858317:1T.@indef)
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+obj(100803617:0K.@topic, 115689501:0V)
+aoj(105858317:1T.@indef, 100803617:0K.@topic)
+mod(104377057:2Y.@pl, 115689501:2K)
+mod(104377057:2Y.@pl, 115689501:2K)
+man(301275562:1J, 400031899:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7483]
+{org:en}
+The quality standards of cooling water are shown in Table 3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200923307:18.@entry, 104301140:0D.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(104301140:0D.@topic.@def.@pl, 115689501:0Q)
+mod(104301140:0D.@topic.@def.@pl, 115689501:0Q)
+mod(104379243:1H, "3":1N)
+plc(200923307:18.@entry, 104379243:1H)
+mod(104301140:0D.@topic.@def.@pl, 104723816:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7484]
+{org:en}
+Circulated water is the water that is repeatedly used in cooling water systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(107935504:0Q.@entry.@def, 107935504:03.@topic)
+mod(104377057:20.@pl, 115689501:1M)
+plc(201158572:1E, 104377057:20.@pl)
+mod(104377057:20.@pl, 115689501:1M)
+plc(201158572:1E, 104377057:20.@pl)
+obj(201158572:1E, 107935504:0Q.@entry.@def)
+obj(200968211:02.@past, 107935504:03.@topic)
+man(201158572:1E, 400176880:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7485]
+{org:en}
+The quality of circulated water should be monitored and controlled since it is in direct contact with cooling equipment and piping.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(:01.@entry, 600000055:1W)
+obj(600000055:1W, 600000452:2I)
+mod(104723816:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0H)
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+obj(600000055:1W, 600000452:2I)
+mod(104723816:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0H)
+mod(:02, 113453160:2V)
+and:01(200663160:1L.@entry.@should.@past, 202163301:17.@should.@past)
+obj(600000452:2I, :02)
+obj(:01.@entry, 104723816:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000452:2I, 600000016:22)
+aoj(600000452:2I, 600000016:22)
+obj(200968211:0G.@past, 107935504:0H)
+and:02(100101708:3H.@entry, 103294048:33)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7486]
+{org:en}
+Make-up water is the water that is added to circulation systems to compensate for water loss due to evaporation, emission, or blow down.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 107935504:09.@topic)
+or:01(101253060:35, 113572436:2S)
+rsn:02(202249741:1V, 600000001:2L)
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+obj:02(600000001:2L, :01)
+or:01(101253060:35, 113572436:2S)
+rsn:02(202249741:1V, 600000001:2L)
+gol:02(200182406:0Z, 104377057:1K.@pl)
+obj:02(600000001:2L, :01)
+pur:02(200182406:0Z, 202249741:1V)
+mod:02(100067526:2G, 107935504:2A)
+obj:02(200182406:0Z, 107935504:0M.@entry.@def)
+mod(107935504:09.@topic, 115690084:02)
+obj:02(202249741:1V, 100067526:2G)
+mod(107935504:09.@topic, 115690084:02)
+obj:02(202249741:1V, 100067526:2G)
+mod:02(104377057:1K.@pl, 100368302:18)
+or:01(115691034:3G.@entry, 101253060:35)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7487]
+{org:en}
+Concentration ratio is the ratio of the quality of circulated water to that of make-up water as shown in equation (1).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(113819207:0T.@entry.@def, 115669158:02.@topic)
+obj(200968211:1G.@past, 107935504:1H)
+mod(113819207:0T.@entry.@def, 104723816:16.@def)
+plc(200923307:2P.@past, 100185307:2Y)
+obj(200968211:1G.@past, 107935504:1H)
+mod(113819207:0T.@entry.@def, 104723816:16.@def)
+plc(200923307:2P.@past, 100185307:2Y)
+to(113819207:0T.@entry.@def, 600000030:20)
+obj(600000008:2M, 200923307:2P.@past)
+man(113819207:0T.@entry.@def, 600000008:2M)
+mod(600000030:20, 115691293:28)
+mod(600000030:20, 115691293:28)
+mod(104723816:16.@def, 107935504:1H)
+tim(100185307:2Y, "1":38.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7488]
+{org:en}
+Quality of circulated water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104723816:02.@entry, 107935504:0E)
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+
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+{org:en}
+Concentration ratio
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7490]
+{org:en}
+Quality of make-up water
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:7491]
+{org:en}
+The standards in Table 3 assume a common concentration ratio of 2 to 5 in cooling water systems.
+{/org}
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+mod(104377057:2I.@pl, 115689501:24)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:7492]
+{org:en}
+Table 3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "3":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7493]
+{org:en}
+Quality standards of cooling water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(104301140:09.@entry.@pl, 115689501:0M)
+mod(104301140:09.@entry.@pl, 104723816:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:7494]
+{org:en}
+pH
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105039106:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7495]
+{org:en}
+The metal parts used in cooling water systems may suffer from corrosion at lower pH value, while the system will have deposition of scale due to calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and silica ( HTM1 ) at higher pH value.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202775267:1G.@entry.@may, 600000004:2L)
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+plc(200065370:37.@will, 115690400:5Q)
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+aoj(200065370:37.@will, 104377057:2V.@def)
+obj(201158572:0I, 103892891:0C.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+obj(200065370:37.@will, 100208943:3C)
+mod(104377057:14.@pl, 115689501:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7496]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the pH value of cooling water should be controlled in a range of 6 to 8.
+{/org}
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+mod(115690400:0C.@topic.@def, 115689501:0O)
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+obj(200663160:1C.@should.@past, 115690400:0C.@topic.@def)
+fmt:01("8":24.@entry, "6":1Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7497]
+{org:en}
+However, the corrosion properties cannot be evaluated by pH values only HTM1 the other qualities described below should also be considered.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200691312:3M.@entry.@should.@past, 400027384:02)
+mod(104012260:0P.@topic.@def.@pl, 113453428:0F)
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+mod(104723816:2H.@topic.@def.@pl, 600000053:2B)
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+man(200670261:1A.@ability.@not, 400535197:1X)
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+obj(200670261:1A.@ability.@not, 104012260:0P.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+man(200987071:2R, 400079866:31)
+obj(200987071:2R, 104723816:2H.@topic.@def.@pl)
+agt(200670261:1A.@ability.@not, 115690400:1N.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7498]
+{org:en}
+Electrolytic conductivity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302718008:02, 115669512:0F.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7499]
+{org:en}
+Electrolytic conductivity shows the total amount of soluble salts in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0S.@entry, 115669512:0F.@topic)
+aoj(302718008:02, 115669512:0F.@topic)
+qua(100033615:17.@def, 303160907:12)
+aoj(302718008:02, 115669512:0F.@topic)
+qua(100033615:17.@def, 303160907:12)
+mod(100033615:17.@def, 115691901:1H.@pl)
+obj(200923307:0S.@entry, 100033615:17.@def)
+plc(115691901:1H.@pl, 107935504:1Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7500]
+{org:en}
+Soluble salts are a factor of impairment such as corrosion and scale deposition as described above.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105858317:0L.@entry.@indef, 105717342:09.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(100208943:1Y.@entry, 101902877:1S)
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+and:01(100208943:1Y.@entry, 113453428:1E)
+obj(600000029:16, :01)
+aoj(302265015:02, 105717342:09.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7501]
+{org:en}
+Water with high electrolytic conductivity is likely to cause such impairment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300645169:1B.@entry, 107935504:02.@topic)
+obj(600000019:08, 115669512:0V)
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+aoj(300705498:0D, 115669512:0V)
+aoj(600000019:08, 107935504:02.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7502]
+{org:en}
+Make-up water with low electrolytic conductivity increases the concentration ratio of circulated cooling water system and reduces the loss of water because the quality of make-up water is inversely proportional to concentration ratio.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(:01.@entry, 300482673:5J)
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+mod(104723816:4I.@topic.@def, 115691293:4T)
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+obj:01(200153263:1F, 115669158:1T.@def)
+obj:01(600000019:0G, 115669512:12)
+obj:01(200153263:1F, 115669158:1T.@def)
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+aoj(300482673:5J, 104723816:4I.@topic.@def)
+obj:01(200968211:2G.@past, 115689501:2H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7503]
+{org:en}
+The electrolytic conductivity and pH value are easily measured, and thus readily used in routine quality control.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:02.@entry, :01:01)
+mod:02(100803617:2Y, 303161896:2J)
+man:02(201158572:2B.@entry, 400161193:23)
+aoj(302718008:06, :01)
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+man:02(201158572:2B.@entry, 400161193:23)
+aoj(302718008:06, :01)
+scn:02(201158572:2B.@entry, 100803617:2Y)
+man:02(200647094:1K, 400054435:1D)
+and:02(201158572:2B.@entry, 200647094:1K)
+mod:02(100803617:2Y, 104723816:2R)
+mod:02(100803617:2Y, 104723816:2R)
+man:02(400161193:23, 600000141:1Y)
+and:01(115690400:10.@entry.@topic.@def, 115669512:0J.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7504]
+{org:en}
+Chloride ion
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115691683:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7505]
+{org:en}
+Chloride ion is an important factor of corrosion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105858317:0V.@entry.@indef, 115691683:02.@topic)
+aoj(301275562:0L, 105858317:0V.@entry.@indef)
+mod(105858317:0V.@entry.@indef, 113453428:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7506]
+{org:en}
+Use of well water or seawater with high concentration of chloride ion, results in corrosion to piping or equipment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774178:21.@entry, 100947128:02.@topic)
+aoj(600000019:0W, :01)
+or:02(103294048:2Z.@entry, 100101708:2P)
+obj(100375071:16, 115691683:1N)
+aoj(600000019:0W, :01)
+or:02(103294048:2Z.@entry, 100101708:2P)
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+obj(113453428:2C, :02)
+obj(600000019:0W, 100375071:16)
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+or:01(115008847:0N.@entry, 115692457:09)
+obj(100947128:02.@topic, :01:01)
+aoj(300705498:11, 100375071:16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7507]
+{org:en}
+Electricity generation plants, which use seawater for cooling are often equipped with anti corrosion piping and equipment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200513177:22.@entry, 100017222:0P.@topic.@pl)
+obj(201158572:13, 115008847:17)
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+man(200513177:22.@entry, 400059547:1W)
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+man(200513177:22.@entry, 600000018:2A)
+agt(201158572:13, 100017222:0P.@topic.@pl)
+agt(201158572:13, 100017222:0P.@topic.@pl)
+mod(:01, 303162966:2F)
+pur(201158572:13, 113453160:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7508]
+{org:en}
+Sulfuric acid
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668824:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7509]
+{org:en}
+Sulfuric acid as well as chloride ion causes corrosion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201645601:14.@entry, 115668824:02.@topic)
+obj(600000014:0G, 115691683:0R)
+obj(600000014:0G, 115691683:0R)
+aoj(600000014:0G, 115668824:02.@topic)
+obj(201645601:14.@entry, 113453428:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7510]
+{org:en}
+Water with a high concentration of sulfuric acid is not suitable for cooling water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161286:1M.@entry.@not, 107935504:02.@topic)
+aoj(300705498:0F, 100375071:0K.@indef)
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+aoj(300705498:0F, 100375071:0K.@indef)
+obj(600000019:08, 100375071:0K.@indef)
+aoj(600000019:08, 107935504:02.@topic)
+obj(303161286:1M.@entry.@not, 115689501:1Y)
+obj(100375071:0K.@indef, 115668824:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7511]
+{org:en}
+In general, the concentration of sulfate ion is lower than that of chloride ion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(301206474:1E.@entry, 600000266:02)
+mod(100375071:0I.@topic.@def, 109315159:17)
+man(301206474:1E.@entry, 400099341:28)
+mod(100375071:0I.@topic.@def, 109315159:17)
+man(301206474:1E.@entry, 400099341:28)
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+mod(109315159:17, 115063493:0Z)
+mod(600000030:1P, 115691683:1X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7512]
+{org:en}
+If water contains a high concentration of sulfate ion, the water must be aerated to strip sulfur dioxide gas ( HTM1 ) to the air.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(202775414:23.@entry.@obligation, 202701210:0B)
+aoj(300705498:0M, 100375071:0R.@indef)
+cnt(114481080:2Z, HTM1:35.@parenthesis)
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+mod(114481080:2Z, 115064053:2K)
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+mod(100375071:0R.@indef, 109315159:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7513]
+{org:en}
+Methyl-red alkalinity (acid consumption)
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(100356367:0T.@entry, 114607521:0O)
+mod(105039709:0C.@entry, 115692243:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7514]
+{org:en}
+Methyl-red alkalinity is a value that indicates concentration of bicarbonate ion ( HTM1 ), which, in combination with hardness components such as calcium, could cause impairment by generating calcium carbonate scale.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 105039709:0C.@topic)
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+mod:01(109315159:26, 114775729:1U)
+mod:01(101902877:5V, 114632648:5D)
+mod:01(109315159:26, 114775729:1U)
+obj:01(600000029:3V, 114632648:43)
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+aoj:01(600000029:3V, 103081021:3K.@pl)
+obj:01(201645601:4I.@past.@ability, 100403334:4O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7515]
+{org:en}
+Hardness
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+104710588:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7516]
+{org:en}
+Harness is the sum of calcium and magnesium, which is a component of scale in combination with pH and methyl-red alkalinity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105861067:0I.@entry.@def, 104710588:02.@topic)
+mod(103081021:1N.@indef, 101902877:20)
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+mod(103081021:1N.@indef, 101902877:20)
+and:01(114644249:11.@entry, 114632648:0P)
+mod:02(105039709:2Y.@entry, 115692243:2X)
+aoj(103081021:1N.@indef, :01)
+and:02(105039709:2Y.@entry, 105039106:2Q)
+mod(105861067:0I.@entry.@def, :01)
+obj(600000174:26, :02)
+obj(600000174:26, :02)
+man(103081021:1N.@indef, 600000174:26)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7517]
+{org:en}
+The scale is deposited on the heat exchange conductors in cooling equipment, and thus, causes impairment such as reduced heat conductivity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201645601:2F.@entry, 202310855:0F)
+mod(103088707:19.@def.@pl, 100167063:10)
+obj(600000029:2X, 115669512:3I)
+man(201645601:2F.@entry, 600000141:29)
+mod(103294048:1V, 113453160:1N)
+obj(202310855:0F, 101902877:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(103088707:19.@def.@pl, 100167063:10)
+obj(600000029:2X, 115669512:3I)
+man(201645601:2F.@entry, 600000141:29)
+mod(103294048:1V, 113453160:1N)
+obj(202310855:0F, 101902877:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(201645601:2F.@entry, 100403334:2M)
+obj(100167063:10, 105725527:0W)
+mod(115669512:3I, 105725527:3D)
+aoj(201645601:2F.@entry, 101902877:06.@topic.@def)
+plc(103088707:19.@def.@pl, 103294048:1V)
+aoj(301213090:35, 115669512:3I)
+plc(103088707:19.@def.@pl, 103294048:1V)
+aoj(301213090:35, 115669512:3I)
+aoj(600000029:2X, 100403334:2M)
+plc(202310855:0F, 103088707:19.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7518]
+{org:en}
+Silicate ion
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(109315159:03.@entry, 115040033:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7519]
+{org:en}
+Silica is also a main component of scale.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103081021:0O.@entry.@indef, 115041277:02.@topic)
+mod(103081021:0O.@entry.@indef, 301512527:0J)
+mod(103081021:0O.@entry.@indef, 301512527:0J)
+man(103081021:0O.@entry.@indef, 400047534:0C)
+mod(103081021:0O.@entry.@indef, 101902877:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7520]
+{org:en}
+At neutral pH, solubility of silica is around 100 HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(HTM1:1G.@entry, 105039106:0D)
+aoj(303163523:05, 105039106:0D)
+qua(HTM1:1G.@entry, "100":1C)
+aoj(303163523:05, 105039106:0D)
+qua(HTM1:1G.@entry, "100":1C)
+man(HTM1:1G.@entry, 115693323:15)
+aoj(HTM1:1G.@entry, 105210221:0H.@topic)
+mod(105210221:0H.@topic, 115041277:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7521]
+{org:en}
+Under conditions of the high concentration ratio in cooling water, the concentration of silica becomes much higher, and the silica component may be deposited and cause impairment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202310855:46.@entry.@may, 200149583:2P)
+man(300705498:32, 400099341:6I)
+mod(103081021:3P.@def, 115041277:3I)
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+obj(105798863:08.@pl, 115669158:0V.@def)
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+man(300705498:32, 400099341:6I)
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+aoj(300705498:0Q, 115669158:0V.@def)
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+obj(105798863:08.@pl, 115669158:0V.@def)
+gol(200149583:2P, 300705498:32)
+and(201645601:4K.@may, 202310855:46.@entry.@may)
+obj(600000003:02, 105798863:08.@pl)
+obj(200149583:2P, 100375071:21.@topic.@def)
+obj(202310855:46.@entry.@may, 103081021:3P.@def)
+mod(100375071:21.@topic.@def, 115041277:2I)
+man(200149583:2P, 600000003:02)
+mod(100375071:21.@topic.@def, 115041277:2I)
+man(200149583:2P, 600000003:02)
+obj(201645601:4K.@may, 100403334:4Q)
+plc(115669158:0V.@def, 115689501:1I)
+man(300705498:32, 400053744:2X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7522]
+{org:en}
+In general, silica is dissolved in water at approximately 50 HTM1 but local concentration increase or other factors such as water temperature or flow rate may accelerate generation of silica scale.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200338559:0O.@entry, 600000037:1W)
+mod:02(100375071:26, 301106405:20)
+obj:02(200438178:4H.@entry.@may.@may, 100849982:4S)
+man(HTM1:1R, 400007015:1A)
+obj:02(600000029:3A, :01)
+plc(200338559:0O.@entry, HTM1:1R)
+aoj:02(600000029:3A, 105858317:32.@pl)
+or:02(200438178:4H.@entry.@may.@may, 200153263:2K.@may)
+mod:02(100375071:26, 301106405:20)
+obj:02(200438178:4H.@entry.@may.@may, 100849982:4S)
+man(HTM1:1R, 400007015:1A)
+obj:02(600000029:3A, :01)
+plc(200338559:0O.@entry, HTM1:1R)
+aoj:02(600000029:3A, 105858317:32.@pl)
+or:02(200438178:4H.@entry.@may.@may, 200153263:2K.@may)
+obj:02(200153263:2K.@may, 100375071:26)
+obj(200338559:0O.@entry, 115041277:0E.@topic)
+mod:02(101902877:5D, 115041277:56)
+obj(600000037:1W, :02)
+mod:01(105011790:3O, 107935504:3I)
+man(200338559:0O.@entry, 600000266:02)
+obj:02(100849982:4S, 101902877:5D)
+bas(400007015:1A, "50":1O)
+obj:02(100849982:4S, 101902877:5D)
+bas(400007015:1A, "50":1O)
+or:01(115695238:43.@entry, 105011790:3O)
+plc(200338559:0O.@entry, 107935504:11)
+mod:02(105858317:32.@pl, 600000031:2W)
+agt:02(200438178:4H.@entry.@may.@may, 105858317:32.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7523]
+{org:en}
+High concentrations of silicate ion are often observed in groundwater, so the possibility of deposition of silica scale should be considered when well water is used as make-up water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(600000110:21, 200732552:1C.@entry)
+mod(105792010:28.@def, 100208943:2N)
+mod(109315159:0Q, 115040033:0P)
+man(201158572:4I, 600000023:4N)
+man(200732552:1C.@entry, 400059547:16)
+obj(600000033:3Z, 201158572:4I)
+tim(200691312:3O.@should.@past, 600000033:3Z)
+mod(105792010:28.@def, 100208943:2N)
+mod(109315159:0Q, 115040033:0P)
+man(201158572:4I, 600000023:4N)
+man(200732552:1C.@entry, 400059547:16)
+obj(600000033:3Z, 201158572:4I)
+tim(200691312:3O.@should.@past, 600000033:3Z)
+gol(200732552:1C.@entry, 115669379:1O)
+mod(101902877:38, 115041277:31)
+obj(600000110:21, 200691312:3O.@should.@past)
+mod(107935504:4X, 115690084:4Q)
+obj(200732552:1C.@entry, 100375071:07.@topic.@pl)
+obj(100208943:2N, 101902877:38)
+aoj(300705498:02, 100375071:07.@topic.@pl)
+obj(100208943:2N, 101902877:38)
+aoj(300705498:02, 100375071:07.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000023:4N, 107935504:4X)
+obj(100375071:07.@topic.@pl, 109315159:0Q)
+obj(201158572:4I, 115692457:44)
+obj(200691312:3O.@should.@past, 105792010:28.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7524]
+{org:en}
+Free carbonate
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300916199:02, 114798450:03.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7525]
+{org:en}
+Free carbonate is carbon dioxide gas ( HTM1 ) dissolved in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(114481080:0Z.@entry, 114798450:03.@topic)
+plc(200338559:1C.@past, 107935504:1P)
+cnt(114481080:0Z.@entry, HTM1:15.@parenthesis)
+plc(200338559:1C.@past, 107935504:1P)
+cnt(114481080:0Z.@entry, HTM1:15.@parenthesis)
+obj(200338559:1C.@past, 114481080:0Z.@entry)
+aoj(300916199:02, 114798450:03.@topic)
+mod(114481080:0Z.@entry, 114796969:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7526]
+{org:en}
+High concentration of free carbonate in water could cause corrosion, but river water and well water with neutral pH, in general, contain little free-radical carbonate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201645601:1H.@entry.@ability.@past, 600000037:1Y)
+man(202701210:3M, 600000266:3A)
+aoj(300705498:02, 100375071:07.@topic)
+obj(600000019:2T, 105039106:36)
+plc(100375071:07.@topic, 107935504:15)
+aoj(600000019:2T, :01)
+aoj(202701210:3M, :01)
+man(202701210:3M, 600000266:3A)
+aoj(300705498:02, 100375071:07.@topic)
+obj(600000019:2T, 105039106:36)
+plc(100375071:07.@topic, 107935504:15)
+aoj(600000019:2T, :01)
+aoj(202701210:3M, :01)
+obj(201645601:1H.@entry.@ability.@past, 113453428:1N)
+aoj(303162578:41, 114798450:4E)
+obj(600000037:1Y, 202701210:3M)
+aoj(201645601:1H.@entry.@ability.@past, 100375071:07.@topic)
+qua(114798450:4E, 600000177:3U)
+aoj(300916199:0O, 114798450:0S)
+qua(114798450:4E, 600000177:3U)
+aoj(300916199:0O, 114798450:0S)
+aoj(300359160:2Y, 105039106:36)
+obj(100375071:07.@topic, 114798450:0S)
+and:01(115692457:2I.@entry, 115695980:22)
+obj(202701210:3M, 114798450:4E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7527]
+{org:en}
+In rare case, well water may contain such a high concentration of free-radical carbonate that it cannot be used for cooling water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202701210:0V.@entry.@may, 400536051:02)
+aoj(300705498:1A, 100375071:1F.@indef)
+mod(100375071:1F.@indef, 114798450:29)
+obj(201158572:31.@ability.@not, 600000016:2O)
+aoj(300705498:1A, 100375071:1F.@indef)
+mod(100375071:1F.@indef, 114798450:29)
+obj(201158572:31.@ability.@not, 600000016:2O)
+obj(202701210:0V.@entry.@may, 100375071:1F.@indef)
+aoj(303162578:1W, 114798450:29)
+aoj(202701210:0V.@entry.@may, 115692457:0G.@topic)
+cnt(114798450:29, 201158572:31.@ability.@not)
+cnt(114798450:29, 201158572:31.@ability.@not)
+mod(100375071:1F.@indef, 600001411:13)
+pur(201158572:31.@ability.@not, 115689501:39)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7528]
+{org:en}
+Iron and manganese
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(114644654:0B.@entry, 103584829:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7529]
+{org:en}
+Some groundwater contains high concentration of iron and/or manganese.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:0J.@entry, 115669379:07.@topic)
+aoj(300705498:0S, 100375071:0X)
+aoj(300705498:0S, 100375071:0X)
+mod(100375071:0X, :01)
+obj(202701210:0J.@entry, 100375071:0X)
+qua(115669379:07.@topic, 600000034:02)
+a/o:01(114644654:1Q.@entry, 103584829:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7530]
+{org:en}
+These elements become colloidal and suspended in water by oxidation, which causes impairment of the deposition in the cooling water system.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200149583:0G.@entry, 105868954:08.@topic)
+mod(105868954:08.@topic, 600000022:02.@pl)
+aoj(201645601:24, 113530408:1N)
+gol(200149583:0G.@entry, :01)
+plc(100208943:2T.@def, 104377057:3P.@def)
+mod(105868954:08.@topic, 600000022:02.@pl)
+aoj(201645601:24, 113530408:1N)
+gol(200149583:0G.@entry, :01)
+plc(100208943:2T.@def, 104377057:3P.@def)
+plc(200149583:0G.@entry, 107935504:1E)
+obj(100403334:2B, 100208943:2T.@def)
+ins(200149583:0G.@entry, 113530408:1N)
+obj(201645601:24, 100403334:2B)
+obj(201645601:24, 100403334:2B)
+and:01(302351692:11.@entry, 302903946:0N)
+mod(104377057:3P.@def, 115689501:3B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7531]
+{org:en}
+Also, the generated iron scale may cause secondary corrosion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201645601:11.@entry.@may, 400047534:02)
+mod(101902877:0R.@topic.@def, 103584829:0M)
+mod(113453428:1H, 300793592:17)
+mod(101902877:0R.@topic.@def, 103584829:0M)
+mod(113453428:1H, 300793592:17)
+obj(201645601:11.@entry.@may, 113453428:1H)
+aoj(201645601:11.@entry.@may, 101902877:0R.@topic.@def)
+aoj(303164259:0C, 101902877:0R.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7532]
+{org:en}
+Ammonium ion
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115694740:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7533]
+{org:en}
+Cooling water systems are often installed outdoors and exposed under direct sunlight, where the water temperature is favorable for growth of bacteria and algae.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:02.@entry, 104377057:0G.@topic.@pl)
+mod:02(105011790:2W.@topic.@def, 107935504:2Q)
+aoj:02(300005473:1Z, 111485367:26)
+obj:02(600000003:1T, 111485367:26)
+mod(104377057:0G.@topic.@pl, 115689501:02)
+obj:02(108438067:3P, :01)
+mod:02(105011790:2W.@topic.@def, 107935504:2Q)
+aoj:02(300005473:1Z, 111485367:26)
+obj:02(600000003:1T, 111485367:26)
+mod(104377057:0G.@topic.@pl, 115689501:02)
+obj:02(108438067:3P, :01)
+man:02(200614444:1L.@entry, 600000003:1T)
+man:02(201569566:0Y, 400059547:0S)
+ben:02(300604978:3B, 108438067:3P)
+and:02(200614444:1L.@entry, 201569566:0Y)
+man:02(201569566:0Y, 400535880:18)
+aoj:02(300604978:3B, 105011790:2W.@topic.@def)
+man:02(201569566:0Y, 400535880:18)
+aoj:02(300604978:3B, 105011790:2W.@topic.@def)
+plc:02(300604978:3B, 111485367:26)
+and:01(115668556:4C.@entry, 115689384:3Z.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7534]
+{org:en}
+These can cause slime production in the cooling water system.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201645601:0C.@entry.@ability, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303163734:0I, 100522736:0O)
+aoj(303163734:0I, 100522736:0O)
+plc(100522736:0O, 104377057:1K.@def)
+obj(201645601:0C.@entry.@ability, 100522736:0O)
+mod(104377057:1K.@def, 115689501:16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7535]
+{org:en}
+In many cases, water that contains much ammonium also has organic contamination, both of which favor bacterial growth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200065370:1K.@entry, 600000297:02)
+obj(200692143:2P.@entry, 115668893:2V)
+aoj(202701210:0S, 107935504:0H.@topic)
+man(200065370:1K.@entry, 400047534:1F)
+man(600000155:11, 400099341:3A)
+obj(200692143:2P.@entry, 115668893:2V)
+aoj(202701210:0S, 107935504:0H.@topic)
+man(200065370:1K.@entry, 400047534:1F)
+man(600000155:11, 400099341:3A)
+obj(200065370:1K.@entry, 100276987:1W)
+qua(114744120:16, 600000155:11)
+aoj(200065370:1K.@entry, 107935504:0H.@topic)
+mod(600000220:2B.@topic, 600000120:2J)
+obj(202701210:0S, 114744120:16)
+mod(600000220:2B.@topic, 600000120:2J)
+obj(202701210:0S, 114744120:16)
+aoj(301093142:1O, 100276987:1W)
+agt(200692143:2P.@entry, 600000220:2B.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7536]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the level of ammonia can be used as an indicator of the possibility of slime production by bacteria and algae.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(400121135:02.@entry, 201158572:10.@ability)
+mod(103568117:1B.@indef, 105792010:1S.@def)
+man(201158572:10.@ability, 600000023:15)
+and:01(115668556:34.@entry.@pl, 115689384:2R.@pl)
+mod(103568117:1B.@indef, 105792010:1S.@def)
+man(201158572:10.@ability, 600000023:15)
+and:01(115668556:34.@entry.@pl, 115689384:2R.@pl)
+agt(201158572:10.@ability, :01)
+mod(100522736:2D, 115690053:27)
+obj(201158572:10.@ability, 105093890:0C.@def.@topic)
+obj(105792010:1S.@def, 100522736:2D)
+obj(105792010:1S.@def, 100522736:2D)
+obj(600000023:15, 103568117:1B.@indef)
+mod(105093890:0C.@def.@topic, 114743582:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7537]
+{org:en}
+Potassium permanganate consumption value
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104979425:11.@entry, 100356367:0P)
+mod(114979410:0C, 114650807:02)
+mod(100356367:0P, 114979410:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7538]
+{org:en}
+Potassium permanganate consumption value is an index of the amount of organic matter in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105567381:1D.@entry.@indef, 104979425:11.@topic)
+mod(100356367:0P, 114979410:0C)
+plc(115691310:20, 107935504:2I)
+mod(100356367:0P, 114979410:0C)
+plc(115691310:20, 107935504:2I)
+mod(100033615:1Q.@def, 115691310:20)
+mod(105567381:1D.@entry.@indef, 100033615:1Q.@def)
+mod(114979410:0C, 114650807:02)
+mod(114979410:0C, 114650807:02)
+mod(104979425:11.@topic, 100356367:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7539]
+{org:en}
+A high value means large amount of organic matter which can be assimilated by bacteria and algae.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200708840:0F.@entry, 104979425:09.@topic.@indef)
+agt(200159642:1R.@ability, :01)
+aoj(300527870:0L, 100033615:0Q)
+agt(200159642:1R.@ability, :01)
+aoj(300527870:0L, 100033615:0Q)
+mod(100033615:0Q, 115691310:0Z)
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+and:01(115668556:2J.@entry, 115689384:26.@pl)
+obj(200159642:1R.@ability, 115691310:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7540]
+{org:en}
+Turbidity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+104703932:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7541]
+{org:en}
+Turbidity is the degree of visual contamination in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(303161921:0T, 100276987:10)
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+mod(105094565:0J.@entry.@def, 100276987:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7542]
+{org:en}
+The more colloidal matter or fine sand is suspended in the water, the higher becomes the turbidity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200149583:25.@entry, 302351692:16)
+aoj:01(302903946:0B, 100020827:0K.@def)
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+qua:01(100020827:0K.@def, 400099341:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7543]
+{org:en}
+High turbidity is likely to be associated with enhanced deposition of sand, or the wear out of pumps or other equipment in cooling water systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300645169:0K.@entry, 104703932:07)
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+plc:01(103294048:32.@entry, 104377057:3T.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7544]
+{org:en}
+Langelier index
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105567381:0C.@entry, 500322985:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7545]
+{org:en}
+Langelier index is widely used to estimate the quality of cooling water in terms of scale deposition or corrosion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105567381:0C.@topic, 500322985:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7546]
+{org:en}
+Since scale in cooling water largely depends on the concentration of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), the following equation helps to determine how much the calcium component in water is saturated.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200082081:3C.@entry, 600000055:02)
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+obj(202663848:13, 100375071:1I.@def)
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+equ(500324015:2I.@parenthesis, 114936905:1Z)
+obj(600000055:02, 202663848:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7547]
+{org:en}
+Where Is is Langelier index, and pH and pHs are actual pH value and saturated pH value of calcium carbonate, respectively.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(:02.@entry, 105567381:0O)
+man(105567381:0O, 115689346:02)
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+aoj(105567381:0O, 500324126:08.@topic)
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+man:02(114936905:2I, 400137915:31)
+aoj:02(300393508:1X, 104979425:29.@entry)
+and:01(105039106:16.@entry.@pl.@topic, 105039106:0Z.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7548]
+{org:en}
+Solubility of HTM1 is dependant on pH value, and it precipitates at higher pH.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200474994:1H.@entry, 300556174:0O)
+aoj(300556174:0O, 105210221:02.@topic)
+aoj(300705498:1X, 105039106:24)
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+mod(105210221:02.@topic, HTM1:0G)
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+obj(300556174:0O, 104979425:13)
+man(300705498:1X, 400099341:29)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7549]
+{org:en}
+pHsindicates the estimated upper limit of the pH value which does not produce HTM1 precipitation..
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923793:08.@entry, 105039106:03.@topic.@double_quote.@pl)
+aoj(201621555:21.@progress.@past.@emphasis.@not, 104979425:1G.@def)
+aoj(303161978:0M, 105124057:11.@def)
+mod(105061149:2E, HTM1:29)
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+aoj(303161978:0M, 105124057:11.@def)
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+mod(104979425:1G.@def, 105039106:1E)
+mod(105124057:11.@def, 301206318:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7550]
+{org:en}
+Langelier index is a function of calcium harness, methyl-red alkalinity, total dissolved solids and water temperature.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100720565:0N.@entry.@indef, 105567381:0C.@topic)
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+mod:01(105039709:1R, 115692243:1G)
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+and:01(105039709:1R, 103494706:17)
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+and:01(113860793:2I.@pl, 105039709:1R)
+mod:01(103494706:17, 114632648:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7551]
+{org:en}
+Positive Langelier index means the possibility of scale generation, while a negative value shows the tendency of generating corrosion rather than scale.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(201627355:36.@progress, 113453428:3H)
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+aoj(300075515:25, 104979425:2E.@indef)
+obj(200923307:2K, 104944048:2U.@def)
+dur(200708840:0R.@entry, 600000004:1X)
+obj(600000236:3R, 101902877:43)
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+mod(105567381:0L.@topic, 500322985:0B)
+aoj(600000236:3R, 113453428:3H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7552]
+{org:en}
+Water treatment of cooling water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100658082:07.@entry, 115689501:0K)
+mod(100658082:07.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7553]
+{org:en}
+There are two ways to control cooling water quality, i.e. the treatment of make-up water and the treatment of circulated cooling water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, 100172710:0G.@pl)
+obj:01(200968211:33.@past, 115689501:3E)
+mod(104723816:1A, 115689501:0W)
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+obj:01(100658082:2Q.@entry.@def, 115689501:3E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7554]
+{org:en}
+Coagulation and filtration processes are applied to remove turbid substances and iron/manganese for make-up water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200765396:17.@entry, 100029677:0T.@topic.@pl)
+or:02(114644654:2G, 103584829:2B.@entry)
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+aoj:03(303161434:1P, 100019613:1W.@pl)
+and:03(:02.@entry, 100019613:1W.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7555]
+{org:en}
+Ion exchange processes are not usually used for removal of soluble ions because of the high cost.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:15.@entry, 100029677:0F.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302265015:1O, 109315159:1W.@pl)
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+obj(100216723:1D, 109315159:1W.@pl)
+mod(100167063:06, 109315159:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7556]
+{org:en}
+In order to improve the quality of circulated cooling water, pH control and corrosion inhibiters are applied.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200765396:2U.@entry, 600000044:02)
+and:01(113453428:25.@entry, 100803617:1T)
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+and:01(100803617:1T, 115689501:11)
+mod(114724436:2F.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7557]
+{org:en}
+In addition, circulated water is partially discharged to prevent excessive concentration of soluble salts.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201097743:19.@entry, 400535244:02)
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+obj(100375071:25, 115691901:2M.@pl)
+man(201097743:19.@entry, 400007703:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7558]
+{org:en}
+Scale and corrosion control
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100803617:0M.@entry, :01)
+and:01(113453428:0C.@entry, 101902877:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7559]
+{org:en}
+In order to keep an appropriate Langelier index and pH, acid or alkaline is added to cooling water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200182406:26.@entry, 600000044:02)
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+or:02(114607521:1M.@indef, :01:01)
+aoj(300134701:0M, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7560]
+{org:en}
+Also anti-scale agents such as poly-phosphate are usually applied to the water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200765396:1O.@entry, 400047534:02)
+mod(109190918:0I.@topic.@pl, 303162969:07)
+man(200765396:1O.@entry, 400535718:1G)
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+aoj(600000029:0P, 109190918:0I.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7561]
+{org:en}
+Slime prevention
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101077350:08.@entry, 115690053:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7562]
+{org:en}
+In many cases, circulated cooling water systems are under direct sunlight, at high water temperature, and with high levels of nutrients.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(600000009:1I.@entry, :01)
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+obj(200968211:0H.@past, 115689501:0I)
+aoj(300005473:1O, 111485367:1V)
+mod:01(105093890:3A.@pl, 100021734:3K.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7563]
+{org:en}
+These are favorable condition for bacterial and algal growth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105798863:0M.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(108438067:1K, :01)
+mod(108438067:1K, :01)
+aoj(300604978:0C, 105798863:0M.@entry)
+obj(105798863:0M.@entry, 108438067:1K)
+and:01(302832586:1E.@entry, 302833544:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7564]
+{org:en}
+Since it is not easy to improve these conditions, the injection of sodium hypochlorite as algicide is practically effective.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(300044132:3F.@entry, 600000055:02)
+mod(105798863:14.@pl, 600000017:0Y)
+mod(114614245:27, 114655371:20)
+man(100322634:1N.@topic.@def, 600000032:2K)
+aoj(300015097:0I.@not, 202774185:0Q)
+mod(105798863:14.@pl, 600000017:0Y)
+mod(114614245:27, 114655371:20)
+man(100322634:1N.@topic.@def, 600000032:2K)
+aoj(300015097:0I.@not, 202774185:0Q)
+man(300044132:3F.@entry, 400053512:33)
+obj(600000055:02, 300015097:0I.@not)
+aoj(300044132:3F.@entry, 100322634:1N.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000032:2K, 115694730:2N)
+obj(600000032:2K, 115694730:2N)
+obj(100322634:1N.@topic.@def, 114614245:27)
+obj(202774185:0Q, 105798863:14.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7565]
+{org:en}
+Intermittent injection of a high concentration chemical is more effective than continuous injection.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300044132:1T.@entry, 100322634:0E.@topic)
+aoj(300593836:02, 100322634:0E.@topic)
+aoj(300594413:28, 100322634:2J)
+aoj(300593836:02, 100322634:0E.@topic)
+aoj(300594413:28, 100322634:2J)
+man(300044132:1T.@entry, 400099341:1O)
+mod(114806838:1C.@indef, 100375071:0Y)
+bas(300044132:1T.@entry, 100322634:2J)
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+aoj(300705498:0T, 114806838:1C.@indef)
+obj(100322634:0E.@topic, 114806838:1C.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7566]
+{org:en}
+But sodium hypochlorite should not be added excessively because of the risk of corrosion of metal parts in the system.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000037:02.@entry, 200182406:14.@should.@past.@not)
+obj(100802238:21.@def, 113453428:29)
+man(200182406:14.@should.@past.@not, 400047392:1A)
+mod(103892891:2S.@pl, 114625458:2M)
+obj(100802238:21.@def, 113453428:29)
+man(200182406:14.@should.@past.@not, 400047392:1A)
+mod(103892891:2S.@pl, 114625458:2M)
+rsn(200182406:14.@should.@past.@not, 600000012:1M)
+mod(113453428:29, 103892891:2S.@pl)
+obj(200182406:14.@should.@past.@not, 114614245:0D.@topic)
+plc(113453428:29, 104377057:35.@def)
+plc(113453428:29, 104377057:35.@def)
+obj(600000012:1M, 100802238:21.@def)
+mod(114614245:0D.@topic, 114655371:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7567]
+{org:en}
+Ultra-pure water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161059:02, 107935504:0D.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7568]
+{org:en}
+What is ultra-pure water?
+{/org}
+{unl}
+iof(600000048:02.@qfocus, 107935504:0L.@entry.@interrogative)
+aoj(303161059:0A, 107935504:0L.@entry.@interrogative)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7569]
+{org:en}
+The general term "water" means a solution of solute in aqueous solvent.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200708840:0Q.@entry, 105855904:0D.@topic.@def)
+cnt(105855904:0D.@topic.@def, 107935504:0J.@double_quote)
+plc(303161524:1A, 115047313:1S)
+cnt(105855904:0D.@topic.@def, 107935504:0J.@double_quote)
+plc(303161524:1A, 115047313:1S)
+aoj(303161524:1A, 100190783:0Y.@indef)
+obj(200708840:0Q.@entry, 100190783:0Y.@indef)
+aoj(300487198:06, 105855904:0D.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300487198:06, 105855904:0D.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301355089:1K, 115047313:1S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7570]
+{org:en}
+The solvent water dissolves various kinds of soluble material as molecules or ions at a wide range of concentrations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200338559:0K.@entry, 107935504:0E.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300024241:2I, 104053218:2N.@indef)
+aoj(302265015:1B, 103729951:1J)
+mod(103729951:1J, 105839024:12.@pl)
+or:01(109315159:28.@entry.@pl, 114682133:1V.@pl)
+aoj(300024241:2I, 104053218:2N.@indef)
+aoj(302265015:1B, 103729951:1J)
+mod(103729951:1J, 105839024:12.@pl)
+or:01(109315159:28.@entry.@pl, 114682133:1V.@pl)
+obj(200338559:0K.@entry, 103729951:1J)
+obj(600000117:1S, :01)
+plc(200338559:0K.@entry, 104053218:2N.@indef)
+mod(107935504:0E.@topic.@def, 115047313:06)
+aoj(600000117:1S, 103729951:1J)
+mod(107935504:0E.@topic.@def, 115047313:06)
+aoj(600000117:1S, 103729951:1J)
+aoj(303160904:0U, 105839024:12.@pl)
+mod(104053218:2N.@indef, 100375071:2W.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7571]
+{org:en}
+Theoretically, pure water consists only of water molecules ( HTM1 ) composed of one oxygen atom (O) and two hydrogen atoms (H), which are slightly dissociated to hydrogen ions ( HTM2 ) and hydroxyl ions ( HTM3 ), and containing no impurity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774237:0R.@entry, 400170045:02)
+cnt:02(109315159:5Q.@entry.@pl, HTM3:5X.@parenthesis)
+equ:01(106831926:3K.@parenthesis, 114585519:3D.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300529266:20, 114682133:1H.@pl)
+obj(202701210:69.@progress, 114487184:6N)
+mod:01(114585519:2N.@pl, 114648100:2G)
+obj(202774237:0R.@entry, 114682133:1H.@pl)
+mod:02(109315159:4Z.@pl, 114640434:4Q)
+equ:01(105401229:2T.@parenthesis, 114585519:2N)
+obj(300529266:20, :01)
+cnt:02(109315159:5Q.@entry.@pl, HTM3:5X.@parenthesis)
+equ:01(106831926:3K.@parenthesis, 114585519:3D.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300529266:20, 114682133:1H.@pl)
+obj(202701210:69.@progress, 114487184:6N)
+mod:01(114585519:2N.@pl, 114648100:2G)
+obj(202774237:0R.@entry, 114682133:1H.@pl)
+mod:02(109315159:4Z.@pl, 114640434:4Q)
+equ:01(105401229:2T.@parenthesis, 114585519:2N)
+obj(300529266:20, :01)
+and:02(109315159:5Q.@entry.@pl, 109315159:4Z.@pl)
+man(202774237:0R.@entry, 400535197:10)
+cnt:02(109315159:4Z.@pl, HTM2:56.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(114585519:3D.@entry.@pl, 114640434:34)
+mod(114682133:1H.@pl, 107935504:1B)
+aoj(300361125:0H, 107935504:0L)
+man(200209598:4B, 400036291:42)
+aoj(202774237:0R.@entry, 107935504:0L)
+mod:02(109315159:5Q.@entry.@pl, 114914775:5H)
+qua:01(114585519:3D.@entry.@pl, "2":30)
+cnt(114682133:1H.@pl, HTM1:1T.@parenthesis)
+qua:01(114585519:3D.@entry.@pl, "2":30)
+cnt(114682133:1H.@pl, HTM1:1T.@parenthesis)
+mod(114487184:6N, 600001330:6K)
+gol(200209598:4B, :02)
+obj(200209598:4B, 114682133:1H.@pl)
+qua:01(114585519:2N.@pl, "1":2C)
+aoj(202701210:69.@progress, :02)
+and:01(114585519:3D.@entry.@pl, 114585519:2N.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7572]
+{org:en}
+In more precise terms, water forms cluster of a few to tens of water molecules which are aggregated to each other by hydrogen bonding.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200144850:0V.@entry, 105855904:0I.@pl)
+mod(100148653:3J, 114640434:3A)
+fmt:01(115691007:1L.@entry, 600000101:1C)
+mod(115668974:11, 114682133:1Y.@pl)
+agt(201385170:2I, 100148653:3J)
+mod(100148653:3J, 114640434:3A)
+fmt:01(115691007:1L.@entry, 600000101:1C)
+mod(115668974:11, 114682133:1Y.@pl)
+agt(201385170:2I, 100148653:3J)
+obj(200144850:0V.@entry, 115668974:11)
+aoj(301837744:0A, 105855904:0I.@pl)
+obj(201385170:2I, 114682133:1Y.@pl)
+aoj(200144850:0V.@entry, 107935504:0P.@topic)
+qua(105855904:0I.@pl, 400099341:05)
+mod(114682133:1Y.@pl, 107935504:1S)
+qua(105855904:0I.@pl, 400099341:05)
+mod(114682133:1Y.@pl, 107935504:1S)
+qua(114682133:1Y.@pl, :01:01)
+gol(201385170:2I, 600000227:2W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7573]
+{org:en}
+Actually, water dissolves and suspends various kinds of impurities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:01.@entry, 400149138:02)
+aoj(303160904:15, 105839024:1D.@pl)
+and:01(200148763:0W.@entry, 200338559:0I)
+aoj(303160904:15, 105839024:1D.@pl)
+and:01(200148763:0W.@entry, 200338559:0I)
+obj(:01.@entry, 105839024:1D.@pl)
+agt(:01.@entry, 107935504:0C.@topic)
+mod(105839024:1D.@pl, 114487184:1M.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7574]
+{org:en}
+Ultra-pure wateris the result of currently available technologies which remove the impurities as much as possible to approach theoretical pure HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115698567:0S.@entry.@def, :01.@double_quote)
+aoj(300860611:3N, HTM1:44)
+man(200173338:25, 600000167:2R)
+aoj(300183053:1C, 100949619:1M.@pl)
+pur(301821266:32, 200990392:3E)
+aoj(300860611:3N, HTM1:44)
+man(200173338:25, 600000167:2R)
+aoj(300183053:1C, 100949619:1M.@pl)
+pur(301821266:32, 200990392:3E)
+agt(200173338:25, 100949619:1M.@pl)
+aoj:01(303161059:03, 107935504:0E.@entry)
+obj(600000167:2R, 301821266:32)
+mod(115698567:0S.@entry.@def, 100949619:1M.@pl)
+aoj(300361125:3Z, HTM1:44)
+obj(200173338:25, 114487184:2G.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300361125:3Z, HTM1:44)
+obj(200173338:25, 114487184:2G.@def.@pl)
+man(300183053:1C, 400535248:12)
+obj(200990392:3E, HTM1:44)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7575]
+{org:en}
+Ultra-pure water and pure water are different in their degrees of purity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300490413:11.@entry, :01)
+aoj:01(300361125:0N, 107935504:0R.@entry)
+mod(105094565:1K.@pl, 600000020:1E.@pl)
+aoj:01(300361125:0N, 107935504:0R.@entry)
+mod(105094565:1K.@pl, 600000020:1E.@pl)
+mod(105094565:1K.@pl, 113990064:1V)
+plc(300490413:11.@entry, 105094565:1K.@pl)
+aoj:01(303161059:02, 107935504:0D)
+aoj:01(303161059:02, 107935504:0D)
+and:01(107935504:0R.@entry.@topic, 107935504:0D.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7576]
+{org:en}
+Pure water simply means water whose ion components are removed
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200708840:0J.@entry, 107935504:06.@topic)
+mod(103081021:15.@pl, 109315159:11)
+mod(103081021:15.@pl, 107935504:0P)
+mod(103081021:15.@pl, 109315159:11)
+mod(103081021:15.@pl, 107935504:0P)
+man(200708840:0J.@entry, 400004967:0C)
+obj(200708840:0J.@entry, 107935504:0P)
+aoj(300361125:02, 107935504:06.@topic)
+aoj(300361125:02, 107935504:06.@topic)
+obj(200173338:1K, 103081021:15.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7577]
+{org:en}
+therefore, it is also called de-ionized water (DI water).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000169:02.@entry, 107935504:12)
+mod:01(107935504:1C.@entry, 500324049:19)
+obj(200107231:0K.@past, 107935504:12)
+mod:01(107935504:1C.@entry, 500324049:19)
+obj(200107231:0K.@past, 107935504:12)
+cnt(107935504:12, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj(107935504:12, 600000016:0D.@topic)
+aoj(303163144:0R, 107935504:12)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7578]
+{org:en}
+On the other hand, ultra-pure water removes impurities such as suspended solid components, dissolved gas components, and microbes, to the greatest extent possible with state-of-art technologies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200173338:12.@entry, 600000146:02)
+mod:01(103081021:2Z.@pl, 114481080:2V)
+aoj(600000029:1L, 114487184:1A.@pl)
+aoj(303161059:0L, 107935504:0W.@topic)
+man(200173338:12.@entry, 600000948:3O)
+obj(600000018:4J, 100949619:51.@pl)
+and:01(103081021:2Z.@pl, 103081021:29.@pl)
+mod:01(103081021:2Z.@pl, 114481080:2V)
+aoj(600000029:1L, 114487184:1A.@pl)
+aoj(303161059:0L, 107935504:0W.@topic)
+man(200173338:12.@entry, 600000948:3O)
+obj(600000018:4J, 100949619:51.@pl)
+and:01(103081021:2Z.@pl, 103081021:29.@pl)
+man(200173338:12.@entry, 600000018:4J)
+aoj:01(300291181:23, 103081021:29.@pl)
+and:01(101384491:3F.@entry.@pl, 103081021:2Z.@pl)
+agt(200173338:12.@entry, 107935504:0W.@topic)
+mod:01(103081021:29.@pl, 302351692:1T)
+obj(600000029:1L, :01)
+mod:01(103081021:29.@pl, 302351692:1T)
+obj(600000029:1L, :01)
+obj(200173338:12.@entry, 114487184:1A.@pl)
+mod(100949619:51.@pl, 301876780:4O)
+aoj:01(301506258:2L, 103081021:2Z.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7579]
+{org:en}
+Therefore, ultra-pure water cannot be defined chemically but it is a general term that has a certain range of the quality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000169:02.@entry, 200957378:14.@ability.@not)
+mod:01(104053218:2V.@indef, 104723816:38.@def)
+obj(600000037:1N, :01)
+man(200957378:14.@ability.@not, 400129089:1C)
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+obj(600000037:1N, :01)
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+obj(200957378:14.@ability.@not, 107935504:0O)
+aoj:01(200065370:2H, 105855904:27.@entry.@indef)
+man(200957378:14.@ability.@not, 600000037:1N)
+aoj:01(300309740:2N, 104053218:2V.@indef)
+aoj(:01, 600000016:1R.@topic)
+aoj:01(300309740:2N, 104053218:2V.@indef)
+aoj(:01, 600000016:1R.@topic)
+aoj(303161059:0D, 107935504:0O)
+obj:01(200065370:2H, 104053218:2V.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7580]
+{org:en}
+In other words, ultra-pure water is water with the highest purity currently achievable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000193:02.@entry, 107935504:12)
+aoj(300705498:1H, 113990064:1P.@def)
+obj(600000019:18, 113990064:1P.@def)
+aoj(303161059:0O, 107935504:0T.@topic)
+aoj(300705498:1H, 113990064:1P.@def)
+obj(600000019:18, 113990064:1P.@def)
+aoj(303161059:0O, 107935504:0T.@topic)
+aoj(600000019:18, 107935504:12)
+man(303162402:26, 400535248:1W)
+aoj(107935504:12, 107935504:0T.@topic)
+man(300705498:1H, 400536271:2T)
+man(300705498:1H, 400536271:2T)
+aoj(303162402:26, 113990064:1P.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7581]
+{org:en}
+Integration level of LSI and trend of quality of ultra-pure water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105093890:0E.@entry, :01)
+aoj(303161059:1L, 107935504:1Q)
+and:01(115689677:0V.@entry, 500323551:0N)
+aoj(303161059:1L, 107935504:1Q)
+and:01(115689677:0V.@entry, 500323551:0N)
+mod(:01, 104723816:14)
+mod(105093890:0E.@entry, 100871418:02)
+mod(104723816:14, 107935504:1Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7582]
+{org:en}
+LSI manufacturing processes require ultra-pure water with very high quality for cleaning, in order to avoid contamination of silicon wafers or computer chips.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774169:0U.@entry, 100029677:0K.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200811375:2W, 100276987:32)
+obj(600000019:1J, 104723816:1Y)
+mod(100029677:0K.@topic.@pl, 115668887:06)
+aoj(600000019:1J, 107935504:1D)
+mod:01(100377169:4A.@entry.@pl, 103082979:41)
+man(300705498:1T, 400031899:1O)
+obj(200811375:2W, 100276987:32)
+obj(600000019:1J, 104723816:1Y)
+mod(100029677:0K.@topic.@pl, 115668887:06)
+aoj(600000019:1J, 107935504:1D)
+mod:01(100377169:4A.@entry.@pl, 103082979:41)
+man(300705498:1T, 400031899:1O)
+obj(202774169:0U.@entry, 107935504:1D)
+or:01(100377169:4A.@entry.@pl, 107687053:3R.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:1T, 104723816:1Y)
+man(202774169:0U.@entry, 600000044:2K)
+obj(100276987:32, :01)
+pur(104723816:1Y, 100251013:2A)
+obj(100276987:32, :01)
+pur(104723816:1Y, 100251013:2A)
+mod(115668887:06, 500323551:02)
+aoj(303161059:12, 107935504:1D)
+mod:01(107687053:3R.@pl, 114654541:3J)
+obj(600000044:2K, 200811375:2W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7583]
+{org:en}
+The demand of more integrated LSIs leads to a requirement for higher quality of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+As shown in Table 4, generation by generation, the degree of integration quadrupled and the pattern size halved through technological development.
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+The smaller became the pattern sizes of LSI, the higher was the quality of water required.
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+This iteration produced the current achievement of very high quality of ultra-pure water that is nearly theoretical pure HTM1 with very low fine particles, dissolved gases, and microbes, as well as ions.
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+{org:en}
+Table 4.
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+Generations of LSI and required quality of water
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+Recent ultra-pure water
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+Very advanced systems for processing highly pure water involve high installation cost as well as maintenance cost.
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+Recently, the wet cleaning process has been re-evaluated HTM1 including the cleaning methods.
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+The balance between the water quality and the cost of achieving the acceptable performance is being considered.
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+Processing method of ultra-pure water
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+In order to produce ultra-pure water, source water is firstly extracted from various sources, such as wells, rivers, lakes, etc.
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+A wide variety of impurities can be found in such water.
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+Definitely, the choice of water source is of primary importance since the level of impurities greatly affects the operation load of the water treatment plant.
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+In many cases, well water or river water is used due to the geographical conditions of semiconductor plants.
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+Clearly the source water with the lowest impurity level will be chosen.
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+As shown in Figure 3, ultra-pure water processing is subdivided into three systems, i.e. the pre-processing system for removing suspended particles that are mostly solid matter, the primary pure water processing system for removing dissolved gases, and the secondary pure water manufacturing system (usually called subsystem) for producing highly pure water (ultra-pure water) and maintaining the purity.
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+[S:7601]
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+Table 5 shows typical treatment technologies to treat particular impurities.
+{/org}
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+[S:7602]
+{org:en}
+Figure 3.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7603]
+{org:en}
+Ultra-pure water processing system
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+Table 5.
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:7605]
+{org:en}
+Typical treatment technologies and removable impurities
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+Pre-processing system
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+[S:7607]
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+The pre-processing system removes a significant part of the suspended material and organic matter from source water in order to protect the reverse osmosis membranes and the ion exchange resin in the primary pure water processing system.
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+
+[S:7608]
+{org:en}
+Suspended material and organic matter adversely affect these subsequent stages of the system.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7609]
+{org:en}
+This pre-processing also removes iron.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:7610]
+{org:en}
+The coagulation-sedimentation process is used to remove suspended materials.
+{/org}
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+[S:7611]
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+Dosed coagulant neutralizes the surface charges of suspended particles to form aggregates (flocs) of fine particles.
+{/org}
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+[S:7612]
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+This enhances the precipitation of the particles.
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+[S:7613]
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+In another method compressed air is supplied to the precipitated materials.
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+{/unl}
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+[S:7614]
+{org:en}
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+Filtration is also used to remove suspended materials that have not been separated by the coagulation-sediment process.
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+[S:7616]
+{org:en}
+Sand filtration is the most commonly used, but micro-filtration membranes (MF membrane) and ultra-filtration membranes (UF membrane) have recently been developed and are gaining wider use.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Activated carbon is used to remove residual chlorine and part of the dissolved organic matter.
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+Primary pure water processing system
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+Electrolytes are removed from the water after pre-processing with reverse osmosis membrane (RO membrane) or ion exchange resin, and the process produces the pure water with resistivity of 10 to 15 HTM1 cm.
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+The primary pure water manufacturing system also removes dissolved gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen) and most of the fine particles and organic matter (TOC).
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+RO membrane is an excellent technology for removal of silica, fine particles, organic matter, colloidal material, and microbes, as well as electrolytes at the same time.
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+The desired improvement of the quality of ultra-pure water has stimulated the advancement of RO membrane technology.
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+{org:en}
+Recently, electrical desalinization equipment has been developed.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+The installation at the subsequent stage of RO equipment realizes the production of pure water with resistivity of 10 to 17 HTM1 cm.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:7625]
+{org:en}
+Ion exchange resin steadily produces the pure water with resistivity of 15 HTM1 cm or more, by means of the advanced resin of low dissolution and the improvement of regeneration methods.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7626]
+{org:en}
+Deaeration, primarily for removing dissolved oxygen (DO), includes vacuum deaeration, membrane deaeration, nitrogen deaeration and catalysis resin deaeration.
+{/org}
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+[S:7627]
+{org:en}
+Secondary pure water processing system (sub system)
+{/org}
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+[S:7628]
+{org:en}
+This process purifies the primary pure water up to the ultra-pure water.
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:7629]
+{org:en}
+The sub-system consists of a heat exchanger for stabilizing water temperature, low-pressure UV ray oxidation equipment for decomposing small amounts of organic matter and disinfection, non-regeneration ion exchange polisher for removing remaining ions, and ultra-filtration membrane (UF) as the final filter for removing fine particles, etc.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7630]
+{org:en}
+The ultra-pure water that has been produced in the sub system is fed to use points through pipelines.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7631]
+{org:en}
+The purity of ultra-pure water decreases due to dissolved components from the vessel or piping where the water rests stagnant.
+{/org}
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+mod(113990064:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7632]
+{org:en}
+Therefore, a quantity of water 20 to 30% in excess of consumption is supplied, and is continuously circulated to maintain the quality of ultra-pure water.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7633]
+{org:en}
+Circulated use of water in main industries
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:7634]
+{org:en}
+Basic principle of circulated use
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7635]
+{org:en}
+Indirect use and direct use
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7636]
+{org:en}
+The first consideration on the circulated use of water should be to separate indirect use and direct use.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7637]
+{org:en}
+Indirect use means that water is not contacting pollution sources directly.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7638]
+{org:en}
+Typical examples include the heat exchangers and jacket cooling.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7639]
+{org:en}
+Direct use means that water is in direct contact with pollution sources.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7640]
+{org:en}
+The circulated use of water is usually applied to indirect systems, which is easily maintained due to absence of pollution in the systems.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7641]
+{org:en}
+In the circulated use of water, soluble salts are concentrated in the system as evaporation proceeds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7642]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the quality of water should be controlled to avoid corrosion, deposition of scale, or generation of slime.
+{/org}
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+mod(104723816:0C.@topic.@def, 107935504:0N)
+pur(200663160:13.@should, 200811375:1H)
+obj:01(100208943:1Y, 101902877:2C)
+obj(200663160:13.@should, 104723816:0C.@topic.@def)
+or:01(100208943:1Y, 113453428:1N)
+or:01(100208943:1Y, 113453428:1N)
+obj(:01, 115690053:30)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7643]
+{org:en}
+Principle of water circulation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105872477:02.@entry, 100368302:0L)
+mod(100368302:0L, 107935504:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7644]
+{org:en}
+Figure 4 shows the basic principle of the indirect water circulation system.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0B.@entry, 100556992:02.@topic)
+mod(104377057:1Z.@def, 107935504:1H)
+mod(105872477:0R.@def, 300026168:0L)
+mod(104377057:1Z.@def, 107935504:1H)
+mod(105872477:0R.@def, 300026168:0L)
+mod(105872477:0R.@def, 104377057:1Z.@def)
+mod(100556992:02.@topic, "4":09)
+obj(200923307:0B.@entry, 105872477:0R.@def)
+mod(104377057:1Z.@def, 100368302:1N)
+mod(104377057:1Z.@def, 100368302:1N)
+mod(104377057:1Z.@def, 300762355:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7645]
+{org:en}
+A cooling tower is the main component of an indirect water circulation system since it is mainly applied for cooling purposes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(103081021:0U.@entry, 600000055:28)
+pur(200765396:2R, 105982152:3B.@pl)
+mod(104377057:21.@indef, 107935504:1J)
+mod(103081021:0U.@entry, 301512527:0P)
+obj(600000055:28, 200765396:2R)
+pur(200765396:2R, 105982152:3B.@pl)
+mod(104377057:21.@indef, 107935504:1J)
+mod(103081021:0U.@entry, 301512527:0P)
+obj(600000055:28, 200765396:2R)
+mod(103081021:0U.@entry, 104377057:21.@indef)
+mod(105982152:3B.@pl, 113453160:33)
+mod(104460130:0C.@topic.@indef, 113453160:04)
+aoj(103081021:0U.@entry, 104460130:0C.@topic.@indef)
+man(200765396:2R, 400535216:2K)
+mod(104377057:21.@indef, 100368302:1P)
+man(200765396:2R, 400535216:2K)
+mod(104377057:21.@indef, 100368302:1P)
+mod(104377057:21.@indef, 300762355:1A)
+obj(200765396:2R, 600000016:2E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7646]
+{org:en}
+Evaporation in the cooling tower causes increase in the concentration of salts in circulated water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201645601:0Z.@entry, 113572436:02.@topic)
+obj(200968211:2C.@past, 107935504:2N)
+obj(100375071:1M.@def, 105717342:23.@pl)
+obj(200968211:2C.@past, 107935504:2N)
+obj(100375071:1M.@def, 105717342:23.@pl)
+obj(100363260:16, 100375071:1M.@def)
+mod(104460130:0T.@def, 113453160:0L)
+obj(201645601:0Z.@entry, 100363260:16)
+plc(113572436:02.@topic, 104460130:0T.@def)
+plc(113572436:02.@topic, 104460130:0T.@def)
+plc(105717342:23.@pl, 107935504:2N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7647]
+{org:en}
+If the concentration of salts exceeds the limit, impairment such as corrosion or deposition of scale occurs in the equipment or piping.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200723349:2V.@entry, 202669081:0W)
+mod(100375071:09.@def, 105717342:0Q.@pl)
+obj(600000029:1Q, :01)
+or:02(100101708:3M.@entry.@def, 103294048:39.@def)
+agt(202669081:0W, 100375071:09.@def)
+mod(100375071:09.@def, 105717342:0Q.@pl)
+obj(600000029:1Q, :01)
+or:02(100101708:3M.@entry.@def, 103294048:39.@def)
+agt(202669081:0W, 100375071:09.@def)
+plc(200723349:2V.@entry, :02:02)
+or:01(100208943:2B.@entry, 113453428:1Y)
+agt(200723349:2V.@entry, 100403334:1F.@topic)
+obj(:01, 101902877:2P)
+obj(:01, 101902877:2P)
+aoj(600000029:1Q, 100403334:1F.@topic)
+obj(202669081:0W, 105124057:18.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7648]
+{org:en}
+Thus, water must be blown down at appropriate intervals to avoid excessive concentration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(400121135:02.@entry, 200007012:0M.@obligation)
+pur(105089947:1C.@pl, 200811375:1P)
+obj(600000192:0S, :3M)
+aoj(301533974:1V, 100375071:25)
+pur(105089947:1C.@pl, 200811375:1P)
+obj(600000192:0S, :3M)
+aoj(301533974:1V, 100375071:25)
+man(200007012:0M.@obligation, 600000192:0S)
+obj(200811375:1P, 100375071:25)
+obj(200007012:0M.@obligation, 107935504:08.@topic)
+aoj(300134701:10, 105089947:1C.@pl)
+aoj(300134701:10, 105089947:1C.@pl)
+tim(:3M, 105089947:1C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7649]
+{org:en}
+Figure 4.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "4":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7650]
+{org:en}
+Basic flow of indirect water circulation system
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100329227:08.@entry, 104377057:17)
+obj(100368302:0V, 107935504:0P)
+obj(100368302:0V, 107935504:0P)
+mod(100368302:0V, 300762355:0G)
+mod(104377057:17, 100368302:0V)
+mod(100329227:08.@entry, 300026168:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7651]
+{org:en}
+Make-up water ( HTM1 ) must be added against the blow down in order to compensate the water loss and to maintain the quantity of water (hold-up water) in the system.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200182406:0X.@entry.@obligation, 107935504:0A.@topic)
+plc(107935504:3N, 104377057:4G.@def)
+obj(:01, 105108740:3B.@def)
+obj(600000129:13, 115691034:1F.@def)
+cnt(107935504:0A.@topic, HTM1:0I.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(100067526:2M.@def, 107935504:2G)
+plc(107935504:3N, 104377057:4G.@def)
+obj(:01, 105108740:3B.@def)
+obj(600000129:13, 115691034:1F.@def)
+cnt(107935504:0A.@topic, HTM1:0I.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(100067526:2M.@def, 107935504:2G)
+man(200182406:0X.@entry.@obligation, 600000129:13)
+mod:02(107935504:42.@entry, 115695363:3U)
+obj:01(202249741:21, 100067526:2M.@def)
+man(200182406:0X.@entry.@obligation, 600000044:1P)
+cnt(107935504:3N, :02.@parenthesis)
+and:01(201017643:2Y.@entry, 202249741:21)
+cnt(107935504:3N, :02.@parenthesis)
+and:01(201017643:2Y.@entry, 202249741:21)
+obj(600000044:1P, :01)
+mod(107935504:0A.@topic, 115690084:02)
+mod(105108740:3B.@def, 107935504:3N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7652]
+{org:en}
+The water loss by evaporation (E) is calculated from the following equation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200637259:13.@entry, 100067526:0C.@topic.@def)
+cnt(113572436:0K, 106831605:0X.@parenthesis)
+ins(100067526:0C.@topic.@def, 113572436:0K)
+cnt(113572436:0K, 106831605:0X.@parenthesis)
+ins(100067526:0C.@topic.@def, 113572436:0K)
+aoj(300127815:1N, 100185307:1X.@def)
+src(200637259:13.@entry, 100185307:1X.@def)
+mod(100067526:0C.@topic.@def, 107935504:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7653]
+{org:en}
+Make-up water ( HTM1 )
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(107935504:0A.@entry, HTM1:0I.@parenthesis)
+mod(107935504:0A.@entry, 115690084:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7654]
+{org:en}
+Evaporation loss ( HTM1 )
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(100067526:0E.@entry, HTM1:0L.@parenthesis)
+mod(100067526:0E.@entry, 113572436:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7655]
+{org:en}
+Cooling water ( HTM1 )
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200369864:02.@entry.@progress, 107935504:0A)
+cnt(107935504:0A, HTM1:0I.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7656]
+{org:en}
+Difference in temperature between water and cooling water (?C)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200369864:1A.@entry.@progress, 104748836:02)
+obj(600000024:0S, 107935504:10)
+obj(104748836:02, 105011790:0G)
+obj(600000024:0S, 107935504:10)
+obj(104748836:02, 105011790:0G)
+equ(115690023:1P.@parenthesis, 107935504:1I)
+obj(200369864:1A.@entry.@progress, 107935504:1I)
+aoj(600000024:0S, 105011790:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7657]
+{org:en}
+Specific heat of water ( HTM1 )
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105725527:0B.@entry, 107935504:0J)
+cnt(107935504:0J, HTM1:0R.@parenthesis)
+mod(105725527:0B.@entry, 301099951:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7658]
+{org:en}
+Latent heat of water in evaporation ( HTM1 ), (See Table 6)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105725527:09.@entry, 107935504:0H)
+obj:01(200662589:1D.@entry, 104379243:1H)
+scn(107935504:0H, 113572436:0Q)
+obj:01(200662589:1D.@entry, 104379243:1H)
+scn(107935504:0H, 113572436:0Q)
+aoj(300038462:02, 105725527:09.@entry)
+pur(:01.@parenthesis, 105725527:09.@entry)
+mod:01(104379243:1H, "6":1N)
+mod:01(104379243:1H, "6":1N)
+cnt(113572436:0Q, HTM1:14.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7659]
+{org:en}
+Table 6.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "6":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7660]
+{org:en}
+Latent heat of water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105725527:09.@entry, 107935504:0H)
+aoj(300038462:02, 105725527:09.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7661]
+{org:en}
+Water loss ( HTM1 ) is calculated by multiplication of the amount of cooling water by a factor that is determined by the performance of the cooling tower.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200637259:0P.@entry, 100067526:08.@topic)
+mod(104460130:46.@def, 113453160:3Y)
+mod(107935504:27, 113453160:1Z)
+aoj(600000035:51, 100033615:1P.@def)
+agt(200699815:2X, 100047106:3F.@def)
+mod(104460130:46.@def, 113453160:3Y)
+mod(107935504:27, 113453160:1Z)
+aoj(600000035:51, 100033615:1P.@def)
+agt(200699815:2X, 100047106:3F.@def)
+obj(100871576:13, 107935504:27)
+mod(100067526:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+obj(200699815:2X, 105858317:2I.@indef)
+agt(200637259:0P.@entry, 100871576:13)
+cnt(100067526:08.@topic, HTM1:0F.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000035:51, 105858317:2I.@indef)
+cnt(100067526:08.@topic, HTM1:0F.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000035:51, 105858317:2I.@indef)
+qua(107935504:27, 100033615:1P.@def)
+obj(100047106:3F.@def, 104460130:46.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7662]
+{org:en}
+Water loss ( HTM1 )
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(100067526:08.@entry, HTM1:0F.@parenthesis)
+mod(100067526:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7663]
+{org:en}
+Water loss factor (dimensionless, generally, 0.003 is applied)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105858317:0D.@entry, 100067526:08)
+obj:01(200765396:1K.@entry, "0.003":1B.@topic)
+cnt:01(303162525:0L.@entry, 200765396:1K)
+obj:01(200765396:1K.@entry, "0.003":1B.@topic)
+cnt:01(303162525:0L.@entry, 200765396:1K)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 105858317:0D.@entry)
+mod(100067526:08, 107935504:02)
+man:01(200765396:1K.@entry, 400041954:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7664]
+{org:en}
+Setting and control of quality of water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:01.@entry, 104723816:0P)
+mod(104723816:0P, 107935504:10)
+and:01(100803617:0E.@entry, 108568256:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7665]
+{org:en}
+The quality of circulated water should be set in order not to cause corrosion or the generation of scale.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200298556:18.@entry.@should, 104723816:06.@topic.@def)
+or:01(100849982:2F.@entry.@def, 113453428:1Y.@def)
+obj(201645601:1S, :01)
+or:01(100849982:2F.@entry.@def, 113453428:1Y.@def)
+obj(201645601:1S, :01)
+obj(400535939:1C, 201645601:1S)
+obj(200968211:0H.@past, 107935504:0S)
+man(200298556:18.@entry.@should, 400535939:1C)
+mod(104723816:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0S)
+mod(104723816:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0S)
+obj(:01, 101902877:2T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7666]
+{org:en}
+In general, the concentration of chloride ion and silica and total dissolved solids (TDS) are empirically used as indicators (See Table 7).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201158572:30.@entry, 600000266:02)
+mod:02(100375071:0I.@def.@topic.@pl, :01)
+obj(600000023:35, 103568117:38.@pl)
+man(201158572:30.@entry, 600000023:35)
+obj:03(200662589:3K.@entry, 104379243:3O)
+qua:02(113860793:27.@entry.@pl.@topic, 303160907:1R)
+mod:02(100375071:0I.@def.@topic.@pl, :01)
+obj(600000023:35, 103568117:38.@pl)
+man(201158572:30.@entry, 600000023:35)
+obj:03(200662589:3K.@entry, 104379243:3O)
+qua:02(113860793:27.@entry.@pl.@topic, 303160907:1R)
+obj(201158572:30.@entry, :02:02)
+mod:01(109315159:18, 115016852:0Z)
+and:02(113860793:27.@entry.@pl.@topic, 100375071:0I.@def.@topic.@pl)
+pur(:03.@parenthesis, 201158572:30.@entry)
+and:01(115041277:1G.@entry, 109315159:18)
+equ(115669789:2F.@parenthesis.@pl, :02)
+and:01(115041277:1G.@entry, 109315159:18)
+equ(115669789:2F.@parenthesis.@pl, :02)
+man(201158572:30.@entry, 400084038:2O)
+mod:03(104379243:3O, "7":3U)
+aoj:02(301506258:1X, 113860793:27.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7667]
+{org:en}
+Concentration rate is defined as the portion of make-up water to that of blow down and water loss.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200957378:0O.@entry, 113325010:0G.@topic)
+mod(600000030:1V, 100067526:2N)
+to(107935504:1M, 600000030:1V)
+mod(113325010:0G.@topic, 100375071:02)
+mod(600000030:1V, 100067526:2N)
+to(107935504:1M, 600000030:1V)
+mod(113325010:0G.@topic, 100375071:02)
+mod(115699459:13.@def, 107935504:1M)
+and:01(107935504:2H.@entry, 115691034:23)
+gol(200957378:0O.@entry, 115699459:13.@def)
+mod(100067526:2N, :01)
+mod(100067526:2N, :01)
+mod(107935504:1M, 115690084:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7668]
+{org:en}
+The concentration rate is adjusted by blow down rate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200150287:0S.@entry, 113325010:0K.@topic.@def)
+mod(113325010:0K.@topic.@def, 100375071:06)
+mod(113325010:0K.@topic.@def, 100375071:06)
+mod(113325010:1E, 115691034:14)
+agt(200150287:0S.@entry, 113325010:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7669]
+{org:en}
+Blow down rate ( HTM1 )
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(113325010:0C.@entry, HTM1:0J.@parenthesis)
+mod(113325010:0C.@entry, 115691034:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7670]
+{org:en}
+Concentration rate (dimensionless)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303162525:0M.@parenthesis, 113325010:0G.@entry)
+mod(113325010:0G.@entry, 100375071:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7671]
+{org:en}
+Table 7.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "7":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7672]
+{org:en}
+Quality standards of cooling water by Japan Cooling and Conditioning Industry
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104301140:0A.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0V)
+mod(100923444:1W, :01)
+mod(107935504:0V, 113453160:0N)
+mod(100923444:1W, :01)
+mod(107935504:0V, 113453160:0N)
+aoj(600000035:2H, 107935504:0V)
+mod(100923444:1W, 103593222:14)
+mod(104301140:0A.@entry.@pl, 104723816:02)
+and:01(105752921:1M.@entry, 113453160:1A)
+and:01(105752921:1M.@entry, 113453160:1A)
+obj(600000035:2H, 100923444:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7673]
+{org:en}
+The concentration rate normally ranges between two and five for industrial water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201204439:0Y.@entry, 113325010:0K.@topic.@def)
+and:01("5":1L.@entry, "2":1D)
+man(201204439:0Y.@entry, 400106921:0P)
+and:01("5":1L.@entry, "2":1D)
+man(201204439:0Y.@entry, 400106921:0P)
+man(201204439:0Y.@entry, 600000010:15)
+mod(113325010:0K.@topic.@def, 100375071:06)
+pur(201204439:0Y.@entry, 107935504:25)
+aoj(301188648:1U, 107935504:25)
+aoj(301188648:1U, 107935504:25)
+obj(600000010:15, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7674]
+{org:en}
+However, for high quality of make-up water, the rate can reach up to ten.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200743344:1N.@entry.@ability, 400027384:02)
+mod(104723816:0K, 107935504:13)
+gol(200743344:1N.@entry.@ability, 600000047:1T)
+mod(104723816:0K, 107935504:13)
+gol(200743344:1N.@entry.@ability, 600000047:1T)
+obj(200743344:1N.@entry.@ability, 113325010:1E.@topic.@def)
+mod(107935504:13, 115690084:0V)
+pur(200743344:1N.@entry.@ability, 104723816:0K)
+aoj(300705498:0F, 104723816:0K)
+aoj(300705498:0F, 104723816:0K)
+obj(600000047:1T, "10":1Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7675]
+{org:en}
+Theoretically, the rate becomes infinite for pure water make-up
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200149583:0Q.@entry, 400170045:02)
+mod(115690084:1M, 107935504:1G)
+gol(200149583:0Q.@entry, 303162629:0Y)
+mod(115690084:1M, 107935504:1G)
+gol(200149583:0Q.@entry, 303162629:0Y)
+pur(200149583:0Q.@entry, 115690084:1M)
+obj(200149583:0Q.@entry, 113325010:0L.@topic.@def)
+mod(115690084:1M, 300361125:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7676]
+{org:en}
+however, water supply should be a little more than the estimated quantity due to the ion absorption and dissolution in cooling towers and/or through piping.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(400099341:16.@entry.@should, 400027384:02)
+obj:02(600000045:3X.@entry, 100101708:45)
+aoj(303161978:1J, 105108740:1T.@def)
+bas(400099341:16.@entry.@should, 105108740:1T.@def)
+obj(113563522:0H.@topic, 107935504:0B)
+mod(:01, 109315159:2D)
+obj:02(600000045:3X.@entry, 100101708:45)
+aoj(303161978:1J, 105108740:1T.@def)
+bas(400099341:16.@entry.@should, 105108740:1T.@def)
+obj(113563522:0H.@topic, 107935504:0B)
+mod(:01, 109315159:2D)
+rsn(400099341:16.@entry.@should, 600000001:22)
+mod:02(104460130:3J.@pl, 113453160:3B)
+mod(:01, :02)
+aoj(400099341:16.@entry.@should, 113563522:0H.@topic)
+obj:02(600000051:38, 104460130:3J.@pl)
+obj(600000001:22, :01)
+obj:02(600000051:38, 104460130:3J.@pl)
+obj(600000001:22, :01)
+man(400099341:16.@entry.@should, 600000663:0Y)
+and:01(100215314:2W.@entry.@def, 113423922:2H.@def)
+a/o:02(600000045:3X.@entry, 600000051:38)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7677]
+{org:en}
+Since blow down water still has high quality, it is used for cleaning and other applications (cascade use).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201158572:1I.@entry, 600000055:02)
+man(200065370:0U, 400031304:0O)
+mod:02(100036061:2A.@entry.@pl, 600000031:24)
+and:02(100036061:2A.@entry.@pl, 100251013:1R.@pl)
+aoj(200065370:0U, 107935504:0I)
+man(200065370:0U, 400031304:0O)
+mod:02(100036061:2A.@entry.@pl, 600000031:24)
+and:02(100036061:2A.@entry.@pl, 100251013:1R.@pl)
+aoj(200065370:0U, 107935504:0I)
+pur(201158572:1I.@entry, :02:02)
+mod(107935504:0I, 115691034:08)
+obj(600000055:02, 200065370:0U)
+obj(201158572:1I.@entry, 600000016:1C.@topic)
+aoj(300705498:0Y, 104723816:13)
+mod:01(100947128:2W.@entry, 108460152:2O)
+aoj(300705498:0Y, 104723816:13)
+mod:01(100947128:2W.@entry, 108460152:2O)
+cnt:02(100036061:2A.@entry.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj(200065370:0U, 104723816:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7678]
+{org:en}
+Examples of circulated use
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105820620:02.@entry.@pl, 100947128:0P)
+obj(200968211:0E.@past, 100947128:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7679]
+{org:en}
+Steel mill
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103765561:08.@entry, 104310904:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7680]
+{org:en}
+In steel mills, oxygen is blown into crude steel produced in blast furnaces to separate and adjust carbon components.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200007012:0S.@entry.@past, 103765561:0B.@pl)
+mod(103081021:30.@pl, 102961851:2T)
+pur(201621555:1F, :01:01)
+obj(201621555:1F, 104310904:19)
+obj(:01, 103081021:30.@pl)
+mod(103081021:30.@pl, 102961851:2T)
+pur(201621555:1F, :01:01)
+obj(201621555:1F, 104310904:19)
+obj(:01, 103081021:30.@pl)
+gol(200007012:0S.@entry.@past, 104310904:19)
+mod(103404449:1X.@pl, 100128867:1R)
+obj(200007012:0S.@entry.@past, 114648100:0I.@topic)
+mod(103765561:0B.@pl, 104310904:05)
+plc(201621555:1F, 103404449:1X.@pl)
+mod(103765561:0B.@pl, 104310904:05)
+plc(201621555:1F, 103404449:1X.@pl)
+aoj(300417204:13, 104310904:19)
+and:01(200150287:2M.@entry, 201458973:29)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7681]
+{org:en}
+Cooling water in the furnace bodies, the lance (oxygen entrance), the auxiliary machinery, and dust collecting water for pollution gases generated at the blower, are used for circulation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:4O.@entry, :02:02.@topic)
+mod:01(100049003:1L.@entry, 114648100:1E)
+obj:02(201384439:2U.@progress, 114839846:2P)
+mod:02(114481080:3P.@pl, 114516743:3F)
+mod:02(107935504:35.@entry, 201384439:2U.@progress)
+mod:02(102861886:0V.@def.@pl, 103404449:0N)
+and:02(115301378:17.@def, 107935504:0A)
+mod:01(100049003:1L.@entry, 114648100:1E)
+obj:02(201384439:2U.@progress, 114839846:2P)
+mod:02(114481080:3P.@pl, 114516743:3F)
+mod:02(107935504:35.@entry, 201384439:2U.@progress)
+mod:02(102861886:0V.@def.@pl, 103404449:0N)
+and:02(115301378:17.@def, 107935504:0A)
+and:02(107935504:35.@entry, 103701640:2A.@def)
+mod:02(107935504:0A, 113453160:02)
+aoj:02(301854129:20, 103701640:2A.@def)
+pur(201158572:4O.@entry, 100368302:4X)
+plc:02(107935504:0A, 102861886:0V.@def.@pl)
+and:02(103701640:2A.@def, 115301378:17.@def)
+plc:02(107935504:0A, 102861886:0V.@def.@pl)
+and:02(103701640:2A.@def, 115301378:17.@def)
+plc:02(201627355:3V.@past, 102855089:4C.@def)
+pur:02(107935504:35.@entry, 114481080:3P.@pl)
+obj:02(201627355:3V.@past, 114481080:3P.@pl)
+cnt:02(115301378:17.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7682]
+{org:en}
+The return rate (i.e. the percentage of circulated water to total water consumed) reaches 93% or more.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200743344:2C.@entry, 113325010:0D.@topic.@def)
+qua:01(107935504:1W, 303160907:1Q)
+obj:01(115689159:0J.@entry, 113817526:0S.@def)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 113325010:0D.@topic.@def)
+obj:01(200968211:16.@past, 107935504:1H)
+qua:01(107935504:1W, 303160907:1Q)
+obj:01(115689159:0J.@entry, 113817526:0S.@def)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 113325010:0D.@topic.@def)
+obj:01(200968211:16.@past, 107935504:1H)
+or:02(600000124:2R.@entry, "93%":2K)
+to:01(107935504:1H, 107935504:1W)
+gol(200743344:2C.@entry, :02)
+mod:01(113817526:0S.@def, 107935504:1H)
+mod:01(113817526:0S.@def, 107935504:1H)
+mod(113325010:0D.@topic.@def, 100051192:06)
+aoj:01(303155990:22, 107935504:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7683]
+{org:en}
+Figure 5 shows the flow of circulated water in steel mills.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0B.@entry, 100556992:02.@topic)
+mod(103765561:1J, 104310904:1D)
+plc(107935504:14, 103765561:1J)
+mod(103765561:1J, 104310904:1D)
+plc(107935504:14, 103765561:1J)
+mod(100329227:0L.@def, 107935504:14)
+obj(200923307:0B.@entry, 100329227:0L.@def)
+mod(100556992:02.@topic, "5":09)
+mod(100556992:02.@topic, "5":09)
+obj(200968211:0T.@past, 107935504:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7684]
+{org:en}
+Figure 5.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "5":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7685]
+{org:en}
+Flow of circulated water in a steel mill, Unit
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100329227:02.@entry, 107935504:0L)
+mod(103765561:12.@indef, 104310904:0W)
+mod(103765561:12.@indef, 104310904:0W)
+obj(200968211:0A.@past, 107935504:0L.@entry)
+plc(107935504:0L, 103765561:12.@indef)
+aoj(105869857:18, 103765561:12.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7686]
+{org:en}
+Pure water is introduced to the furnace body and lance cooling in completely closed systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200706693:0G.@entry, 107935504:07.@topic)
+mod:01(102861886:16, 103404449:0Y)
+mod(113453160:1L.@def, :01)
+aoj(300361125:02, 107935504:07.@topic)
+mod:01(102861886:16, 103404449:0Y)
+mod(113453160:1L.@def, :01)
+aoj(300361125:02, 107935504:07.@topic)
+gol(200706693:0G.@entry, 113453160:1L.@def)
+man(301653538:27, 400157624:1W)
+plc(200706693:0G.@entry, 104377057:2E.@pl)
+aoj(301653538:27, 104377057:2E.@pl)
+aoj(301653538:27, 104377057:2E.@pl)
+and:01(115301378:1F.@entry, 102861886:16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7687]
+{org:en}
+The returned water (warm water) is indirectly cooled through heat exchangers, and then the secondary cooling water is further cooled down in cooling towers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200369864:3K.@entry, 200369864:1C)
+obj(200369864:1C, 107935504:0F.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000192:3R, :73)
+cnt(107935504:0F.@topic.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
+man(200369864:3K.@entry, 600000192:3R)
+obj(600000026:1J, 110069120:1W.@pl)
+aoj(300793592:2L, 107935504:33.@topic.@def)
+obj(200369864:1C, 107935504:0F.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000192:3R, :73)
+cnt(107935504:0F.@topic.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
+man(200369864:3K.@entry, 600000192:3R)
+obj(600000026:1J, 110069120:1W.@pl)
+aoj(300793592:2L, 107935504:33.@topic.@def)
+obj(200369864:3K.@entry, 107935504:33.@topic.@def)
+man(200369864:1C, 400058359:11)
+mod(104460130:47.@pl, 113453160:3Z)
+aoj:01(300445308:0M, 107935504:0R.@entry)
+man(200369864:3K.@entry, 400117620:2C)
+man(200369864:1C, 600000026:1J)
+plc(:73, 104460130:47.@pl)
+man(200369864:1C, 600000026:1J)
+plc(:73, 104460130:47.@pl)
+obj(200879028:06.@past, 107935504:0F.@topic.@def)
+man(200369864:3K.@entry, 600000168:3C)
+mod(110069120:1W.@pl, 105725527:1R)
+mod(107935504:33.@topic.@def, 113453160:2V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7688]
+{org:en}
+Industrial water is supplied to the secondary cooling systems, and blow down water is used in cascade as make-up water to the auxiliary machinery cooling systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201158572:2H.@entry, 202327200:0M)
+mod(107935504:28.@topic, 115691034:1X)
+to(107935504:38, 104377057:4D.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301188648:02, 107935504:0D.@topic)
+plc(201158572:2H.@entry, 108460152:2P)
+aoj(300793592:12, 104377057:1K.@def.@pl)
+mod(104377057:4D.@def.@pl, 113453160:45)
+mod(107935504:28.@topic, 115691034:1X)
+to(107935504:38, 104377057:4D.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301188648:02, 107935504:0D.@topic)
+plc(201158572:2H.@entry, 108460152:2P)
+aoj(300793592:12, 104377057:1K.@def.@pl)
+mod(104377057:4D.@def.@pl, 113453160:45)
+man(201158572:2H.@entry, 600000023:2X)
+gol(202327200:0M, 104377057:1K.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301854129:3L, 104377057:4D.@def.@pl)
+obj(201158572:2H.@entry, 107935504:28.@topic)
+obj(202327200:0M, 107935504:0D.@topic)
+mod(107935504:38, 115690084:30)
+obj(202327200:0M, 107935504:0D.@topic)
+mod(107935504:38, 115690084:30)
+obj(600000023:2X, 107935504:38)
+mod(104377057:1K.@def.@pl, 113453160:1C)
+mod(113453160:45, 103701640:3V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7689]
+{org:en}
+In dust collecting systems, the suspended material in blow gases, whose main component is iron oxide, are collected by dust collectors.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201384439:30.@entry, 104377057:0L.@pl)
+mod(114971519:2P, 103584829:2K)
+aoj(302351692:0Y, 103729951:18.@topic.@def)
+mod(103069381:3I.@pl, 114839846:3D)
+aoj(114971519:2P, 103081021:27)
+mod(114971519:2P, 103584829:2K)
+aoj(302351692:0Y, 103729951:18.@topic.@def)
+mod(103069381:3I.@pl, 114839846:3D)
+aoj(114971519:2P, 103081021:27)
+agt(201384439:30.@entry, 103069381:3I.@pl)
+mod(115668891:0A, 114839846:05)
+mod(114481080:1P.@pl, 100835501:1K)
+obj(201384439:30.@entry, 103729951:18.@topic.@def)
+mod(104377057:0L.@pl, 115668891:0A)
+mod(103081021:27, 114481080:1P.@pl)
+mod(104377057:0L.@pl, 115668891:0A)
+mod(103081021:27, 114481080:1P.@pl)
+plc(103729951:18.@topic.@def, 114481080:1P.@pl)
+mod(103081021:27, 301512527:22)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7690]
+{org:en}
+Therefore, coarse particle separators or thickeners should be installed to separate such material.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000169:02.@entry, 201569566:1S.@should)
+or:01(115696201:17.@entry.@pl, 115393294:0T.@pl)
+obj(201458973:25, 103729951:2J)
+or:01(115696201:17.@entry.@pl, 115393294:0T.@pl)
+obj(201458973:25, 103729951:2J)
+pur(201569566:1S.@should, 201458973:25)
+mod:01(115393294:0T.@pl, 106326406:0K)
+obj(201569566:1S.@should, :01:01)
+aoj:01(301950198:0D, 115393294:0T.@pl)
+aoj:01(301950198:0D, 115393294:0T.@pl)
+mod(103729951:2J, 600001411:2E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7691]
+{org:en}
+Also, a filler-free model of cooling tower should be chosen to avoid clogging.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200674607:1J.@entry.@should, 400047534:02)
+aoj(300916199:0H, 100898804:0M.@topic.@indef)
+obj(200811375:1T, 200182037:1Z.@progress)
+aoj(300916199:0H, 100898804:0M.@topic.@indef)
+obj(200811375:1T, 200182037:1Z.@progress)
+pur(200674607:1J.@entry.@should, 200811375:1T)
+mod(104460130:13, 113453160:0V)
+obj(200674607:1J.@entry.@should, 100898804:0M.@topic.@indef)
+obj(300916199:0H, 103338009:0A)
+obj(300916199:0H, 103338009:0A)
+mod(100898804:0M.@topic.@indef, 104460130:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7692]
+{org:en}
+The blow down water in the dust collecting systems contains heavy metals so that the water should be discharged after being processed through treatment system to comply with the requirements.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(202701210:1H.@entry, 600000084:23)
+man(201097743:2U.@should, 600000002:35)
+mod(107935504:0G.@topic.@def, 115691034:06)
+mod(104377057:49, 100658082:3Z)
+aoj(300462409:1Q, 114625458:1W.@pl)
+obj(600000026:3R, 104377057:49)
+obj(600000084:23, 201097743:2U.@should)
+man(201097743:2U.@should, 600000002:35)
+mod(107935504:0G.@topic.@def, 115691034:06)
+mod(104377057:49, 100658082:3Z)
+aoj(300462409:1Q, 114625458:1W.@pl)
+obj(600000026:3R, 104377057:49)
+obj(600000084:23, 201097743:2U.@should)
+obj(202701210:1H.@entry, 114625458:1W.@pl)
+man(200515154:3H.@progress.@passive, 600000026:3R)
+obj(115668891:0Y, 114839846:0T)
+obj(600000018:4Q, 115669633:4Z.@def.@pl)
+aoj(202701210:1H.@entry, 107935504:0G.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000002:35, 200515154:3H.@progress.@passive)
+mod(104377057:19.@def.@pl, 115668891:0Y)
+obj(600000002:35, 200515154:3H.@progress.@passive)
+mod(104377057:19.@def.@pl, 115668891:0Y)
+man(202775441:4J, 600000018:4Q)
+plc(107935504:0G.@topic.@def, 104377057:19.@def.@pl)
+pur(104377057:49, 202775441:4J)
+obj(201097743:2U.@should, 107935504:2E.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7693]
+{org:en}
+Thermal electric power plant
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100017222:0P.@entry, 301250565:02)
+mod(105190804:0J, 300921631:0A)
+mod(100017222:0P.@entry, 105190804:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7694]
+{org:en}
+A large quantity of water, most of it is used for cooling water to equipment, is repeatedly used in thermal electric power plants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:2M.@entry, 107935504:0M.@topic)
+pur(201158572:17, 107935504:1O)
+mod(105190804:3B, 300921631:32)
+mod(100017222:3H.@pl, 301250565:2U)
+aoj(300527870:04, 105108740:0A.@indef)
+pur(201158572:17, 107935504:1O)
+mod(105190804:3B, 300921631:32)
+mod(100017222:3H.@pl, 301250565:2U)
+aoj(300527870:04, 105108740:0A.@indef)
+man(201158572:2M.@entry, 400176880:2B)
+to(107935504:1O, 103294048:1X)
+qua(107935504:0M.@topic, 105108740:0A.@indef)
+plc(201158572:2M.@entry, 100017222:3H.@pl)
+mod(107935504:1O, 113453160:1G)
+mod(600000078:0T, 107935504:0M.@topic)
+mod(107935504:1O, 113453160:1G)
+mod(600000078:0T, 107935504:0M.@topic)
+mod(100017222:3H.@pl, 105190804:3B)
+obj(201158572:17, 600000078:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7695]
+{org:en}
+A typical example for circulated use is water and vapor systems in once-through flow plants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104377057:1M.@entry.@pl, 105820620:0C.@topic.@indef)
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+pur(105820620:0C.@topic.@indef, 100947128:0Z)
+mod(100017222:2F.@pl, 303162040:1X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7696]
+{org:en}
+Figure 6 shows the process flow of a once-through flow plant.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0B.@entry, 100556992:02.@topic)
+mod(100017222:1L.@indef, 100329227:1G)
+mod(100329227:0T.@def, 100029677:0L)
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+mod(100556992:02.@topic, "6":09)
+mod(100017222:1L.@indef, 303162040:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7697]
+{org:en}
+Figure 6.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "6":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7698]
+{org:en}
+Flows of water and vapor in once-through plant
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(100329227:02.@pl.@entry, 100017222:17)
+mod(100017222:17, 303162040:0U)
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+obj(100329227:02.@pl.@entry, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7699]
+{org:en}
+The vapor that is used in turbines for power generation is returned into bleeders.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200879028:1P.@entry, 115055633:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(100849982:1B, 105190804:15)
+plc(201158572:0K, 104498523:0S.@pl)
+obj(100849982:1B, 105190804:15)
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+pur(104498523:0S.@pl, 100849982:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7700]
+{org:en}
+Particulate matter in returned water is removed in pre-filtration equipment up to a concentration of 0.1ppb or less.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200173338:16.@entry, 100020827:0E.@topic)
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+aoj(301724368:02, 100020827:0E.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7701]
+{org:en}
+Pre-coat filters are widely used as pre-filtration equipment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(101898731:07, 303162312:02)
+mod(103294048:1I, 115694231:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7702]
+{org:en}
+Recently, electromagnetic filters with easy operation, or pleated filters with improved filtration efficiency have been developed as cartridge type filters, which are preferably chosen for use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200234057:3E.@entry.@complete, 400107416:02)
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+aoj(600000019:10, 103339643:0S.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7703]
+{org:en}
+Bleeding desalinization equipment is a mix of cationic exchange resin and anionic exchange resin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(107374756:15.@entry.@indef, 103294048:0Q.@topic)
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+mod:01(114894140:1U, 100167063:1L)
+mod:01(114894140:2L.@entry, 100167063:2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7704]
+{org:en}
+It supplies returned water into desalinization towers in order to remove electrolytes and to maintain the required quality of water for the plant.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202327200:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
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+gol(107935504:0N, 104460130:1E.@pl)
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+obj:01(200173338:1X, 114847929:24.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7705]
+{org:en}
+Actually, bleeding desalinization equipment is identical to mix bed polishers, but it operates at much higher loading rate ( HTM1 to HTM2 ) since the ion concentration of returned water is very low.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300292448:1D.@entry, 400149138:02)
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+cnt(113325010:3C, :01.@parenthesis)
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+plc(200341285:2G, 113325010:3C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7706]
+{org:en}
+The demand for higher quality of water in brackish water circulation systems has been increased with the popularization of super-critical pressure once-through boilers in power generation units.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:2G.@entry.@complete, 101061333:06.@topic.@def)
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+plc(107935504:0Z, 104377057:1Z.@pl)
+mod(105869857:5A.@pl, 100849982:4Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7707]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the installation of bleeding desalinization equipment is obligatory.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(400121135:02.@entry, 300848074:1T)
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+mod(103294048:1G, 115691060:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7708]
+{org:en}
+Currently, the outside tower regeneration process is adopted in bleeding desalinization equipment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200413195:1J.@entry, 400535248:02)
+mod(100029677:18.@topic.@def, 101047937:0V)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7709]
+{org:en}
+In this process, there is no adverse effect to the quality of water caused by the residue of regeneration chemicals since resin is exclusively transferred from desalinization towers to separate towers for regeneration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+met(201645601:1Y, 115004501:2C.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7710]
+{org:en}
+Instead, there are some technical difficulties in separating cationic and anionic exchange resins from the mixed bed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202603699:0H.@entry, 400535291:02)
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+mod(104709253:10.@pl, 300484070:0Q)
+and:01(302930255:24.@entry, 302930387:1R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7711]
+{org:en}
+Paper mill
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103765561:08.@entry, 106255613:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7712]
+{org:en}
+Like the steel industry, the paper industry depends to a large extent on water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:1A.@entry, 100923444:11.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000123:02, 100923444:0H.@def)
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+mod(100923444:0H.@def, 104310904:0B)
+mod(100923444:11.@topic.@def, 106255613:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7713]
+{org:en}
+Various efforts have been made to minimize the impact of the large consumption of water on the surrounding environment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(107338552:1D.@def, 108567235:31.@def)
+obj(100356367:1X.@def, 107935504:2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7714]
+{org:en}
+Several actions have been taken to reduce water consumption, which includes not only circulating non-polluted water but also reusing drained water (white water) in the papermaking process (which consumes much water), and also recycling of water in each process.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:7715]
+{org:en}
+As a result, the water recycle rate has reached 75 to 80% (See Figure 7).
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+
+[S:7716]
+{org:en}
+Figure 7.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7717]
+{org:en}
+Current situation of water use in paper pulp plant
+{/org}
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+[S:7718]
+{org:en}
+Recently, clean water consumption has decreased from 77.6 HTM1 (air-dried pulp ton)-1 by the former design to 44.2 in the modern design.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:7719]
+{org:en}
+Further, the most advanced design has improved this to 12 HTM1 (air-dried pulp ton)-1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7720]
+{org:en}
+Bleaching is the most water consuming process followed by papermaking, and cleaning and poaching (see Table 8).
+{/org}
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+aoj(400535343:0U, 100029677:14.@entry)
+obj:03(200662589:2S.@entry, 104379243:2W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7721]
+{org:en}
+Table 8.
+{/org}
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+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "8":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7722]
+{org:en}
+Clean water consumption in the process of bleached craft pulp plant
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:7723]
+{org:en}
+The recent movement for environmental protection, triggered in particular by the dioxin problem, has enhanced the reduction of water consumption and drainage.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7724]
+{org:en}
+Completely closed plants have already been constructed in some countries while the design of such plant is now proceeding in HTM1 Japan HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:7725]
+{org:en}
+Especially, the bleaching process is changing from conventional chlorine bleaching to ECF bleaching (elementary chlorine free bleaching).
+{/org}
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+[S:7726]
+{org:en}
+The newly developed process has, however, created another problem of scale deposition and/or slime generation by the accumulation of organic and non-organic matter due to internal circulation, instead of impairment by chlorine.
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+[S:7727]
+{org:en}
+The bleaching cleaners separate filtrates into two portions
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+the primary filtrate which has high concentration of contaminants and the secondary filtrate which has low concentration of contaminants.
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+Only secondary filtrate can be used in the internal circulation to prevent increase of concentration.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The primary filtrate may be used in the former processes for more efficient use of water.
+{/org}
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+[S:7731]
+{org:en}
+Drinking water production plant
+{/org}
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+[S:7732]
+{org:en}
+In the drinking water production process, water is used not only for source water, but also for various kinds of applications, such as cooling water in the heat disinfection process, cleaning water for cans, bottles, reserve tanks and piping
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7733]
+{org:en}
+see Figure 8
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200662589:02.@entry, 100556992:06)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7734]
+{org:en}
+Figure 8.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "8":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7735]
+{org:en}
+Water consumed in drinking water production plant
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7736]
+{org:en}
+The water used for the cooling and the cleaning of cans and bottles is not highly contaminated because it does not contact with product liquid directly.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+pur(201158572:0C, :01:01)
+man(202775613:39.@emphasis.@not, 400051848:41)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7737]
+{org:en}
+Therefore, the water can easily be recycled for reuse.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000169:02.@entry, 201162425:11.@ability)
+pur(201162425:11.@ability, 115689531:1E)
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+man(201162425:11.@ability, 400054435:0R)
+obj(201162425:11.@ability, 107935504:0H.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7738]
+{org:en}
+On the other hand, the water that has been used for the cleaning of reservoirs and piping is contaminated by the residue of raw material and the remaining cleaning agents.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200493259:2N.@entry, 600000146:02)
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+obj:02(202637592:43.@progress.@def, 109190918:4M.@entry.@pl)
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+and:01(100101708:2D.@entry, 104078574:1Y.@pl)
+obj:02(200177714:4D.@progress, 109190918:4M.@entry.@pl)
+and:02(109190918:4M.@entry.@pl, 103729951:3M.@pl)
+pur(201158572:19.@complete, 200177714:1M.@def.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7739]
+{org:en}
+Due to the high concentration of organic matter and salts, this water is not suitable for recycling.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(303161286:27.@entry.@not, 600000001:02)
+obj(100375071:0I.@def, :01:01)
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+aoj(300705498:0D, 100375071:0I.@def)
+obj(600000001:02, 100375071:0I.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7740]
+{org:en}
+Table 9 summarizes the characteristics of drained water from the main units of manufacturing equipment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202752695:0A.@entry, 104379243:02.@topic)
+mod(105869857:20.@pl, 103294048:2N)
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+mod(105869857:20.@pl, 301512527:1V)
+mod(105869857:20.@pl, 301512527:1V)
+aoj(301088478:18, 107935504:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7741]
+{org:en}
+It should be noted that some drained water which is not listed in this table is also recycled for reuse, e.g. low-concentration drained rinse water from CIP (Cleaning in Place), drained cleaning water from sand filtration equipment and activated carbon absorption towers in water treatment equipment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201020005:0F.@entry.@should, 201162425:2F)
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+pur(201162425:2F, 115689531:2S)
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+plc(200945853:1M.@not, 104379243:21)
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+and:02(107935504:5R.@pl, 107935504:43.@pl)
+obj(201162425:2F, 107935504:13)
+mod:02(107935504:5R.@pl, 100251013:5I)
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+aoj(301088478:0V, 107935504:13)
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+man(201162425:2F, 115699356:2Z)
+aoj:02(301088478:5A, 107935504:5R)
+and:02(104460130:7V.@entry.@pl, 107935504:5R.@pl)
+aoj:02(301206474:37, 100375071:3B)
+qua(107935504:13, 600000034:0Q)
+and:02(104460130:7V.@entry.@pl, 107935504:5R.@pl)
+aoj:02(301206474:37, 100375071:3B)
+qua(107935504:13, 600000034:0Q)
+aoj:02(301088478:3P, 107935504:43)
+mod:02(103294048:8L, 100658082:8B)
+man(201162425:2F, 400047534:2A)
+mod:02(103294048:6I, 100191980:67)
+mod:02(104460130:7V.@entry.@pl, 113423922:7K)
+mod(104379243:21, 600000017:1W)
+cnt:02(500323784:4E, :01.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7742]
+{org:en}
+Table 9.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "9":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7743]
+{org:en}
+Characteristics of drained water in drinking water production plant
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104731497:02.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0T)
+mod(107935504:1B, 303155687:12)
+mod(100017222:1S, 100522736:1H)
+mod(107935504:1B, 303155687:12)
+mod(100017222:1S, 100522736:1H)
+aoj(301088478:0L, 107935504:0T)
+plc(107935504:0T, 100017222:1S)
+obj(100522736:1H, 107935504:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7744]
+{org:en}
+Figure 9 shows improvement of the recycle and reuse of water in drinking water production plants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0B.@entry, 100556992:02.@topic)
+plc(107935504:1L, 100017222:2K.@pl)
+obj(:01, 107935504:1L)
+mod(100556992:02.@topic, "9":09)
+plc(107935504:1L, 100017222:2K.@pl)
+obj(:01, 107935504:1L)
+mod(100556992:02.@topic, "9":09)
+obj(100248977:0H, :01)
+obj(100522736:29, 107936263:1U)
+obj(200923307:0B.@entry, 100248977:0H)
+mod(100017222:2K.@pl, 100522736:29)
+mod(100017222:2K.@pl, 100522736:29)
+and:01(115689531:1C.@entry.@def, 115693035:10.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7745]
+{org:en}
+Clean water was previously consumed at 4300 HTM1 day-1 before the recycle and reuse.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200600903:0T.@entry.@past, 107935504:08.@topic)
+aoj(600000025:1I, HTM1:1A)
+man(200600903:0T.@entry.@past, 400060632:0I)
+and:01(115689531:2J.@entry.@def, 115693035:27.@def)
+aoj(600000025:1I, HTM1:1A)
+man(200600903:0T.@entry.@past, 400060632:0I)
+and:01(115689531:2J.@entry.@def, 115693035:27.@def)
+plc(200600903:0T.@entry.@past, HTM1:1A)
+obj(600000062:1W, :01)
+man(200600903:0T.@entry.@past, 600000062:1W)
+obj(600000025:1I, 114484516:1F)
+obj(600000025:1I, 114484516:1F)
+qua(HTM1:1A, "4300":15)
+aoj(300047653:02, 107935504:08.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7746]
+{org:en}
+After the installation of recycling equipment, consumption was halved, greatly contributing to water saving.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200642357:1T.@entry.@past, 600000002:02)
+agt(200549552:2V.@progress, 107935504:2P)
+obj(202308741:29.@progress, 107935504:2P)
+mod(103294048:12, 100948868:0S)
+agt(200549552:2V.@progress, 107935504:2P)
+obj(202308741:29.@progress, 107935504:2P)
+mod(103294048:12, 100948868:0S)
+met(200642357:1T.@entry.@past, 202308741:29.@progress)
+obj(100240938:0C.@def, 103294048:12)
+obj(200642357:1T.@entry.@past, 100356367:1D.@topic)
+obj(600000002:02, 100240938:0C.@def)
+obj(600000002:02, 100240938:0C.@def)
+man(202308741:29.@progress, 400056539:21)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7747]
+{org:en}
+Figure 9.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "9":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7748]
+{org:en}
+Example of water recycling in drinking water production plant
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(105820620:02.@entry, 100017222:1M)
+mod(100017222:1M, 100522736:1B)
+mod(100017222:1M, 100522736:1B)
+mod(100948868:0J, 107935504:0D)
+mod(105820620:02.@entry, 100948868:0J)
+obj(100522736:1B, 107936263:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7749]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7750]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7751]
+{org:en}
+Ion exchange
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100167063:06.@entry, 109315159:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7752]
+{org:en}
+A reversible inter-exchange of one kind of ion present on an insoluble solid with another of like charge present in a solution surrounding the solid.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(115693905:0F.@entry.@indef, 109315159:19)
+aoj(301731351:2Z, 100974762:2S)
+plc(301731351:1D, 113860793:21.@indef)
+mod(109315159:19, 105839024:11)
+aoj(201467370:3L.@progress, 100190783:3C.@indef)
+obj(600000018:27, 600000116:2C)
+aoj(301731351:2Z, 100974762:2S)
+plc(301731351:1D, 113860793:21.@indef)
+mod(109315159:19, 105839024:11)
+aoj(201467370:3L.@progress, 100190783:3C.@indef)
+obj(600000018:27, 600000116:2C)
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+plc(301731351:2Z, 100190783:3C.@indef)
+aoj(301230728:1R, 113860793:21.@indef)
+aoj(300346626:04, 115693905:0F.@entry.@indef)
+mod(100974762:2S, 301411065:2N)
+man(301731351:1D, 600000018:27)
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+man(301731351:1D, 600000018:27)
+qua(105839024:11, "1":0X)
+obj(201467370:3L.@progress, 113860793:3M.@def)
+mod(600000116:2C, 100974762:2S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7753]
+{org:en}
+Langelier index
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105567381:0C.@entry, 500322985:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7754]
+{org:en}
+Degree of possibility for scale deposition or corrosion, which is described by the difference between actual pH and saturated pH of calcium carbonate
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105094565:02.@entry, 105792010:0C)
+aoj:02(300393508:3A, 105039106:3K.@entry)
+agt(200987071:1W, 104748836:2D.@def)
+obj(:01, 101902877:0S)
+and:02(105039106:3K.@entry, 105039106:33)
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+agt(200987071:1W, 104748836:2D.@def)
+obj(:01, 101902877:0S)
+and:02(105039106:3K.@entry, 105039106:33)
+or:01(113453428:1C.@entry, 100208943:0Y)
+mod:02(105039106:33, 300043765:2W)
+obj(600000024:2O, :02)
+pur(105792010:0C, :01:01)
+mod:02(114798450:3Y, 114632648:3Q)
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+mod:02(114798450:3Y, 114632648:3Q)
+aoj(600000024:2O, 104748836:2D.@def)
+obj(200987071:1W, :01)
+mod:02(105039106:3K.@entry, 114798450:3Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7755]
+{org:en}
+LSI
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323551:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7756]
+{org:en}
+Large-scale integration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301388418:02, 100871418:0E.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7757]
+{org:en}
+Electric circuits drawn on to silicon wafer at the micron scale.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202775644:0K, 103033362:0B.@entry.@pl)
+mod(101902877:1O.@def, 113658496:1H)
+plc(107687053:14, 101902877:1O.@def)
+mod(101902877:1O.@def, 113658496:1H)
+plc(107687053:14, 101902877:1O.@def)
+gol(202775644:0K, 107687053:14)
+mod(103033362:0B.@entry.@pl, 300921631:02)
+mod(107687053:14, 114654541:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7758]
+{org:en}
+Resistivity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115690824:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7759]
+{org:en}
+Reciprocal of electrolytic conductivity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(113843601:02.@entry, 115669512:0T)
+aoj(302718008:0G, 115669512:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7760]
+{org:en}
+Electrolytic conductivity shows the total amount of soluble salts in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0S.@entry, 115669512:0F.@topic)
+qua(100033615:18.@def, 303160907:12)
+qua(105717342:1Q.@pl, 100033615:18.@def)
+qua(100033615:18.@def, 303160907:12)
+qua(105717342:1Q.@pl, 100033615:18.@def)
+plc(105717342:1Q.@pl, 107935504:1Z)
+obj(200923307:0S.@entry, 105717342:1Q.@pl)
+aoj(302718008:02, 115669512:0F.@topic)
+aoj(302718008:02, 115669512:0F.@topic)
+aoj(302265015:1I, 105717342:1Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7761]
+{org:en}
+Theoretical resistivity of pure HTM1 is 18.2 HTM2 cm
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115669285:1G.@entry, 115690824:0E.@topic)
+aoj(300361125:0T, HTM1:0Y)
+mod(115690824:0E.@topic, HTM1:0Y)
+aoj(300361125:0T, HTM1:0Y)
+mod(115690824:0E.@topic, HTM1:0Y)
+mod(115669285:1G.@entry, HTM2:1B)
+qua(115669285:1G.@entry, "18.2":16)
+aoj(300860611:02, 115690824:0E.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7762]
+{org:en}
+Reverse Osmosis
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(113528100:0A.@entry, 300203917:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7763]
+{org:en}
+Flow of fresh water through a semi permeable membrane when pressure is applied to a solution on one side of it
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(100329227:02.@entry, 600000033:1K)
+plc(100190783:2E.@indef, 104213626:2U)
+mod(103743761:1B.@indef, 303161901:0W)
+aoj(300205295:0A, 107935504:0G.@entry)
+obj(200765396:21, 100113113:1P)
+plc(100190783:2E.@indef, 104213626:2U)
+mod(103743761:1B.@indef, 303161901:0W)
+aoj(300205295:0A, 107935504:0G.@entry)
+obj(200765396:21, 100113113:1P)
+obj(100329227:02.@entry, 107935504:0G.@entry)
+qua(104213626:2U, "1":2Q)
+obj(600000033:1K, 200765396:21)
+mod(100329227:02.@entry, 600000045:0M)
+mod(104213626:2U, 600000016:32)
+aoj(301772032:11, 103743761:1B.@indef)
+mod(104213626:2U, 600000016:32)
+aoj(301772032:11, 103743761:1B.@indef)
+obj(600000045:0M, 103743761:1B.@indef)
+gol(200765396:21, 100190783:2E.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7764]
+{org:en}
+Ultra-pure water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161059:08, 107935504:0D.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7765]
+{org:en}
+Water whose impurities are removed as much as possible by state-of-art technologies
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(114487184:0E.@pl, 107935504:02.@entry)
+mod(100949619:21.@pl, 301876780:1O)
+ins(200173338:0T, 100949619:21.@pl)
+mod(100949619:21.@pl, 301876780:1O)
+ins(200173338:0T, 100949619:21.@pl)
+man(200173338:0T, 600000167:11)
+obj(200173338:0T, 114487184:0E.@pl)
+obj(600000167:11, 301821266:1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7766]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
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+
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+Béchaux J.
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+
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+Water Treatment Handbook, fifth edition.
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+Degrémont, HTM1 Rueil-Malmaison HTM2 , HTM3 France HTM4.
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+1186 pp.
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+Part I of this book is a general survey of water and its action on the materials with which it comes into contact.
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+And part IV deals with the chemistry of water and reagents used in water treatment, methods of analysis, and the biology of water.
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+[S:7775]
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+Walters J. K. and Wint A.
+{/org}
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+Industrial Effluent Treatment
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+Water and Solid Waste.
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+Applied Science Publishers Ltd.
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+[S:7780]
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+London HTM1 , HTM2 UK HTM3.
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+Biographical Sketch
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+Yasumoto Magara HTM1 is Professor of Engineering at HTM2 Hokkaido HTM3 University HTM4 where he has been on faculty since 1997.
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+He obtained a Ph.D. in Engineering from HTM1 Hokkaido HTM2 University HTM3 in 1979 and was conferred an Honorary Doctoral Degree in Engineering from HTM4 Chiangmai HTM5 University HTM6 in 1994.
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+PERSPECTIVES OF GLOBAL WATER BALANCE AND REGIONAL WATER RESOURCES
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+PERSPECTIVES OF GLOBAL WATER BALANCE AND REGIONAL WATER RESOURCES
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+R. Meissner
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+Research Associate, African Water Issues Research Unit, University of Pretoria, South Africa
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+[S:7800]
+{org:en}
+P.M. Mampane
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+Research Assistant, African Water Issues Unit, University of Pretoria, South Africa
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+{org:en}
+Keywords
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+{/unl}
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+
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+Water paradigm, sustainable development, water supply, water demand, global water balance, virtual water, blue water, green water
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+{org:en}
+Contents
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+[/S]
+
+[S:7805]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
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+[W]
+100238022:05.@entry
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+[/S]
+
+[S:7806]
+{org:en}
+An Altering Water Paradigm
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+{org:en}
+Perspectives of the Global Water Balance and Regional Water Resources
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+Conclusion
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+[W]
+105781541:05.@entry
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+[/S]
+
+[S:7809]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
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+[S:7810]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
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+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7811]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7812]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketches
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7813]
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+Summary
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+The current water discourse is characterised by the changing water paradigm which places more emphasis on the sustainable use of the planet’s water resources than ever conceived of in earlier or even ancient times.
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+;Yet, the altering water paradigm also brought about a see change regarding our perspectives of freshwater resources.Yet, the altering water paradigm also brought about a sea change regarding our perspectives of freshwater resources.
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+Both these perspectives on the global water balance and regional water resources can bring us closer to the sustainable use of the earth’s freshwater resources.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7821]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:05.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7822]
+{org:en}
+As one of the most important resources available to all life support systems, and constituting such a system itself, water resources are becoming more and more exploited while the quantity and quality thereof is becoming inextricably limited.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7823]
+{org:en}
+This is due to the fact that a number of constraints and limiting factors, such as population growth, industrialization and urbanization, is taxing global and regional water resources to their limits.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300137725:0A.@entry, 200844161:3Z.@progress)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7824]
+{org:en}
+If this sounds very pessimistic, there is however room for optimism.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7825]
+{org:en}
+This idealism lies in the fact that there are different perspectives regarding the global water balance and regional water resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(105154676:3H.@entry.@pl, 107935504:3B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7826]
+{org:en}
+These perspectives can offer practical solutions to our water problems and can become one of the major practices of future generations to develop and use the water in the hydrologic cycle in a more sustainable manner.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:01(201158572:48.@entry, 107935504:4G.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7827]
+{org:en}
+In this article the different perspectives of the global water balance and regional water resources will be discussed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100022903:0A, 600000017:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7828]
+{org:en}
+In the first section of the article an overview will be given of the changing water paradigm that highlight the move away from traditional water practices and uses, which are intervening in the global water balance and regional water resources in a profound manner.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7829]
+{org:en}
+The new water paradigm also maps out the innovative thinking about the water resources contained in the global hydrologic cycle.
+{/org}
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+aoj(301568684:2Y, 115690924:35.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7830]
+{org:en}
+In the second part of the article the perspective of virtual will be outlined, with the notion of blue and green water coming under scrutiny in the third section that might give some measure of optimism regarding the future of global and regional freshwater resources.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7831]
+{org:en}
+Virtual water is prominent in the current thinking on global and regional freshwater resources in that it provides humans with a possible way out of the water predicaments we are facing.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7832]
+{org:en}
+Another perspective with respect to current thinking on global and regional water resources, is that of green water and blue water.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7833]
+{org:en}
+Both virtual water and green water and blue water have certain levels of scarcities, that are influenced not only by natural occurrences but also by anthropogenic factors, which is mostly of a political and/or political-economic nature.
+{/org}
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+a/o:03(301814385:5W.@entry, 301814385:5F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7834]
+{org:en}
+An Altering Water Paradigm
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(106210171:0N.@entry.@indef, 107935504:0H)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:7835]
+{org:en}
+From the onset it is important to note that water scarcities are a local, or river basin, phenomenon.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7836]
+{org:en}
+The importance of this is quite extreme regarding strategic decision-making, for it allows for a conceptual difference to be developed between water scarcity at a local level, and the search for a solution at the regional or global level.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:7837]
+{org:en}
+Although there is enough water on earth, the distribution thereof is of such a nature that it is in abundance in some places and in others it can be extremely scarce.
+{/org}
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+qua:01(600000016:2O.@topic, 400535374:2U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7838]
+{org:en}
+Water is therefore both scarce and bountiful over space.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7839]
+{org:en}
+Not only that, it can also be limited or ampled over time.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7840]
+{org:en}
+Some regions of the world might experience periods of adequate rainfall while at others droughts can persist for some time.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7841]
+{org:en}
+For instance, due to the El Ni?o/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) effect Southern Africa have seen over the past 20 years periods of drought (1981-1985 and 1990-1995) with intervals of sufficient rainfall that provided for most of the water requirements for the economic activities of the region.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7842]
+{org:en}
+During such periods of drought many rivers will not be able to supply water to large urban, industrial and agricultural communities.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:7843]
+{org:en}
+In fact, during the severe drought of the 1930s in South Africa many of the large and important rivers, like the Orange and Vaal Rivers, stopped flowing.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Rivers are therefore an important part of the hydrologic cycle and an important source of water for humans.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7845]
+{org:en}
+Current opinion shows that there are essentially three main drivers of the expansion in water resource infrastructure in the Twentieth Century.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7846]
+{org:en}
+These are
+{/org}
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+aoj(:0T.@entry.@colon.@pl, 600000022:02.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7847]
+{org:en}
+Population growth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+113538996:0D.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7848]
+{org:en}
+Industrial development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301188648:02, 100250259:0D.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7849]
+{org:en}
+Expansion of irrigated agriculture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200079951:0F.@past, 108075287:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7850]
+{org:en}
+;For millennia humans have devised a number of measures to decrease our vulnerability regarding erratic river flows and rainfall patterns by mobilising natural waters (mostly river flow) to suite our basic (drinking purposes) and economic needs.For millennia humans have devised a number of measures to decrease our vulnerability regarding erratic river flows and rainfall patterns by mobilising natural waters (mostly river flow) to suit our basic (drinking purposes) and economic needs.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7851]
+{org:en}
+Humans have intervened in the hydrologic cycle at an increasing rate over the centuries respectively.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7852]
+{org:en}
+This was furthermore increased by the Industrial Revolution and rapid population growth (see HTM1 The Impact of Demography on Global and Regional Water Resources HTM2 ) of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
+{/org}
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+Furthermore the methods mentioned are not yet globally accepted practices and they may not be a permanent solution to our water problems.
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+States have already started with the implementation of some of these measures and interest groups are already advocating the implementation of some of these actions such as in the case of Namibia.
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+Most notable of these are Botswana and South Africa.
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+In South Africa the working for water programme (WWP) is but one of these actions with respect to the change in thinking about water resources management.
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+The WWP is an initiative built on the approach of the eradication of alien plant species within individual river basins.
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+Some of the most influencing of these drivers towards the changing water paradigm are:
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+The altered nature of water demand.
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+In some countries like the USA this increase was even more dramatic, due to that state's powerful economy.
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+
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+{org:en}
+In the 1920s this has doubled to more than 120 km³/yr.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7900]
+{org:en}
+Thirty years ago, during the 1950s, freshwater use reached 250 km³/yr.
+{/org}
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+In the 1980s this peaked at over 610 km*3/yr.
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+{org:en}
+Freshwater use in the USA also increased in a per-capita sense.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+In 1900 the annual per-capita freshwater use was under 700 cubic metres per person per year (m³/p/yr).
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Eight decades later it stood at 2 300 m³/p/yr.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:7905]
+{org:en}
+The increase in absolute and per capita freshwater withdrawals across the entire globe and within states, led to the dramatic increase of WRMP construction.
+{/org}
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+[S:7906]
+{org:en}
+Yet, beginning in the mid-1980s absolute and per-capita water use started to decline, in spite of population growth and increased economic development.
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+[S:7907]
+{org:en}
+For instance, in the USA, water withdrawals declined by nearly 10 % from 610 km³/yr in the 1980s to 554 km³/yr in 1995.
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+[S:7908]
+{org:en}
+Per-capita freshwater use also decreased by more than 20 % by 1995 from its 1980 levels in the USA.
+{/org}
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+Long-term projections of future global water needs saw a steady decline, in spite of continued socio-economic development in many regions of the world.
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+{org:en}
+In the past, future global water demands were overestimated due to the assumption that water use will continue to grow at historical rates.
+{/org}
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+[S:7911]
+{org:en}
+Actual global water withdrawals for 1995 were approximated to be between 3 500 and 3 700 km³/yr.
+{/org}
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+[S:7912]
+{org:en}
+This was nearly half of what they were expected to be 30 years ago.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The pressure to build new WRMPs has declined due to the reallocation of water to other users.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:7914]
+{org:en}
+In other words, the allocative efficiency of water, from agriculture, which is a high user of water but produces relatively low value commodities, to less water intensive value-added users like industry, was the main driver behind the changing demand for water.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:7915]
+{org:en}
+The second driver behind the changing water paradigm is that of environmental concerns linked to the WSM initiatives like large dams, pipelines and other water related infrastructure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+These projects can, in addition, have severe implications for aquatic HTM1 fauna HTM2 and HTM3 flora HTM4 , and some plant and animal species can even become very rare or extinct because of these human endeavours.
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+A social and environmental conscience or awareness has developed in recent years to protect both the environment and humans from the adverse effects of WRMPs.
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+The debate originated in the developed North during the early part of the twentieth century, when John Muir, founder of the Sierra Club, advocated against the construction of the Hetch Hetchy Dam in the mountains of California.
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+This debate has also spilled over into the developing world and has nestled among sections of the public that are opposed to such projects.
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+Interest groups are becoming an ever greater opposing force to contend with regarding the construction of water supply projects on many rivers across the world.
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+An example from the Okavango River basin will suffice to explain this phenomena.
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+In 1990 the government of Botswana decided to supply water to urban, industrial and irrigation needs in northern Botswana by dredging parts of the Okavango Delta and damming some of its outflows.
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+This plan, however, had to be postponed after interest groups in Botswana and abroad, most notably Greenpeace International as well as communal interest groups in and around the delta voiced their opposition towards the project.
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+In actual fact, Greenpeace International started a campaign against Botswana's diamond industry - part of the water from the project was supposed to supply water to the Orapa diamond mine.
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+Numerous other examples can be pointed out to illustrate the engagement of interest groups in the politics of water projects.
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+Some of the most striking examples of interest group involvement in the dam building industry in Southern Africa are the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP) and the proposed Epupa Dam project in the Kunene River.
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+The increasing awareness of the negative effects of large dams and other projects on communities and nature, manifested by interest groups, means that engineers, water managers, and decision-makers, amongst others, in the water sector are facing increased opposition towards such plans.
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+This was reiterated by Wolfgang Pricher, President of the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) in 1992, when he warned the British Dam Society that the dam building industry is encountering "a serious general countermovement that has already succeeded in reducing the prestige of dam engineering in the public eye, and it is starting to make work difficult for our profession".
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+This "countermovement" Pricher was referring to, consists of a number of interest groups, operating not only from within state borders, but also transnationally.
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+The opposition from these interest groups are already restricting the policy choices of governments, project planners and implementers and water resource utilities with respect to water projects.
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+There is therefore a conflict between the environmental interest group and the traditional water resource planner, developer and decision-maker.
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+This conflict of interest is manifested in the resource use perception of the environmental lobbyist, advocating against large water supply projects and those advocating the traditional development and use of water resources, mainly the engineer and the state, which is the custodian of the water resources found within the boundaries of the state.
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+This has already led to ballooning political interaction between states and interest groups and might continue to increase in the future.
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+It also highlights the fact that environmental concerns are being put forward by these organisations that has led to the change in thinking about water resources management across the entire world.
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+The third driving force behind the changing water paradigm is that of the high cost of WRMPs, which is associated to that of the environmental degradation emanating from such projects.
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+Economic aspects regarding the implementation of WRMPs are playing an ever increasing role with respect to the nature of water resources development.
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+When the first engineering projects were built it was not important that they be economically justifiable.
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+As more and more dams and pipelines were built and the best sites for their construction used, every new WRMP has become to a greater extent less justifiable in economic terms.
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+For instance, the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP) in the tiny mountain kingdom of Lesotho will cost approximately US 8 billion; the Three Gorges Dam Project in China will likely cost between US 25 billion and 60 billion to construct; the Itaipu Dam in Brazil was built at a cost of US 19 billion and was one of the reasons for Brazil's economic hardship.
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+Due to the local opposition to major water projects from international and local grassroots interest groups, and the increasing cost to implement such schemes, international donor and aid agencies like the World Bank started to rethink their water policies and in some instances reduced or stopped funding to large WRMPs.
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+New initiatives are being put forward by international funding organizations like integrated water planning to help states in the developing world to address their water problems.
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+Many states have started to ponder over alternative plans to mobilize more water and to put emphasis on development principles that mirror environmental, social and cultural values as well as the human rights of individuals and communities affected by such projects.
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+Some of the dominant principles that seem to be common to new approaches are:
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+Environmental values must be an essential component of decision making and used to restrict choices of locations and lay outs of new systems.
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+Economic principles must occur alongside water utilization and management.
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+Larger emphasis must be placed on the use of alternative initiatives, like WDM, to WRMPs.
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+Adaptability and maximum effectiveness must be the slogan of new supply systems.
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+These principles, or at least some versions of them, are presented and discussed in Agenda 21 during the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro.
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+Most notably, Chapter 18 of Agenda 21 is solely devoted to freshwater issues.
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+We can therefore foresee a major drive by environmental and human rights interest groups advocating these matters regarding freshwater matters at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg in 2002, with an added emphasis on the alternatives to water supply management and the increasing cost of physical water infrastructure.
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+The new water paradigm might therefore come under closer scrutiny at next year's Summit which will further advance the new shift in thinking about water problems.
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+{org:en}
+The traditional water paradigm, with its emphasis on water supply measures to address the water problems of regions, regions within states and individual river basins emerged from the conservative view that the global water balance has enough water to meet the water needs of humans in the foreseeable future.
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+For instance, for decades and even millennia it was thought that every drop of water within the global hydrologic cycle that runs off from rivers into the sea was a wasted drop of water.
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+The global water balance was therefore seen as huge reservoir that should be tapped at the expensive of other life support systems in order to furnish the needs of humans.
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+{org:en}
+Yet, with the new water paradigm, with its emphasis on sustainable water resources development, already being paramount in the thinking about water needs came innovative perspectives about the global water balance and the inventory of regional water resources.
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+Some of the most notable of these are virtual water and the notion of blue and green water.
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+These two perspectives about the global water balance and regional water resources embodies the notion of sustainable development of water resources.
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+In the next section these perspectives will come under closer scrutiny.
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+{org:en}
+Perspectives of the Global Water Balance and Regional Water Resources
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+{org:en}
+Virtual water
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+A potential solution to the water problems on a global and regional scale is provided by the perspective of virtual water.
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+The concept of virtual water was developed by Prof. Tony Allan at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) at the University of London, after an economist by the name of Fishelson, indicated that the export of citrus fruit produced in Israel was no longer in the national interest of that state.
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+{org:en}
+The exporting of citrus fruit, in the case of Israel, or any other water intensive commodity form an arid or semi-arid region to one that is water abundant, like North America, constitutes the international trade in water.
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+In nearly every society potable freshwater is supplied on a market basis.
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+This market is driven by supply and demand, or in some instances it is subsidised by the state in order for citizens to continue with their water related activities in an undisturbed manner.
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+Virtual water, in the form of commodities and services, is traded on a global basis between states and regions, which constitutes a substantial volume of global and regional water resources.
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+Many regions in the world, like the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) and Southern Africa, are already to a large extent dependent on global water just as much as their economies have a large measure of dependence on renewable water resources within the region itself.
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+These are not the only regions in the world that are dependent on water for socio-economic development.
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+All regions across the entire globe, and quite naturally all states, rely on water for development.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7982]
+{org:en}
+Yet, what makes these two regions so unique is that the MENA region was the first region in the world to run out of water and the Southern African region not far behind is in this record breaking endeavour.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7983]
+{org:en}
+Virtual water is the volume of water needed to produce a commodity or service.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(201621555:1D, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7984]
+{org:en}
+In the international political economy (IPE) vast quantities of water are present in the international cereal market.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(301731351:24.@entry, 101097292:34.@def)
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+mod(101097292:34.@def, 107702796:2X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7985]
+{org:en}
+For instance, it takes approximately 1 000 tonnes of water to grow one tonne of grain.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua(115668841:20, "1":1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7986]
+{org:en}
+This figure presents the virtual water value (VWV) of grain.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300902157:0R, 104979425:15.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7987]
+{org:en}
+Similarly it takes approximately 2 000 tonnes of water to produce one tonne of rice and 1 000 tonnes of water to grow one tonne of wheat.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200523095:0F.@entry, 400138060:02)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7988]
+{org:en}
+To produce nine tonnes of sugar cane requires 1 000 tonnes of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774169:13.@entry, 107935504:1R)
+qua(107935504:1R, 115668841:1H.@pl)
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+qua(115668841:0I.@pl, "9":0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7989]
+{org:en}
+From one tonne of sugar cane about 700 kilograms of juice (sap) can be extracted.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+src(200638723:21.@entry.@ability, 105398609:1I)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7990]
+{org:en}
+This 700 kilograms of juice represents the VWV of sugar cane.
+{/org}
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+agt(200825447:0U.@entry, 105398609:0O.@topic)
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+mod(113724582:0B.@pl, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7991]
+{org:en}
+Also, approximately 1 200 tonnes of water are needed to produce one tonne of maize.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201189113:1B.@entry, 400047534:02)
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+qua(107935504:11, 115668841:0R.@topic.@pl)
+qua(115690537:26, 115668841:1X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7992]
+{org:en}
+This not only suggests the VWV of foodstuffs in the international food market, but also the occurrence of virtual water in the global, regional and national arena i.e. in the global water balance and regional water resources inventory.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(301105840:46.@entry, 302408977:3T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7993]
+{org:en}
+Because virtual water is such an important issue in hydro politics and the IPE, every state in the global arena is subjected to trade in virtual water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(201118292:39.@entry, 101060234:19.@indef)
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+plc(101060234:19.@indef, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7994]
+{org:en}
+This brings to mind the term globalisation.
+{/org}
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+mod(115690683:0V.@def, 105855904:0Q)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7995]
+{org:en}
+Globalisation may be defined as the intensification of economic, political, social, and cultural relations across borders.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7996]
+{org:en}
+A critical characteristic of these cross-border interactions is that they are not always originated by national governments.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7997]
+{org:en}
+Indeed, governments are increasingly challenged by transforming trends in which borders are becoming transparent.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7998]
+{org:en}
+Globalisation has turned the world into a global village.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:7999]
+{org:en}
+This phenomenon manifests itself inter alia in the expansion of modern communication (the Internet) and international trade.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100034213:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8000]
+{org:en}
+Today it is conceivable to trade with stocks on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) from South Africa, or any other place in the world, via the Internet.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(302418249:0E.@entry, 115156001:02)
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+obj(600000178:3T, 103580615:41.@def)
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+mod(100167063:1X.@def, 104321534:1R)
+aoj(302418249:0E.@entry, 202259005:0T)
+mod:01(100721431:39.@entry, 600000031:33)
+equ(500323881:27.@parenthesis, 100167063:1X.@def)
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+plc(104321534:14.@pl, 100167063:1X.@def)
+or:01(100721431:39.@entry, 500004270:2I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8001]
+{org:en}
+In other words globalisation has turned the world into one big interdependent "society".
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000193:02.@entry, 200125841:0Z.@complete)
+aoj(300173391:1P, 107966140:2E.@single_quote)
+obj(200125841:0Z.@complete, 105670972:1A.@def)
+aoj(300173391:1P, 107966140:2E.@single_quote)
+obj(200125841:0Z.@complete, 105670972:1A.@def)
+gol(200125841:0Z.@complete, 107966140:2E.@single_quote)
+agt(200125841:0Z.@complete, 115690683:0H)
+aoj(300726445:1T, 107966140:2E.@single_quote)
+aoj(300726445:1T, 107966140:2E.@single_quote)
+qua(107966140:2E.@single_quote, "1":1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8002]
+{org:en}
+Because of this interdependence, which means mutual dependence, no one country can be self-sufficient in food commodities, or any other item or service for that matter.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300729439:2G.@entry.@ability, 600000012:02)
+mod(108168978:21.@topic, 600000810:1U)
+mod:02(:01.@entry, 600000031:3O)
+aoj(303161651:1B, 114001348:1I)
+or:02(:01.@entry, 103076708:34.@pl)
+mod(115669706:0I, 600000022:0D)
+mod:02(100020827:4J, 600000050:4E)
+mod(108168978:21.@topic, 600000810:1U)
+mod:02(:01.@entry, 600000031:3O)
+aoj(303161651:1B, 114001348:1I)
+or:02(:01.@entry, 103076708:34.@pl)
+mod(115669706:0I, 600000022:0D)
+mod:02(100020827:4J, 600000050:4E)
+scn(300729439:2G.@entry.@ability, :02:02)
+aoj(200708840:15, 115669706:0I)
+man:02(600000031:3O, 600000394:3K)
+aoj(300729439:2G.@entry.@ability, 108168978:21.@topic)
+obj(600000012:02, 115669706:0I)
+or:01(100098625:42.@entry, 103588414:3U)
+obj(600000012:02, 115669706:0I)
+or:01(100098625:42.@entry, 103588414:3U)
+pur:02(:01.@entry, 100020827:4J)
+obj(200708840:15, 114001348:1I)
+mod:02(103076708:34.@pl, 100021265:2Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8003]
+{org:en}
+All countries have to trade in foodstuffs, commodities and services.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202259005:0O.@entry.@obligation, 108168978:06.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(103076708:19.@pl, 107566340:0X.@pl)
+and:01(103076708:19.@pl, 107566340:0X.@pl)
+and:01(100098625:1P.@entry.@pl, 103076708:19.@pl)
+scn(202259005:0O.@entry.@obligation, :01:01)
+qua(108168978:06.@topic.@pl, 600000011:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8004]
+{org:en}
+This means virtual water embedded in food is crossing borders every day, which makes virtual water such an important aspect of a countrys food security.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200708840:0A.@entry, 600000022:05.@topic)
+gol(200012267:2G, 104733118:3I.@indef)
+mod(114484516:21, 600000301:1V)
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+mod(114484516:21, 600000301:1V)
+aoj(301275562:38, 104733118:3I.@indef)
+tim(201691798:1E.@progress, 114484516:21)
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+agt(201691798:1E.@progress, 107935504:0O.@topic)
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+aoj(300902157:0G, 107935504:0O.@topic)
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+obj(201089423:0U, 107935504:0O.@topic)
+obj(200012267:2G, 107935504:2U)
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+obj(201691798:1E.@progress, 102875013:1N.@pl)
+mod(104733118:3I.@indef, 600001411:30)
+aoj(200012267:2G, 200708840:0A.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8005]
+{org:en}
+An analysis of the global economy of water indicates that vast quantities of water are present in the international cereal market.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923793:19.@entry, 100634276:05.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(301568684:0L, 104893787:0S.@def)
+mod(101097292:3K.@def, 107702796:3D)
+plc(301731351:2K, 101097292:3K.@def)
+obj(100634276:05.@topic.@indef, 104893787:0S.@def)
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+aoj(301731351:2K, 107935504:2A.@topic)
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+obj(200923793:19.@entry, 301731351:2K)
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+qua(107935504:2A.@topic, 105108740:1W.@pl)
+aoj(301568375:2Z, 101097292:3K.@def)
+mod(104893787:0S.@def, 107935504:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8006]
+{org:en}
+This implies that as countrys trade in commodities, they are actually importing and exporting water in a virtual sense.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200929839:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+plc(100606370:10, 103076708:19.@pl)
+plc:01(201379097:2I.@entry.@progress, 105651971:3B.@indef)
+agt(:01, 600000020:1M.@topic)
+man:01(202232722:24.@progress, 400149138:1V)
+plc(100606370:10, 103076708:19.@pl)
+plc:01(201379097:2I.@entry.@progress, 105651971:3B.@indef)
+agt(:01, 600000020:1M.@topic)
+man:01(202232722:24.@progress, 400149138:1V)
+man(:01, 600000198:0N)
+aoj:01(300902157:33, 105651971:3B.@indef)
+obj(200929839:07.@entry, :01:01)
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+mod(100606370:10, 108168978:0Q)
+obj:01(201379097:2I.@entry.@progress, 107935504:2S)
+and:01(201379097:2I.@entry.@progress, 202232722:24.@progress)
+obj(600000198:0N, 100606370:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8007]
+{org:en}
+An example from the Middle East will suffice.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202669789:13.@entry.@will, 105820620:05.@topic.@indef)
+frm(105820620:05.@topic.@indef, 115668722:0M.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8008]
+{org:en}
+Prof. Tony Allan notes that as much water that enters the Middle East region as virtual water in the form of subsidised grain purchases as flows down the Nile annually.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201020005:0J.@entry, 500322987:08.@topic)
+obj(600000154:2N, 100079018:3J.@pl)
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+aoj(400535321:46, 100329227:40.@pl)
+obj(201082606:1C, 107935504:15.@topic)
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+aoj(400535321:46, 100329227:40.@pl)
+obj(201082606:1C, 107935504:15.@topic)
+qua(107935504:15.@topic, 600000155:10)
+aoj(600000154:2N, 107935504:2H)
+mod(500322987:08.@topic, 115693009:02)
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+mod(100079018:3J.@pl, 104950713:3D)
+obj(600000023:26, 107935504:2H)
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+obj(201020005:0J.@entry, 201082606:1C)
+aoj(302352868:32, 100079018:3J.@pl)
+mod(105221895:1Z.@def, 115668722:1N)
+aoj(302352868:32, 100079018:3J.@pl)
+mod(105221895:1Z.@def, 115668722:1N)
+obj(400535321:46, 500005655:4F.@def)
+man(201082606:1C, 600000023:26)
+man(600000155:10, 400516638:0X)
+aoj(300902157:29, 107935504:2H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8009]
+{org:en}
+He also concludes that hydrological systems are therefore subordinate to the IPE of which they are a part.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200715074:0A.@entry, 600000021:02)
+bas(300792991:1R, 500323544:2A.@def)
+aoj(300792991:1R, 104377057:15.@pl)
+aoj(303161050:0S, 104377057:15.@pl)
+bas(300792991:1R, 500323544:2A.@def)
+aoj(300792991:1R, 104377057:15.@pl)
+aoj(303161050:0S, 104377057:15.@pl)
+obj(200715074:0A.@entry, 300792991:1R)
+aoj(103892891:2Y.@indef, 600000020:2N.@topic)
+man(200715074:0A.@entry, 400047534:05)
+pof(103892891:2Y.@indef, 500323544:2A.@def)
+pof(103892891:2Y.@indef, 500323544:2A.@def)
+man(300792991:1R, 400043003:1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8010]
+{org:en}
+Global food trade has the capacity to augment water supplies on the scale needed to meet the growing demands of the rising population of semi-arid and arid regions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0K.@entry, 100606370:0E.@topic)
+mod(101257969:3H, 105221895:4E.@pl)
+obj(201189113:24, 101902877:1Y.@def)
+mod(100606370:0E.@topic, 100021265:09)
+plc(200154388:14, 101902877:1Y.@def)
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+mod(101257969:3H, 105221895:4E.@pl)
+obj(201189113:24, 101902877:1Y.@def)
+mod(100606370:0E.@topic, 100021265:09)
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+mod(101061333:2V.@def.@pl, 101257969:3H)
+pur(100720951:0S.@def, 200154388:14)
+aoj(:01, 105221895:4E.@pl)
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+pur(201189113:24, 201079480:2E)
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+aoj(301568684:02, 100606370:0E.@topic)
+mod(101061333:2V.@def.@pl, 303070879:2N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8011]
+{org:en}
+The trade in virtual water can therefore be seen as a WDM strategy, to supplement water resources where they are scarce.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200662589:1A.@entry.@ability, 100606370:06.@topic.@def)
+plc(100606370:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0N)
+mod(106249177:1O.@indef, 500323532:1K)
+man(200662589:1A.@entry.@ability, 600000023:1F)
+mod(105154676:2I.@pl, 107935504:2C)
+plc(100606370:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0N)
+mod(106249177:1O.@indef, 500323532:1K)
+man(200662589:1A.@entry.@ability, 600000023:1F)
+mod(105154676:2I.@pl, 107935504:2C)
+man(200662589:1A.@entry.@ability, 400043003:0X)
+plc(300016756:37, 105154676:2I.@pl)
+pur(200662589:1A.@entry.@ability, 202342132:21)
+aoj(300902157:0F, 107935504:0N)
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+aoj(300902157:0F, 107935504:0N)
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+obj(600000023:1F, 106249177:1O.@indef)
+aoj(300016756:37, 600000020:2Y.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8012]
+{org:en}
+The importance of agriculture as an issue in the World Trade Organization (WTO) is a striking example of the global significance of virtual water and until such time as the international trading field is levelled, the development of a viable virtual water strategy will unfortunately be undermined.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202773818:88.@entry.@will, 105820620:2V.@indef)
+aoj(300902157:3X, 107935504:45)
+obj(200356649:5X, 101097119:5O.@def)
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+mod(105168261:09.@topic.@def, 108075287:0N)
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+mod(105169813:3H.@def, 107935504:45)
+tmt(202773818:88.@entry.@will, 100028270:4Q)
+aoj(600000032:13, 105168261:09.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301568375:52, 101097119:5O.@def)
+aoj(300902157:6Z, 106249177:7D.@indef)
+aoj(600000032:13, 105168261:09.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301568375:52, 101097119:5O.@def)
+aoj(300902157:6Z, 106249177:7D.@indef)
+aoj(303158444:2M, 105820620:2V.@indef)
+obj(100250259:6B.@topic.@def, 106249177:7D.@indef)
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+aoj(105820620:2V.@indef, 105168261:09.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000728:4V, 200356649:5X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8013]
+{org:en}
+Virtual water is not only present on the world food market.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301731351:0S.@entry, 107935504:0A.@topic)
+aoj(300902157:02, 107935504:0A.@topic)
+mod(101097292:1I.@def, 105670972:17)
+aoj(300902157:02, 107935504:0A.@topic)
+mod(101097292:1I.@def, 105670972:17)
+man(301731351:0S.@entry, 400535232:0J)
+plc(301731351:0S.@entry, 101097292:1I.@def)
+mod(101097292:1I.@def, 100021265:1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8014]
+{org:en}
+Regional markets are also an important source of food commodities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104263614:15.@entry.@indef, 101097292:0B.@topic.@pl)
+mod(101097292:0B.@topic.@pl, 302408977:02)
+aoj(301275562:0V, 104263614:15.@entry.@indef)
+mod(101097292:0B.@topic.@pl, 302408977:02)
+aoj(301275562:0V, 104263614:15.@entry.@indef)
+man(104263614:15.@entry.@indef, 400047534:0N)
+mod(104263614:15.@entry.@indef, 103076708:1K.@pl)
+mod(103076708:1K.@pl, 100021265:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8015]
+{org:en}
+Intra-regional trade in food is a very important aspect of regional trade within the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104733118:1F.@entry.@indef, 100606370:0H.@topic)
+mod(100606370:0H.@topic, 303162642:02)
+mod(100606370:1Y, 302408977:1P)
+man(301275562:15, 400031899:10)
+equ(500323523:3J.@parenthesis, 500323656:2F.@def)
+mod(100606370:0H.@topic, 303162642:02)
+mod(100606370:1Y, 302408977:1P)
+man(301275562:15, 400031899:10)
+equ(500323523:3J.@parenthesis, 500323656:2F.@def)
+aoj(301275562:15, 104733118:1F.@entry.@indef)
+mod(105221895:3P, 500323656:2F.@def)
+mod(104733118:1F.@entry.@indef, 100606370:1Y)
+obj(600000006:24, 105221895:3P)
+obj(600000006:24, 105221895:3P)
+aoj(600000006:24, 100606370:1Y)
+plc(100606370:0H.@topic, 100021265:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8016]
+{org:en}
+Countries in SADC region trade with each other not only as regards to foodstuffs or virtual water, but they also trade with other countries in the global economy.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202259005:0R.@entry, 600000037:2T)
+obj(600000037:2T, 202259005:37)
+obj(400071050:1M, :01)
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+ptn(202259005:0R.@entry, 600000227:12)
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+obj(600000037:2T, 202259005:37)
+obj(400071050:1M, :01)
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+plc(108168978:02.@topic.@pl, 105221895:0K)
+man(202259005:0R.@entry, 400071050:1M)
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+or:01(107935504:2M.@entry, 107566340:20.@pl)
+agt(202259005:37, 600000020:2X)
+or:01(107935504:2M.@entry, 107566340:20.@pl)
+aoj(301568684:45, 104893787:4C.@def)
+man(400071050:1M, 400535232:1D)
+plc(108168978:3O.@pl, 104893787:4C.@def)
+mod(105221895:0K, 500323523:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8017]
+{org:en}
+This infers a duality when it comes to trade in virtual water.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8018]
+{org:en}
+On a regional scale the proposed SADC Free Trade Area (FTA) is an example of globalisation on a regional scale, where countries are interdependent on each other concerning their food trade and food security.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:8019]
+{org:en}
+The SADC FTA is a typical example of trade integration.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8020]
+{org:en}
+As trade integration grows, so does interdependence.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8021]
+{org:en}
+Because the countries in SADC are predominantly developing countries, with the agricultural sector dominating economics in certain member states, virtual water is also of great importance to trade on a regional scale.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300902157:44, 107935504:4C.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8022]
+{org:en}
+It can be expected that as trade integration in SADC grows, so to will the interdependence of the member states of the SADC region regarding agricultural commodities and virtual water.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8023]
+{org:en}
+The importance of virtual water, as a consequential aspect of political economy, can be narrowed down still further to the national level.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000032:0Z, 104733118:1I.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8024]
+{org:en}
+Trade in agricultural commodities is important to a state in two respects
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(100606370:02.@topic, 103076708:0O.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8025]
+{org:en}
+it allows for the importation of virtual water and it permits the generation of foreign currency to balance out virtual water costs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(113275847:3K.@pl, 107935504:3E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8026]
+{org:en}
+On a national level in economies such as those found in Canada, the USA and countries of Central Europe there is an abundance of viable, mainly rainfed agricultural production.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8027]
+{org:en}
+The governments of these grain-producing states often subsidise their farmers, which infers that the virtual water content of that grain is both high in volume, and cheap in price.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc:01(300934199:4Q.@entry, 105141683:4Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8028]
+{org:en}
+The water budget of a country can be balanced in the following ways
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(113421462:0C.@topic.@def, 107935504:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8029]
+{org:en}
+By purchasing water-intensive agricultural commodities from states with a natural surplus.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(302790222:0W, 103076708:19.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8030]
+{org:en}
+By re-directing the water-short economy away from a policy of food self-sufficiency towards one of food security.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(201953334:08.@entry.@progress, 600000080:2H)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8031]
+{org:en}
+The importation of agricultural products that need vast amounts of water to produce, into semi-arid and arid states, represents the actual importation of water into the water-scarce country.
+{/org}
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+aoj(302790222:0L, 103748886:0Y.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8032]
+{org:en}
+Instead of importing the water needed to produce the wheat, maize and sugar, for example, it is easier to simply import the one tonne of the actual commodity.
+{/org}
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+aoj(300015097:2Q, 202232722:37)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8033]
+{org:en}
+The availability of virtual water is therefore of major significance in the domestic water policies of water-scarce economies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:8034]
+{org:en}
+It would be pertinent to make a few comments on trade and virtual water at this point however.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:8035]
+{org:en}
+The world food market is an important source of food supply for many developing countries, especially those states where output is constrained by natural and other factors.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:8036]
+{org:en}
+Developing countries dependence on trade is growing.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8037]
+{org:en}
+Over the period 1970-90, food consumption grew 10 % faster than production in the developing world.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:8038]
+{org:en}
+With respect to cereals, imports accounted for some 14 % of the domestic consumption of developing states in 1994, up from less than 10 % 20 years earlier.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8039]
+{org:en}
+To import a commodity generally means that it can be procured more cheaply than it can be produced domestically, give or take a few export subsidies and protectionist policies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8040]
+{org:en}
+Some countries will aim at food self-sufficiency for specific reasons.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301099951:1J, 105651680:1S.@pl)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8041]
+{org:en}
+It makes better sense to follow a more flexible policy of food self-reliance coupled with that of food self-sufficiency where possible.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:8042]
+{org:en}
+This implies that developing states reliance on trade in foodstuffs on the global market will, in the future, increase exponentially with that of socio-economic development and political stability.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8043]
+{org:en}
+The perspective of virtual water sheds light on alternative water resources in that it place emphasis on the international trade of commodities, especially, but not exclusively, on food stuffs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8044]
+{org:en}
+Another perspective regarding visible water resources is that of blue water and green water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8045]
+{org:en}
+Here the significance is the interaction humans have with nature and the ecological processes within life support systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(104377057:3B.@pl, 115669378:2Y)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8046]
+{org:en}
+Blue and Green Water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01, 107935504:0H.@entry)
+and:01(300375969:0B.@entry, 300364881:02)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8047]
+{org:en}
+In the recent past as well as at present the approach to freshwater resources has centred only on specific aspects, while overlooking others which are equally, or more important, for human development.
+{/org}
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+aoj(301275562:4P, 600000063:3S.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8048]
+{org:en}
+For instance, the quality problem with respect to freshwater looked only at the pollution problem.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105687338:0S.@topic.@def, 104723816:0K)
+mod(105687338:2K.@def, 114516743:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8049]
+{org:en}
+There is thus an invisibility regarding freshwater and the water related ecosystem services that is quite important with respect to direct freshwater services.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man:01(301275562:30, 600000142:3A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8050]
+{org:en}
+Water is invisible as green water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+This the freshwater resources that is concealed in the soil and involved in the production of plants where it establish a green water vapour flow (evapotranspiration) back to the atmosphere.
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+Both green water and blue water makes up large components of the hydrologic system and interacts in such a manner that the one cannot exist without the other, with ecosystems also highly dependent on these type of water resources.
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+
+[S:8055]
+{org:en}
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+{org:en}
+Most literature on desertification and the interdependence on soil and water ignores the special attention that is paid to invisible water resources and tend more to focus on the visible aspects of soil and water.
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+{org:en}
+The definition of green water originally referred to soil moisture needed for the production of plants.
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+Blue water, on the other hand, concerned the water that passed trough acquifers and rivers.
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+[S:8059]
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+In other words, water seen in the traditional sense.
+{/org}
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+[S:8060]
+{org:en}
+The FAO accepted the venture in order to shed light on the conventional land/water dichotomy to change it towards the acceptance that land is a system which is transmitted by water and that the use of land is both dependent and impacted by water.
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+The concepts was slightly modified by the FAO and was used to refer to the vertical and horizontal tributaries in the water balance.
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+Green water was therefore referred to as vertical water and blue water as horizontal water.
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+{org:en}
+Green water was seen as the fragment of water that evaporated.
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+This subsequently was defined as the water supply for all non-irrigated plants, including forests and woodlands, grasslands and rain-fed crops.
+{/org}
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+The green water section of the flow of global and regional water resources can be summarised as follows.
+{/org}
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+The earths surface is wetted by precipitation.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8067]
+{org:en}
+The water that falls on the landscape replies with two main water flows which is produced through the apportionment of the falling precipitation at ground level.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8068]
+{org:en}
+The vertical water vapour flow along the green water branch and involves the production of plants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301204142:06, 115690348:0L.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8069]
+{org:en}
+Water is sucked up by the roots of plants and is channelled throughout the entire organism.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201933900:1F.@entry, 202775394:0B)
+obj(202775394:0B, 107935504:02.@topic)
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+agt(202775394:0B, 105308310:0S.@def.@pl)
+mod(100004475:2C.@def, 300515380:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8070]
+{org:en}
+Of all the water that is taken up by plants, only a small amount is consolidated as raw material in the plant production process and changed into plant matter (fibre) and oxygen.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:02.@entry, 107935504:0D.@def)
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+mod:01(100020827:4A, 100017222:44)
+mod:02(100029677:3F.@def, 100522736:34)
+mod:01(100020827:4A, 100017222:44)
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+aoj(301391351:1I, 100033615:1O.@topic.@indef)
+scn:02(103729951:2I, 100029677:3F.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8071]
+{org:en}
+The rest of the water balance is released back into the atmosphere through the process of evapotranspiration when stomata unclose to take in other raw material like carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas; see HTM1 The Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources:An Overview HTM2 ) from the air.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(201757994:0Z.@entry, 600000033:33)
+and:01(200662589:5L.@entry, 114481080:5G.@indef)
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+obj(200304100:3R, 103729951:49)
+mod(101064148:06.@topic.@def, 102777100:0O.@def)
+frm(114796969:4N, 104727214:7R.@def)
+obj(201757994:0Z.@entry, 101064148:06.@topic.@def)
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+mod(103729951:49, 600000031:3Z)
+obj(600000033:33, 202773079:3G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8072]
+{org:en}
+Yet, green water does not only involve the evaporation of water via plants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200401538:0X.@emphasis.@entry, 400027795:02.@entry)
+aoj(600000164:1U, 107935504:1O)
+man(200401538:0X.@emphasis.@entry, 400535232:0O)
+aoj(600000164:1U, 107935504:1O)
+man(200401538:0X.@emphasis.@entry, 400535232:0O)
+obj(200401538:0X.@emphasis.@entry, 113572436:19.@def)
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+obj(600000164:1U, 100017222:1Y.@pl)
+obj(113572436:19.@def, 107935504:1O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8073]
+{org:en}
+Water can also evaporate from wet surfaces such as rivers, lakes and human made reservoirs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200366858:0H.@entry.@ability, 107935504:02.@topic)
+obj(600000029:19, :01)
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+aoj:01(303162601:1Z, 104078574:2A.@entry.@pl)
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+and:01(104078574:2A.@entry.@pl, 109328904:1P.@pl)
+and:01(104078574:2A.@entry.@pl, 109328904:1P.@pl)
+aoj(301159405:0W, 104362025:10.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8074]
+{org:en}
+This is the non-productive component of green water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103081021:0T.@entry.@def, 600000022:02.@topic)
+aoj(300375969:16, 107935504:1C)
+aoj(300375969:16, 107935504:1C)
+aoj(301867189:0E, 103081021:0T.@entry.@def)
+mod(103081021:0T.@entry.@def, 107935504:1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8075]
+{org:en}
+There is also a productive constituent attached to the green water equation, which involves plant production.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, 106312966:0T.@indef)
+agt(200401538:2C, 100185307:1W.@def)
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+obj(201290255:14, 106312966:0T.@indef)
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+aoj(300375969:1K, 100185307:1W.@def)
+gol(201290255:14, 100185307:1W.@def)
+mod(100522736:2R, 100017222:2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8076]
+{org:en}
+This component is vital for the production of, for instance, agricultural commodities and timber.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300095094:0K.@entry, 600000122:1D)
+and:01(104436185:2K.@entry, 103076708:24.@pl)
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+mod(103081021:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
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+aoj(300095094:0K.@entry, 103081021:07.@topic)
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+aoj:01(302790222:1R, 103076708:24.@pl)
+obj(600000122:1D, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8077]
+{org:en}
+However, the non-productive route is involved in a number of eco-system services which can also be productive, but in an abstract sense only.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200401538:13.@entry, 400027384:02)
+man:01(301865197:2T.@ability, 400047534:2L)
+man:01(105651971:3O.@entry.@indef, 400535197:3U)
+and:01(105651971:3O.@entry.@indef, 100098625:22.@pl.@indef)
+qua:01(100098625:22.@pl.@indef, 600000054:1F)
+man:01(301865197:2T.@ability, 400047534:2L)
+man:01(105651971:3O.@entry.@indef, 400535197:3U)
+and:01(105651971:3O.@entry.@indef, 100098625:22.@pl.@indef)
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+aoj:01(301865197:2T.@ability, 100098625:22.@pl)
+obj(200401538:13.@entry, 107476404:0U.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301867189:0F, 107476404:0U.@topic.@def)
+aoj:01(300011757:3F, 105651971:3O.@entry.@indef)
+aoj(301867189:0F, 107476404:0U.@topic.@def)
+aoj:01(300011757:3F, 105651971:3O.@entry.@indef)
+man:01(105651971:3O.@entry.@indef, 600000098:35)
+mod:01(100098625:22.@pl.@indef, 108368757:1R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8078]
+{org:en}
+This involves the economic valuation, of sort, of some aquatic eco-systems such as wetlands and marches.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200401538:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+aoj(600000029:26, 108368757:1U.@pl)
+aoj(400535961:14, 113305673:0T.@def)
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+and:01(100282840:2R.@entry.@pl, 109477890:2E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8079]
+{org:en}
+The blue water, or horizontal, branch is composed of the water that flows under the earths surface via acquifers and above the ground through the rivers flowing through the landscape.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300529266:1E.@entry, 108401248:14.@topic)
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+obj(600000026:44, 109411430:4G.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000003:2B, 104362025:2X.@def)
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+man(200217427:25, :02)
+obj(600000026:4V, 103640011:57.@def)
+obj:02(600000073:3N.@entry, 103462594:3X.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8080]
+{org:en}
+These flows are driven by gravity which moves the water to lower levels in the landscape and eventually (but not in all cases such as the Okavango River basin in Southern Africa) into seas and oceans.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201026975:0I.@entry, 100329227:08.@topic.@pl)
+man(:01.@parenthesis, 400535301:2N)
+gol(200124442:16, 105093890:1V.@pl)
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+man:01(102974697:3E.@entry.@pl, 600000098:2Z)
+obj(200124442:16, 107935504:1G.@def)
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+obj:01(600000029:3K, 102801525:4B.@def)
+man(301206474:1P, 400099341:62)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8081]
+{org:en}
+There is therefore two routes that are taken by the blue water branch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202603699:08.@entry, 115690279:0P.@pl)
+aoj(300364881:1I, 108401248:1T.@def)
+obj(200523095:15, 115690279:0P.@pl)
+aoj(300364881:1I, 108401248:1T.@def)
+obj(200523095:15, 115690279:0P.@pl)
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+mod(108401248:1T.@def, 107935504:1N)
+agt(200523095:15, 108401248:1T.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8082]
+{org:en}
+ground water and terrestrial water flows.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100329227:11.@entry.@pl, 114847503:02)
+mod(100329227:11.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0V)
+aoj(300124918:0J, 100329227:11.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8083]
+{org:en}
+This branch of (blue) water flows is very important
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301275562:18.@entry, 108401248:07.@topic)
+mod(100329227:0U.@pl, 107935504:0O)
+aoj(300364881:0I.@parenthesis, 108401248:07.@topic)
+mod(100329227:0U.@pl, 107935504:0O)
+aoj(300364881:0I.@parenthesis, 108401248:07.@topic)
+mod(108401248:07.@topic, 100329227:0U.@pl)
+man(301275562:18.@entry, 400031899:13)
+mod(108401248:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8084]
+{org:en}
+especially when considering the hydrological based projections of water needs to a growing world population (see HTM1 The impact of demography on Global and Regional Water resources HTM2 ), food production (see HTM3 he impact of El Nio on water resources HTM4 ) and other water related services such as navigation and hydro-power generation (see HTM5 The impact of climate change and its affects on freshwater resources, flooding and drought with Related Effects on some Economic sectors HTM6 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100098625:8F.@entry.@pl, 100522736:5O)
+obj:02(107338552:3G.@def, 106152125:3Q)
+mod:02(105154676:4U.@pl, 107935504:4O)
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+Two basic components can be discerned in this regard
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+Both these components support the dry season flow in any locality, whether it be a river basin or a hydrologic regime in a region.
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+This increased the availability of blue water from 40 000 km/yr to 62 500 km/yr.
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+For instance, the states with the largest number of dams, built for various purposes, include
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+the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) (former Soviet Union) 34 (although the former Soviet Union only declared the 132 hydro-electric dams under control of the Ministry of Energy and Electrification to ICOLD, whereas the dams built by the Ministry of Agriculture is estimated to be between 2 000 and 3 000)
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+man:03(200820801:33.@past, 400535197:2Y)
+agt:03(200820801:33.@past, 500004286:2L.@topic.@def)
+agt:03(200226882:6J.@past, 100314271:6W.@def)
+mod:03(100314271:4P.@def, 104633197:51)
+aoj(300727564:0M, 100024720:0Y.@pl)
+and:02("3000":8K.@entry, "2000":8B)
+obj:03(600000003:44, 100803617:4A)
+man:03(200820801:33.@past, 600000003:44)
+[W]
+:03.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8099]
+{org:en}
+Canada 26
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(500003493:02.@entry, "26":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8100]
+{org:en}
+Brazil 19
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(500003645:02.@entry, "19":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8101]
+{org:en}
+Japan 19
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(103593222:02.@entry, "19":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8102]
+{org:en}
+Turkey 11 (this figure is likely to increase as the Greater Anatolia Project (GAP) is completed)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(101794158:02.@entry, "11":09)
+equ:01(104752859:28.@parenthesis, 500323694:1I.@def)
+obj:01(600000198:1B, 200455750:2G)
+equ:01(104752859:28.@parenthesis, 500323694:1I.@def)
+obj:01(600000198:1B, 200455750:2G)
+obj:01(300645169:0S.@entry, 200153263:12)
+man:01(300645169:0S.@entry, 600000198:1B)
+mod:01(100556992:0I.@topic, 600000017:0D)
+mod:01(100556992:0I.@topic, 600000017:0D)
+obj:01(200455750:2G, 500323694:1I.@def)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8103]
+{org:en}
+China (Peoples Republic of China) 10 (this figure is likely to rise when the Three Gorges Dam Project is completed)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(103018209:02.@entry, "10":11)
+obj:01(200455750:32, 105910453:2R.@def)
+obj:01(300645169:1K.@entry, 200155143:1U)
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+obj:01(200455750:32, 105910453:2R.@def)
+obj:01(300645169:1K.@entry, 200155143:1U)
+mod:01(100556992:1A.@topic, 600000017:15)
+tim:01(300645169:1K.@entry, 600000033:1Z)
+mod:01(105910453:2R.@def, 500324089:2N)
+cnt(103018209:02.@entry, 500323729:09.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(105910453:2R.@def, "3":28)
+mod:01(105910453:2R.@def, "3":28)
+obj:01(600000033:1Z, 200455750:32)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8104]
+{org:en}
+Germany 9
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(500003258:02.@entry, "9":0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8105]
+{org:en}
+Italy 9
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(500003409:02.@entry, "9":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8106]
+{org:en}
+Switzerland 9
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(500004416:02.@entry, "9":0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8107]
+{org:en}
+and Argentina 8.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(102542804:06.@entry, :02)
+cnt(102542804:06.@entry, "8":0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8108]
+{org:en}
+Note that many of the states with the largest amount of dams, that increased the amount of blue water, are developing states.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201020005:02.@request.@entry, 100024720:3J.@pl)
+obj(200153263:24.@past, 107935504:2X)
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+obj(200153263:24.@past, 107935504:2X)
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+agt(200153263:24.@past, 100024720:0R.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+aoj(300364881:2S, 107935504:2X)
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+aoj(100024720:3J.@pl, 100024720:0R.@topic.@def.@pl)
+qua(107935504:2X, 100033615:2I.@def)
+obj(600000019:0Y, 101323493:1P.@pl)
+qua(107935504:2X, 100033615:2I.@def)
+obj(600000019:0Y, 101323493:1P.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:0Y, 100024720:0R.@topic.@def.@pl)
+man(300527870:17, 400536271:3M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8109]
+{org:en}
+This also suggests that the increase of blue water resources were not the sole responsibility of developed states, but that states in all the regions across the entire GLOBE were, and still is, involved in the increase of blue water availability.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200930368:0C.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+aoj(600000069:4I, 105221895:4A.@def.@pl)
+mod(105154676:1K.@pl, 107935504:1E)
+mod(104669247:2C.@past.@not.@def, 100024720:34.@pl)
+obj(100363260:66.@def, 115668897:6T)
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+mod(103440512:50.@def, 300515380:4T)
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+plc(100024720:3S.@topic.@pl, 105221895:4A.@def.@pl)
+man(200930368:0C.@entry, 400047534:07)
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+mod(115668897:6T, 107935504:6N)
+obj(200930368:0C.@entry, 104669247:2C.@past.@not.@def)
+aoj(300521584:42, 105221895:4A.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000037:3G, 200401538:5Q.@past)
+mod(104669247:2C.@past.@not.@def, 303162346:27)
+aoj(300521584:42, 105221895:4A.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000037:3G, 200401538:5Q.@past)
+mod(104669247:2C.@past.@not.@def, 303162346:27)
+aoj(300364881:6I, 115668897:6T)
+aoj(104669247:2C.@past.@not.@def, 100363260:0X.@topic.@def)
+man(200401538:5Q.@past, 400193194:5C)
+aoj(300364881:19, 105154676:1K.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8110]
+{org:en}
+The construction of dams is therefore one of the most important actions on the part of humans regarding the increase in global blue water resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000027:14.@entry, 100873381:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301568684:3E, 105154676:3W.@pl)
+man(301275562:1K, 400536271:1F)
+aoj(600000358:22, 100037396:1U.@pl)
+obj(100873381:06.@topic.@def, 101323493:0M.@pl)
+obj(600000057:2O, 100363260:32.@def)
+aoj(301568684:3E, 105154676:3W.@pl)
+man(301275562:1K, 400536271:1F)
+aoj(600000358:22, 100037396:1U.@pl)
+obj(100873381:06.@topic.@def, 101323493:0M.@pl)
+obj(600000057:2O, 100363260:32.@def)
+man(600000027:14.@entry, 400043003:0U)
+mod(105154676:3W.@pl, 107935504:3Q)
+aoj(600000057:2O, 115698436:2H.@pl)
+pof(600000027:14.@entry, 100037396:1U.@pl)
+aoj(300364881:3L, 105154676:3W.@pl)
+obj(600000358:22, 115698436:2H.@pl)
+aoj(300364881:3L, 105154676:3W.@pl)
+obj(600000358:22, 115698436:2H.@pl)
+aoj(301275562:1K, 100037396:1U.@pl)
+obj(100363260:32.@def, 105154676:3W.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8111]
+{org:en}
+Yet, with the changing water paradigm, this increase in blue water will be provided by other means such as WDM.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200406963:25.@entry.@will, 400027795:02)
+obj(600000018:07, 106210171:0V)
+mod(103733547:2N, 600000031:2H)
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+obj(200406963:25.@entry.@will, 100363260:1A.@topic)
+mod(106210171:0V, 107935504:0P)
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+man(200406963:25.@entry.@will, 600000018:07)
+obj(200109660:0G.@progress.@def, 106210171:0V)
+obj(600000029:2T, 500323532:31)
+obj(200109660:0G.@progress.@def, 106210171:0V)
+obj(600000029:2T, 500323532:31)
+aoj(600000029:2T, 103733547:2N)
+aoj(300364881:1M, 107935504:1R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8112]
+{org:en}
+In spite of the staggering increase in blue water, through large dams and reservoirs, the volume of readily accessible blue water is much less than the green water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(400099868:3W.@entry, :02)
+obj:02(600000026:1H.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(104990220:2K.@topic.@def, 107935504:3I)
+obj:02(201504130:0I.@progress, 100363260:0T.@def)
+man(400099868:3W.@entry, 400053744:3R)
+obj:02(600000162:02, 100363260:0T.@def)
+man(300019131:32, 400161193:2U)
+obj:02(600000026:1H.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(104990220:2K.@topic.@def, 107935504:3I)
+obj:02(201504130:0I.@progress, 100363260:0T.@def)
+man(400099868:3W.@entry, 400053744:3R)
+obj:02(600000162:02, 100363260:0T.@def)
+man(300019131:32, 400161193:2U)
+bas(400099868:3W.@entry, 107935504:4G.@def)
+aoj:01(300527870:1P, 101323493:1V.@pl)
+aoj(300364881:3D, 107935504:3I)
+aoj(400099868:3W.@entry, 104990220:2K.@topic.@def)
+and:01(104078574:24.@entry.@pl, 101323493:1V.@pl)
+aoj(300019131:32, 107935504:3I)
+and:01(104078574:24.@entry.@pl, 101323493:1V.@pl)
+aoj(300019131:32, 107935504:3I)
+aoj:02(300364881:15, 107935504:1A)
+aoj(300375969:4A, 107935504:4G.@def)
+obj:02(100363260:0T.@def, 107935504:1A)
+and:02(600000026:1H.@entry, 600000162:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8113]
+{org:en}
+In fact, it is estimated that the global green water flow is about twice as large as the gross blue water flow i.e. around 125 000 km/yr.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200672433:0H.@entry, 600000184:02)
+mod(100329227:33.@def, 107935504:2X)
+man(400516638:26, 400065294:20)
+aoj(300375969:1A, 100329227:1M.@topic.@def)
+bas(300527870:29, 100329227:33.@def)
+bas(600000129:3D, "125000":3K)
+mod(100329227:33.@def, 300987974:2M)
+mod(100329227:33.@def, 107935504:2X)
+man(400516638:26, 400065294:20)
+aoj(300375969:1A, 100329227:1M.@topic.@def)
+bas(300527870:29, 100329227:33.@def)
+bas(600000129:3D, "125000":3K)
+mod(100329227:33.@def, 300987974:2M)
+aoj(300527870:29, 100329227:1M.@topic.@def)
+qua(115689861:3R, 600000129:3D)
+aoj(115689159:38, 100329227:33.@def)
+obj(200672433:0H.@entry, 300527870:29)
+obj(115689159:38, 115689861:3R)
+man(400065294:20, 600000396:1U)
+obj(115689159:38, 115689861:3R)
+man(400065294:20, 600000396:1U)
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+man(300527870:29, 400516638:26)
+aoj(301568684:13, 100329227:1M.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300364881:2S, 100329227:33.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8114]
+{org:en}
+Whereas blue water flows are manipulated and mobilised in a more or less direct fashion, green water flows are indirectly exploited through a number of landscape activities like urbanization, reforestation, deforestation, crop production, influencing the division between blue and green water through infiltration and the uptake of water via plant roots.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201162754:3M.@entry, 600000179:05)
+aoj(300364881:0D, 100329227:0O.@pl)
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+aoj:03(:02, 107935504:8A)
+obj:03(113571580:9G.@entry.@def, 107935504:9Q)
+obj(:01, 100329227:0O.@pl)
+aoj(600000058:51, 100407535:4Q.@pl)
+and:03(101262441:5Z.@def, 100400449:5K.@def)
+man:03(202536557:6Y.@progress.@def, 600000026:8G)
+man:01(400099868:21, 400099341:1T)
+man(201162754:3M.@entry, 400058359:3B)
+and:03(100522736:6J.@def, 101262441:5Z.@def)
+mod:03(105308310:A6.@pl, 100017222:A0)
+aoj:01(300005473:26, 100415226:2D.@indef)
+obj(600000058:51, :03)
+aoj(300364881:0D, 100329227:0O.@pl)
+[W]
+
+[/W]
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+mod:03(105308310:A6.@pl, 100017222:A0)
+aoj:01(300005473:26, 100415226:2D.@indef)
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+man(201162754:3M.@entry, 600000026:3W)
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+plc:01(200270005:1E.@entry, 100415226:2D.@indef)
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+mod(100329227:0O.@pl, 107935504:0I)
+obj(201162754:3M.@entry, 100329227:31.@topic.@pl)
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+and:01(200270005:1E.@entry, 200080929:0Y)
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+and:02(300375969:84.@entry, 300364881:7V)
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+qua(100407535:4Q.@pl, 600000054:44)
+and:03(100400449:5K.@def, 113571763:56.@def)
+obj:03(202536557:6Y.@progress.@def, 100385791:7E.@def)
+obj(600000026:3W, 100407535:4Q.@pl)
+mod:03(100522736:6J.@def, 103134496:6E)
+and:03(202536557:6Y.@progress.@def, 100522736:6J.@def)
+man:01(300005473:26, 400099868:21)
+and:03(113571580:9G.@entry.@def, 202536557:6Y.@progress.@def)
+obj(600000179:05, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8115]
+{org:en}
+It should be noted that green water should not be confused with virtual water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201020005:0F.@entry.@should.@past, 200619610:1J.@should.@past.@not)
+aoj(300902157:1X, 107935504:25)
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+obj(200619610:1J.@should.@past.@not, 107935504:0Z.@topic)
+aoj(300375969:0T, 107935504:0Z.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8116]
+{org:en}
+Whereas virtual water accounts for water used in the production of all commodities, green water has to do with the evaporation of water from plants, such as grain, maize, sugar cane timber and a host of other economically and non-economically usable plant species.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774466:2X.@entry, 600000179:05)
+aoj(300375969:2L, 107935504:2R.@topic)
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+The scarcities of green water can be influenced by a number of factors
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+The deficiency of climatic factors, where rainfall is much lower than the water requirements of plants.
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+This happens during droughts.
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+Soil defects where precipitation cannot penetrate into the root zone of plants because of crusts or other infiltration-lowering phenomena.
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+This can be the case where plants are damaged during dry-spells and prolonged droughts.
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+Depending on these factors crops can either be stunned or even fail which can bring hardship to a state or regions economy, especially when such an economy is highly dependent on rain fed agriculture to sustain livelihoods.
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+The access to safe water, to aquatic ecosystem services including food production (food stuffs and fish) and to economic generation (industrial production etc.) are some of the most important elements in order to realise human livelihood security.
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+All these activities regarding socio-economic development depend on human interventions with blue as well as green water flows.
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+Human societies therefore gain directly from both these branches of freshwater.
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+From the green water portion of the hydrologic system biomass production (food, fibre, fuel wood and timber) is derived, and from the blue water section water dependent societal water uses, which include inter alia water supply, households, irrigation, hydro-electricity, navigation and industries.
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+Societies, on the other hand, also benefit indirectly via a number of ecosystem services supplied by both blue water and green water.
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+
+[S:8131]
+{org:en}
+Blue and green water are therefore two significant water resources on which socio-economic development rests.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8132]
+{org:en}
+Sustainable development of human societies will, in light of the changing water paradigm, be quite an important issue when it comes to the exploitation of these water resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8133]
+{org:en}
+Conclusion
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8134]
+{org:en}
+The changing water paradigm ushered in a new era in the management of the planets water resources.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8135]
+{org:en}
+These changes have been driven by a number of elements like the change in water demand in a number of states, the role and involvement of environmental interest groups highlighting the destructive aspects of WRMPs and the increasing cost of WRMPs.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8136]
+{org:en}
+Prior to the changing water paradigm, water resources and the management thereof where in the traditional sense with respect to supplying more water to a growing world population, accompanied in reased urbanization and industrialization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8137]
+{org:en}
+Virtual water represents an alternative to the traditional perspective of the global water balance and regional water resources, in that it links water resources (raw water used for the production of commodities and services) with that of interdependent international trade on a global scale.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8138]
+{org:en}
+By trading in virtual water items, the dire threat of water shortages on a regional and river basin level can be addressed in a meaningful manner, by way of reaching into the global virtual water resource pool.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8139]
+{org:en}
+Hampering such a strategy could be the protectionist trade barriers that are erected by states in order to facilitate a growing national economy.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8140]
+{org:en}
+These barriers can bring about a new sort of scarcity in global and regional water resources, which can be called structural imposed virtual water resource scarcities (SIVWRS).
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8141]
+{org:en}
+Such a situation will be characterised by the fact that virtual water commodities are abundant on a global scale, but scarce within the structures of the IPE due to trade protectionist policies imposed by states to protect jobs on the national economic front.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8142]
+{org:en}
+Blue and green water, on the other hand, are also alternative perspectives of water resources in that it looks at the hydrologic cycle from a different conceptual lens.
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+[/S]
+
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+These perspectives of the global hydrologic cycle have not yet been incorporated into the traditional view with respect to the global water balance and regional water resources.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+The sustainable utilization of the earths hydrologic system can therefore be better managed especially with these two perspectives of the water cycle in hand.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:8145]
+{org:en}
+They give an alternative viewpoint of the hydrologic cycle and break it down into two interrelated components that are quite relevant in the usage of the planets water and its life support systems.
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+
+[S:8146]
+{org:en}
+Not only does it present an alternative perspective to global and regional water resources, but it is also a step forward, like virtual water, away from the traditional thinking about the earths water resources.
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+
+[S:8147]
+{org:en}
+Virtual water and blue and green water can therefore help in the sustainable utilization of the earths water resources because they are a quantum leap forward away from the traditional supply sided notions of water resources in states, regions and the entire globe.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8148]
+{org:en}
+They are central to the changing water paradigm in that these perspectives give new meaning to global and regional water resources and can supply humanity with possible solutions to our water problems.
+{/org}
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+to:02(100190783:4R.@pl, 105687338:5E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8149]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8150]
+{org:en}
+Glossary, Abbreviations and Symbols
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105765415:0U.@entry.@pl, 100359135:0C.@pl)
+and(100359135:0C.@pl, 106420781:02)
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+{org:en}
+Blue water
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+{unl}
+aoj(300364881:02, 107935504:07.@entry)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8152]
+{org:en}
+It is visible water contained in rivers, streams, lakes and other surface water bodies, and also fractionally in acquifers which trickle back to rivers, streams, lakes and other surface water bodies.
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+{unl}
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+
+[S:8153]
+{org:en}
+Globalization
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8154]
+{org:en}
+The intensification of economic, political, social, and cultural relations across borders.
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+{unl}
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+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+Green water
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+The water that is concealed in the soil and connected to plant production where it forms a green water flow (evapotranspiration) back to the atmosphere.
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+{org:en}
+Interest group
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+{unl}
+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+Interest groups (also known as pressure groups, lobbies, and non-governmental organisations) are organised associations which aim to influence the policies or actions of government.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+Interest groups typically have a narrow issu focus, in that they are usually concerned with a specific cause or the interests of a particular group.
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+{org:en}
+Interest groups are also distinctive from social movements in that they have a greater degree of formal organisation.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Resource use perception is the ideal utilisation of a resource within a distinctive mindset.
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+
+[S:8164]
+{org:en}
+It is because of different resource use perceptions that the engineer and the ecologist or environmentalist do not see eye-to-eye on large scale supply-sided management projects.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:8165]
+{org:en}
+Structural Imposed Virtual Water Resource Scarcities
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105154676:0Z, 107935504:0T)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8166]
+{org:en}
+It is when virtual water commodities are abundant on a global scale, but scarce within the structures of the international political economy (IPE) due to trade protectionist policies imposed by states.
+{/org}
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+[S:8167]
+{org:en}
+Sustainable development
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302806261:02, 100250259:0E.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8168]
+{org:en}
+This involves development that is both economical and environmentally sound in order for the needs of the worlds current population is met, without retarding the development of future generations.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:8169]
+{org:en}
+Sustainable water use
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+mod(100947128:0K.@entry, 107935504:0E)
+{/unl}
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+[S:8170]
+{org:en}
+This is the notion of the use of water that supports the capacity of humans to survive and prosper into the unlimited future without impairing the integrity of the hydrologic cycle or ecological systems that depend on it.
+{/org}
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+[S:8171]
+{org:en}
+Virtual water
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8172]
+{org:en}
+Virtual water is the volume of water needed for the production of a commodity or service.
+{/org}
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+[S:8173]
+{org:en}
+It takes about 1 000 tonnes of water in order to grow one tonne of grain.
+{/org}
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+[S:8174]
+{org:en}
+This 1 000 tonnes of water represents the virtual water value (VWV) of grain.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Virtual water can also be found in hydro-electricity which composes the volume of water needed to produce a given unit of hydro-electric power.
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+[S:8176]
+{org:en}
+Water paradigm
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+{/unl}
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+[S:8177]
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+It is an intellectual framework, composed of interrelated values, theories and assumptions, within which the search for knowledge about water and/or water related problems or issues is conducted.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+A new water paradigm would therefore challenge conventional wisdom regarding the development and use of water resources within a community, region within a state, a state and/or the entire world.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Water use
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8180]
+{org:en}
+This concept involves a number of divergent ideas.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8181]
+{org:en}
+Amongst others it implies the withdrawal of water, aggregate water use and the consumptive use of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200929839:0K.@entry, 600000079:02)
+obj(600000079:02, 600000063:0A)
+obj:01(100947128:2L.@entry.@def, 107935504:2S)
+obj(100053913:0W.@def, :01:01)
+mod:01(100947128:1X.@def, 300467240:1H)
+obj(600000079:02, 600000063:0A)
+obj:01(100947128:2L.@entry.@def, 107935504:2S)
+obj(100053913:0W.@def, :01:01)
+mod:01(100947128:1X.@def, 300467240:1H)
+obj(200929839:0K.@entry, 100053913:0W.@def)
+and:01(100947128:1X.@def, 107935504:1A.@def)
+aoj(200929839:0K.@entry, 600000016:0H.@topic)
+aoj:01(301867502:29, 100947128:2L.@entry.@def)
+aoj:01(301867502:29, 100947128:2L.@entry.@def)
+and:01(100947128:2L.@entry.@def, 100947128:1X.@def)
+mod:01(100947128:1X.@def, 107935504:1R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8182]
+{org:en}
+Withdrawal
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100053913:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8183]
+{org:en}
+This means the act of taking water from the source for storage and use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200708840:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+obj(200523095:0O.@progress, 107935504:0V)
+obj(200708840:07.@entry, 100030358:0H.@def)
+obj(200523095:0O.@progress, 107935504:0V)
+obj(200708840:07.@entry, 100030358:0H.@def)
+src(200708840:07.@entry, 104263614:1A.@def)
+pur(200708840:07.@entry, :01:01)
+and:01(100947128:1X.@entry, 100811355:1L)
+and:01(100947128:1X.@entry, 100811355:1L)
+obj(100030358:0H.@def, 107935504:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8184]
+{org:en}
+Not all the water that is withdrawn is used.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:15.@entry, 107935504:0E.@topic.@def)
+mod(107935504:0E.@topic.@def, 300521584:06.@not)
+obj(201994442:0S, 107935504:0E.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8185]
+{org:en}
+In some instances and processes water is often withdrawn from rivers and then returned to the original source directly after use, such as the production of hydro-electricity or cooling in many industrial actions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201994442:1D.@entry, :01:01)
+qua:01(115691493:0A.@pl, 600000034:05)
+obj(600000002:3D, 100947128:3J)
+man(200879028:28, 600000002:3D)
+qua(100037396:5Q.@pl, 600000028:5A)
+obj(200879028:28, 109411430:1S.@pl)
+scn(:02, 100037396:5Q.@pl)
+man(200879028:28, 400117620:23)
+qua:01(115691493:0A.@pl, 600000034:05)
+obj(600000002:3D, 100947128:3J)
+man(200879028:28, 600000002:3D)
+qua(100037396:5Q.@pl, 600000028:5A)
+obj(200879028:28, 109411430:1S.@pl)
+scn(:02, 100037396:5Q.@pl)
+man(200879028:28, 400117620:23)
+mod:01(107935504:0Y.@entry, 100029677:0O.@pl)
+man(201994442:1D.@entry, 400059547:17)
+obj(100522736:40.@def, :02:02)
+gol(200879028:28, 104263614:2X.@def)
+and:01(107935504:0Y.@entry, 115691493:0A.@pl)
+src(201994442:1D.@entry, 109411430:1S.@pl)
+obj(600000068:3O, 100522736:40.@def)
+man(200879028:28, 115692661:34)
+obj(600000068:3O, 100522736:40.@def)
+man(200879028:28, 115692661:34)
+aoj(301188648:5F, 100037396:5Q.@pl)
+man(200879028:28, 600000068:3O)
+or:02(113453160:4Z.@entry, 111467202:4E)
+aoj(300699207:2O, 104263614:2X.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8186]
+{org:en}
+ACoE
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323666:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8187]
+{org:en}
+Army Corps of Engineers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(108212527:07.@entry, 110057714:0G.@pl)
+mod(108212527:07.@entry, 108183290:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8188]
+{org:en}
+BoR
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323677:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8189]
+{org:en}
+Bureau of Reclamation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115699462:02.@entry, 100093354:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8190]
+{org:en}
+ENSO
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323629:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8191]
+{org:en}
+El Nio/Southern Oscillation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000025:08, 500007983:02.@entry)
+aoj(301605081:09, 107345166:0I)
+obj(600000025:08, 107345166:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8192]
+{org:en}
+FAO
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115690910:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8193]
+{org:en}
+Food and Agricultural Organization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(101008378:0O.@entry, 100021265:02)
+aoj(302790222:0B, 101008378:0O.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8194]
+{org:en}
+FTA
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323569:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8195]
+{org:en}
+Free Trade Area.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300916199:02, 102735688:0D.@entry)
+mod(102735688:0D.@entry, 100606370:07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8196]
+{org:en}
+GAP
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+104752859:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8197]
+{org:en}
+Greater Anatolia Project.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323694:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8198]
+{org:en}
+ICOLD
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323700:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8199]
+{org:en}
+International Commission on Large Dams.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000036:0R, 101140471:0G.@entry)
+aoj(300527870:0U, 101323493:10.@pl)
+aoj(300527870:0U, 101323493:10.@pl)
+obj(600000036:0R, 101323493:10.@pl)
+aoj(301568375:02, 101140471:0G.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8200]
+{org:en}
+IPE
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323544:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8201]
+{org:en}
+International Political Economy.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301568375:02, 104893787:0Q.@entry)
+mod(104893787:0Q.@entry, 301814385:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8202]
+{org:en}
+IUCN
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323635:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8203]
+{org:en}
+World Conservation Union.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323536:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8204]
+{org:en}
+LHWP
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323636:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8205]
+{org:en}
+Lesotho Highlands Water Project.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105910453:0Q.@entry, 107935504:0K)
+mod(500003772:0A, 115692219:02)
+mod(107935504:0K, 500003772:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8206]
+{org:en}
+MENA
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323520:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8207]
+{org:en}
+Middle East and North Africa.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500005162:0I.@entry, 115668722:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8208]
+{org:en}
+NYSE
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323881:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8209]
+{org:en}
+New York Stock Exchange.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100167063:0H.@entry, 104321534:0B)
+mod(104321534:0B, 500004836:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8210]
+{org:en}
+SADC
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323523:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8211]
+{org:en}
+Southern African Development Community.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323656:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8212]
+{org:en}
+SIVWRS
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323915:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8213]
+{org:en}
+Structural Imposed Virtual Water Resource Scarcities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300586060:02, 105116953:18.@entry.@pl)
+mod(105116953:18.@entry.@pl, 105154676:0Z)
+mod(105116953:18.@entry.@pl, 105154676:0Z)
+aoj(300902157:0L, 105116953:18.@entry.@pl)
+obj(202774421:0D.@past, 105116953:18.@entry.@pl)
+mod(105154676:0Z, 107935504:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8214]
+{org:en}
+SOAS
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323738:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8215]
+{org:en}
+School of Oriental and African Studies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104146050:02.@entry, 104345028:0X.@pl)
+and:01(302941790:0P.@entry, 300825807:0C)
+aoj(:01, 104345028:0X.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8216]
+{org:en}
+SSM
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323739:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8217]
+{org:en}
+Supply Sided Management.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161313:09, 101133281:0F.@entry)
+obj(303161313:09, 113563522:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8218]
+{org:en}
+USA
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323518:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8219]
+{org:en}
+United States of America.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323547:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8220]
+{org:en}
+VWV
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323538:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8221]
+{org:en}
+Virtual Water Value.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104979425:0G.@entry, 107935504:0A)
+aoj(300902157:02, 107935504:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8222]
+{org:en}
+WDM
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323532:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8223]
+{org:en}
+Water Demand Management.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(101133281:0F.@entry, 101061333:08)
+obj(101061333:08, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8224]
+{org:en}
+WMP
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323754:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8225]
+{org:en}
+Water Master Plan.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105899442:0F.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8226]
+{org:en}
+WRMP
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323526:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8227]
+{org:en}
+Water Resource Management Project.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105910453:0S.@entry, 101133281:0H)
+mod(105154676:08, 107935504:02)
+mod(101133281:0H, 105154676:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8228]
+{org:en}
+WSM
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115669623:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8229]
+{org:en}
+Water Supply Management.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(101133281:0F.@entry, 113563522)
+obj(113563522:08, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8230]
+{org:en}
+WSSD
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323964:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8231]
+{org:en}
+World Summit on Sustainable Development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000036:0F, 115669728:08.@entry)
+aoj(302806261:0I, 100250259:0U)
+aoj(302806261:0I, 100250259:0U)
+obj(600000036:0F, 100250259:0U)
+mod(115669728:08.@entry, 105670972:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8232]
+{org:en}
+WTO
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323757:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8233]
+{org:en}
+World Trade Organization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+108486971:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8234]
+{org:en}
+WWP
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323618:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8235]
+{org:en}
+Working for Water Programme.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323755:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8236]
+{org:en}
+km/yr
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689861:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8237]
+{org:en}
+cubic kilometres per year.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000025:0J, 113659760:08.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000025:0J, 115201505:0N)
+aoj(300657198:02, 113659760:08.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8238]
+{org:en}
+mm/yr
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115694068:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8239]
+{org:en}
+millimetres per year.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000025:0E, 113658657:02.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000025:0E, 115201505:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8240]
+{org:en}
+m/p/yr
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115695606:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8241]
+{org:en}
+cubic metres per person per year.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000025:0F, 103753077:08.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(600000025:0Q, 100007846:0J)
+aoj(600000025:0Q, 100007846:0J)
+obj(600000025:0F, 100007846:0J)
+aoj(300657198:02, 103753077:08.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000025:0Q, 115201505:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8242]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8243]
+{org:en}
+Allan, T. (2001).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323160:02.@entry, "2001":0D.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8244]
+{org:en}
+The Middle East Water Question
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106783768:0O.@entry.@def, 107935504:0I)
+mod(107935504:0I, 115668722:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8245]
+{org:en}
+Hydropolitics and the Global Economy, 382 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(104893787:0V.@entry.@def, 100611972:07.@def)
+qua(115669681:18.@entry, "382":14)
+qua(115669681:18.@entry, "382":14)
+mod(100611972:07.@def, 303160971:02)
+aoj(301568684:0O, 104893787:0V.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8246]
+{org:en}
+London
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500008271:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8247]
+{org:en}
+I.B. Tauris Publishers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323834:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8248]
+{org:en}
+This book provides an in-depth look at the role of water in the economies of the states of the Middle East and North Africa region
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200406963:0C.@entry, 102870092:07.@topic)
+mod(102870092:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+plc(107935504:1H, 104893787:1U.@def.@pl)
+mod(100877127:0X.@indef, 303162620:0O)
+mod(105221895:3I.@def, :01)
+mod(102870092:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+plc(107935504:1H, 104893787:1U.@def.@pl)
+mod(100877127:0X.@indef, 303162620:0O)
+mod(105221895:3I.@def, :01)
+obj(100877127:0X.@indef, 100722061:19.@def)
+mod(100024720:2B.@def.@pl, 105221895:3I.@def)
+obj(200406963:0C.@entry, 100877127:0X.@indef)
+mod(104893787:1U.@def.@pl, 100024720:2B.@def.@pl)
+mod(104893787:1U.@def.@pl, 100024720:2B.@def.@pl)
+mod(100722061:19.@def, 107935504:1H)
+and:01(500005162:35.@entry, 115668722:2P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8249]
+{org:en}
+Falkenmark, M. Gordon, L and Folke, C. (1999).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(:01.@entry, "1999":16.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(500323018:0H, 500322983:02)
+and:01(500323012:0V.@entry, 500323018:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8250]
+{org:en}
+Water in the Landscape - Functions and Values, 34 pp (Chapter 2).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:8251]
+{org:en}
+Food and Agricultural Organization
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+and:01(302790222:0B.@entry, 100021265:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8252]
+{org:en}
+Geneva.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500004419:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8253]
+{org:en}
+This chapter takes a closer look at the concepts of blue and green water and the interaction between the two regarding a number of interrelated aquatic and economic functions and values in society
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8254]
+{org:en}
+Gleick P.H. (1998).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323051:02.@entry, "1998":0F.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8255]
+{org:en}
+The Worlds Water, 1998-1999
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(107935504:0E.@entry.@def, "1998-1999":0L)
+mod(107935504:0E.@entry.@def, 105670972:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8256]
+{org:en}
+The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources, 307 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000036:0G, 106681551:0F.@entry.@def)
+mod(105154676:10.@pl, 115689095:0P)
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+
+[S:8257]
+{org:en}
+Washington, D.C., Covelo, California
+{/org}
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+plc(500323625:0K, 500004530:0S)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8258]
+{org:en}
+Island Press.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324127:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8259]
+{org:en}
+This report on freshwater resources across the globe, which is published every second year, gives a comprehensive study on different aspects of freshwater resources across the globe
+{/org}
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+
+[S:8260]
+{org:en}
+Goldblatt M., Ndamba J., van der Merwe B., Gomes F., Haasbroek B., and Arntzen J. (1999).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(:01.@entry, "1999":2D.@parenthesis)
+and:01(500323113:0G, 500323007:02)
+and:01(500323095:19, 500323078:0R)
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+and:01(500323095:19, 500323078:0R)
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+and:01(500323331:21.@entry, 500323077:1J)
+and:01(500323078:0R, 500323113:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8261]
+{org:en}
+Water Demand Management
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(101133281:0F.@entry, 101061333:08)
+mod(101061333:08, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8262]
+{org:en}
+Towards Developing Effective Strategies for Southern Africa - Phase I, 115 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000080:05.@entry, 200234057:0D.@progress)
+qua(115669681:2C.@entry, "115":28)
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+qua(115669681:2C.@entry, "115":28)
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+obj(200234057:0D.@progress, 106249177:0Y.@pl)
+mod(104676540:1Z.@entry, 500324406:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8263]
+{org:en}
+The World Conservation Union (IUCN)-South Africa
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323536:06.@def.@entry, 500004270:12)
+equ(500323635:0W.@parenthesis, 500323536:06.@def.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8264]
+{org:en}
+Pretoria.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668785:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8265]
+{org:en}
+McCully, P. (1996).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323429:02.@entry, "1996":0G.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8266]
+{org:en}
+Silenced Rivers
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302166027:02, 109411430:0B.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8267]
+{org:en}
+The Ecology and Politics of Large Dams, 350 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(:01.@entry, 101323493:10.@pl)
+qua(115669681:1A.@entry, "350":16)
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+
+[S:8268]
+{org:en}
+London
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500008271:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8269]
+{org:en}
+Zed Books.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323968:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8270]
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+This study looks at the different aspects of the implementation of large dam projects and the negative effects they could have on the environment and humans who are directly affected by these structures
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8271]
+{org:en}
+Meissner, R.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500322993:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8272]
+{org:en}
+In the Spotlight Interest Groups as a Role Player in Large Water Projects, 2 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(107968702:0Q.@entry.@pl, 104286575:0C.@def)
+aoj(300527870:1Q, 105910453:22.@pl)
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+mod(105910453:22.@pl, 107935504:1W)
+mod(110439851:1G.@indef, 100722061:1B)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8273]
+{org:en}
+SA Waterbulletin, 26 (2).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(500324273:02.@entry, "26(2)":0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8274]
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+This article looks at the role and involvement of environmental interest groups in the construction of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8275]
+{org:en}
+Turton, A.R.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323035:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8276]
+{org:en}
+The Hydropolitics of Southern Africa
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100611972:0B.@entry.@def, 115669563:0N)
+mod(100611972:0B.@entry.@def, 303160971:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8277]
+{org:en}
+The Case of the Zambezi River Basin as an Area of Potential Cooperation based on Allans Concept of "Virtual Water", 272 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8278]
+{org:en}
+M.A. Thesis in International Politics. Pretoria
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(106755454:07.@entry, 100611972:0V)
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+mod(106755454:07.@entry, 500323637:02)
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+115668785:15.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8279]
+{org:en}
+University of South Africa (UNISA)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+equ(500324330:0U.@parenthesis, 500324336:02.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8280]
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+This study explores the perspective of virtual water as a basis of potential cooperation in the Southern African region
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200645939:0D.@entry, 104345028:07.@topic)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8281]
+{org:en}
+Turton, A.R.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323035:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8282]
+{org:en}
+A Strategic Decision-makers Guide to Virtual Water, 16 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(103466027:0X.@entry.@indef, 107935504:1I)
+aoj(300902157:1A, 107935504:1I)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8283]
+{org:en}
+Pretoria
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668785:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8284]
+{org:en}
+African Water Issues Research Unit (AWIRU).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+equ(500323582:19.@parenthesis, 105869857:13.@entry)
+mod(101060234:0J.@pl, 107935504:0D)
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+aoj(302941790:05, 107935504:0D)
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+[/S]
+
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+This article provides a guide to the implementation of virtual water as a water demand strategy, which is a step forward in the direction away from traditional water resource development initiatives
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8286]
+{org:en}
+Turton A.R., Goldblatt M., Moodley M., and Meissner R. (2000).
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+Patric Morobadi Mampane
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+High School Qualification
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+Highest standard passed at Rethabile High
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+Academic Qualification
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+Human Resources at the North Gauteng Technikon.
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+
+[S:8313]
+{org:en}
+BA. Honours Political Science at the University of Pretoria.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8314]
+{org:en}
+MA. Political Studies at the University of Pretoria.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8315]
+{org:en}
+Work Experience
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105758059:07.@entry, 100575741:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8316]
+{org:en}
+Administrator at ABSA Bank and BPSA from 1993 to present.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:8317]
+{org:en}
+Research Assistant with the African Water Issues Research Unit (AWIRU) at the University of Pretoria on the project
+{/org}
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+
+[S:8318]
+{org:en}
+A Hydropolitical History of South Africas Major International River Basins.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(102801525:1Z.@pl, 109411430:1T)
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+aoj(303162604:04, 106155567:0J.@entry.@indef)
+aoj(301568375:1F, 102801525:1Z.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8319]
+{org:en}
+PROPERTIES OF RIVERS, STREAMS, LAKES AND WETLANDS
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104012260:02.@entry.@pl, :01)
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+
+[S:8320]
+{org:en}
+PROPERTIES OF RIVERS, STREAMS, LAKES AND WETLANDS
+{/org}
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+and:01(109477890:17.@entry.@pl, 109328904:0X.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8321]
+{org:en}
+Alekseevskiy N.I.
+{/org}
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+[W]
+500323415:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8322]
+{org:en}
+Department of Geography, Moscow State University, Russia
+{/org}
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+
+[S:8323]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
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+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8324]
+{org:en}
+water bodies, rivers, lakes, wetlands, peatlands, sea, aquatic ecosystem, aquatic life, biocenosis, macrophytes, benthos, plankton, nekton, periphyton, neuston, pleuston, abiotic factors, dissolved substances, mineralization, salinity, cation, anion, allochthonous and autochthonous organic matter, concentration of suspended particles, microelements, aggregative state, ice melting, crystallization, evaporation, condensation, water molecule, dissociation, water structure, water density, viscosity, dissolution, absorption, dispersion, trophic status of water bodies, production, biomass, autotrophic organisms, heterotrophic organisms, oligotrophic lakes, eutrophic lakes, dystrophic lakes, mesotrophic lakes, eutrophication, contaminants, water quality, adaptability, self-purification
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8325]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8326]
+{org:en}
+Physical aspects of water
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+aoj(300627004:02, 104733118:0B.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8327]
+{org:en}
+Chemical aspects of water
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+mod(104733118:0B.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0M)
+aoj(302692624:02, 104733118:0B.@entry.@pl)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8328]
+{org:en}
+Suspended sediment
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+{unl}
+aoj(302351692:02, 109428967:0C.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8329]
+{org:en}
+Density
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+{unl}
+[W]
+104941453:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8330]
+{org:en}
+Other physical and chemical parameters
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+
+[S:8331]
+{org:en}
+Biological factors
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301405904:02, 105858317:0D.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8332]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8333]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8334]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8335]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8336]
+{org:en}
+Summary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8337]
+{org:en}
+The author describes the concept of the Earth's hydrosphere, its water bodies, integrated by global and local moisture circulation.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:8338]
+{org:en}
+He also cites arguments demonstrating the role of water in the origin and development of life on Earth.
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+{unl}
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+[S:8339]
+{org:en}
+Physical and chemical properties of water are considered.
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+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8340]
+{org:en}
+The significance of changes of water aggregative states for optimum conditions of life on Earth is also shown.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:8341]
+{org:en}
+The structure of the water molecule at freezing and boiling, its density anomalies, and thermal and dissolving capacities are explained.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8342]
+{org:en}
+An overview of absorption and dispersion of solar radiation in water bodies is made.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8343]
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+Aquatic life and features of its development subject to natural processes, its ecotype, and modifications of chemical runoff on the boundaries of water ecosystems are considered.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200691312:4P.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj:02(302692624:33, 100183357:3C)
+mod(100250259:0Z, 600000016:0V)
+aoj:02(301335708:1M, 100029677:1U.@pl)
+and:01(103325769:0J.@entry.@pl.@topic, 100006269:0A.@topic.@pl)
+and:02(115669684:29.@pl, 100029677:1U.@pl)
+obj:02(103778302:2M.@entry.@pl, 100183357:3C)
+aoj:02(302692624:33, 100183357:3C)
+mod(100250259:0Z, 600000016:0V)
+aoj:02(301335708:1M, 100029677:1U.@pl)
+and:01(103325769:0J.@entry.@pl.@topic, 100006269:0A.@topic.@pl)
+and:02(115669684:29.@pl, 100029677:1U.@pl)
+obj:02(103778302:2M.@entry.@pl, 100183357:3C)
+aoj(300124077:02, :01)
+mod:02(108368757:4A.@pl, 107935504:44)
+and:02(103778302:2M.@entry.@pl, 115669684:29.@pl)
+mod(:01, 100250259:0Z)
+mod:02(108512259:3Q.@def.@pl, 108368757:4A.@pl)
+obj(303161166:1B, :02)
+mod:02(108512259:3Q.@def.@pl, 108368757:4A.@pl)
+obj(303161166:1B, :02)
+aoj(303161166:1B, 100250259:0Z)
+mod:02(115669684:29.@pl, 600000016:25)
+plc:02(100183357:3C, 108512259:3Q.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8344]
+{org:en}
+Finally, the author formulates the common principles of rational use of water resources, minimizing economic and ecological risks.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201633173:0M.@entry, 400048138:02)
+aoj(:01, 100802238:3I.@pl)
+aoj(300485711:11, 105872477:18.@def.@pl)
+obj(201633173:0M.@entry, 105872477:18.@def.@pl)
+mod(105154676:28.@pl, 107935504:22)
+aoj(:01, 100802238:3I.@pl)
+aoj(300485711:11, 105872477:18.@def.@pl)
+obj(201633173:0M.@entry, 105872477:18.@def.@pl)
+mod(105154676:28.@pl, 107935504:22)
+met(201633173:0M.@entry, 200427802:2J.@progress)
+aoj(301333118:1M, 100947128:1V)
+agt(201633173:0M.@entry, 115689740:0F.@topic.@def)
+and:01(302906478:37.@entry, 300840212:2U)
+obj(100947128:1V, 105154676:28.@pl)
+and:01(302906478:37.@entry, 300840212:2U)
+obj(100947128:1V, 105154676:28.@pl)
+mod(105872477:18.@def.@pl, 100947128:1V)
+obj(200427802:2J.@progress, 100802238:3I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8345]
+{org:en}
+Physical aspects of water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104733118:0B.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0M)
+aoj(300627004:02, 104733118:0B.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8346]
+{org:en}
+About 71% of the Earth's surface is covered with waters of the World Ocean, and up to 15% of land is occupied by water bodies (glaciers, lakes, rivers, and swamps).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202648639:2U.@entry, 200048633:12)
+obj(200048633:12, 104362025:0R.@topic.@def)
+and:01(109452395:4D.@entry.@pl, 109411430:41.@pl)
+pos(104362025:0R.@topic.@def, 108562067:0J)
+agt(202648639:2U.@entry, 102861886:3C.@pl)
+mod(115689188:1E.@pl, 500323558:1Y.@def)
+qua(109334396:2M.@topic, 600000531:29)
+obj(200048633:12, 104362025:0R.@topic.@def)
+and:01(109452395:4D.@entry.@pl, 109411430:41.@pl)
+pos(104362025:0R.@topic.@def, 108562067:0J)
+agt(202648639:2U.@entry, 102861886:3C.@pl)
+mod(115689188:1E.@pl, 500323558:1Y.@def)
+qua(109334396:2M.@topic, 600000531:29)
+plc(202648639:2U.@entry, :01:01.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000018:19, 115689188:1E.@pl)
+and:01(109328904:3U.@pl, 109289331:3K.@pl)
+obj(202648639:2U.@entry, 109334396:2M.@topic)
+man(200048633:12, 600000018:19)
+and:01(109411430:41.@pl, 109328904:3U.@pl)
+man(200048633:12, 600000018:19)
+and:01(109411430:41.@pl, 109328904:3U.@pl)
+bas(400071165:02, "71%":08)
+mod(102861886:3C.@pl, 107935504:36)
+qua(104362025:0R.@topic.@def, 400071165:02)
+obj(600000531:29, "15%":2F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8347]
+{org:en}
+The Earth's hydrosphere contains 1.39 HTM1 of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:0Q.@entry, 109307902:0E.@topic.@def)
+qua(HTM1:14, "1.39":0Z)
+qua(HTM1:14, "1.39":0Z)
+qua(107935504:1C, HTM1:14)
+obj(202701210:0Q.@entry, 107935504:1C)
+pos(109307902:0E.@topic.@def, 108562067:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8348]
+{org:en}
+The World Ocean holds slightly more than 96% of the hydrosphere in the form of saltwater.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200004492:0I.@entry, 500323558:0C.@topic.@def)
+man(400099341:0X, 115694422:0O)
+qua("%":19, 400099341:0X)
+man(400099341:0X, 115694422:0O)
+qua("%":19, 400099341:0X)
+qua(109307902:1I.@def, "%":19)
+obj(600000154:1U, 115696016:29)
+obj(200004492:0I.@entry, 109307902:1I.@def)
+aoj(600000154:1U, 109307902:1I.@def)
+aoj(600000154:1U, 109307902:1I.@def)
+bas(400099341:0X, "96":17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8349]
+{org:en}
+The freshwater of the planet comes in the form of glaciers, underground water and ice, meteoric water, lakes, reservoirs, rivers and wetlands.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200341917:0V.@entry, 115689095:06.@topic.@def)
+mod:02(:01, 303160997:1Q)
+and:02(104078574:32.@pl, 109328904:2V.@pl)
+and:02(109477890:3P.@entry.@pl, 109411430:3E.@pl)
+aoj:02(300979234:2G, 107935504:2O)
+mod:02(:01, 303160997:1Q)
+and:02(104078574:32.@pl, 109328904:2V.@pl)
+and:02(109477890:3P.@entry.@pl, 109411430:3E.@pl)
+aoj:02(300979234:2G, 107935504:2O)
+obj(600000075:11, :02)
+mod(115689095:06.@topic.@def, 109394007:0O.@def)
+and:02(107935504:2O.@pl, :01)
+man(200341917:0V.@entry, 600000075:11)
+and:01(107614198:2B.@entry.@pl, 107935504:21.@pl)
+and:02(109328904:2V.@pl, 107935504:2O.@pl)
+and:01(107614198:2B.@entry.@pl, 107935504:21.@pl)
+and:02(109328904:2V.@pl, 107935504:2O.@pl)
+and:02(109411430:3E.@pl, 104078574:32.@pl)
+and:02(:01, 109289331:1G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8350]
+{org:en}
+Its volume makes up 0.0367 HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200040928:0D.@entry, 104990220:06.@topic)
+mod(104990220:06.@topic, 600000016:02)
+mod(104990220:06.@topic, 600000016:02)
+qua(HTM1:0T, "0.0367":0M)
+obj(200040928:0D.@entry, HTM1:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8351]
+{org:en}
+This is almost 38 times less than the total water volume.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000365:0Q.@entry, 600000022:02)
+mod(104990220:1G.@def, 303160907:14)
+bas(400073033:0A, "38":0H)
+mod(104990220:1G.@def, 303160907:14)
+bas(400073033:0A, "38":0H)
+qua(100028270:0K.@pl, 400073033:0A)
+man(600000365:0Q.@entry, 100028270:0K.@pl)
+mod(104990220:1G.@def, 107935504:1A)
+mod(104990220:1G.@def, 107935504:1A)
+bas(600000365:0Q.@entry, 104990220:1G.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8352]
+{org:en}
+The dominant part of freshwater is concentrated in glaciers and ice sheets (0.0258 HTM1).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200237511:11.@entry, 103892891:0F.@topic.@def)
+qua:01(HTM1:2D.@entry, "0.0258":26)
+and:02(104188179:1Y.@entry.@pl, 109289331:1H.@pl)
+qua:01(HTM1:2D.@entry, "0.0258":26)
+and:02(104188179:1Y.@entry.@pl, 109289331:1H.@pl)
+plc(200237511:11.@entry, :02:02)
+aoj(300791227:06, 103892891:0F.@topic.@def)
+man(200237511:11.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod(103892891:0F.@topic.@def, 115689095:0N)
+mod(103892891:0F.@topic.@def, 115689095:0N)
+mod:02(104188179:1Y.@entry.@pl, 107614198:1U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8353]
+{org:en}
+Only 0.36% of freshwater is collected in lakes and reservoirs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201384439:0U.@entry, 115689095:0G.@topic)
+qua(115689095:0G.@topic, "0.36%":07)
+qua(115689095:0G.@topic, "0.36%":07)
+and:01(104078574:1H.@entry.@pl, 109328904:17.@pl)
+plc(201384439:0U.@entry, :01:01)
+mod("0.36%":07, 303161004:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8354]
+{org:en}
+Some of the lakes are brackish, saline and even brine.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 109328904:0E.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(301074458:0Y, 301074062:0O)
+and:01(301074458:0Y, 301074062:0O)
+man:01(303162443:1E.@entry, 400017639:19)
+and:01(303162443:1E.@entry, 301074458:0Y)
+qua(109328904:0E.@topic.@def.@pl, 600000034:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8355]
+{org:en}
+River flow at any point in time holds only 0.005% of the Earth's freshwater.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200004492:0X.@entry, 100329227:07.@topic)
+mod("0.005%":18, 303161004:13)
+qua(115689095:1U.@def, "0.005%":18)
+mod(103974215:0J, 600000052:0F)
+mod("0.005%":18, 303161004:13)
+qua(115689095:1U.@def, "0.005%":18)
+mod(103974215:0J, 600000052:0F)
+man(200004492:0X.@entry, 600000663:0P)
+mod(100329227:07.@topic, 109411430:02)
+obj(200004492:0X.@entry, 115689095:1U.@def)
+plc(100329227:07.@topic, 103974215:0J)
+plc(100329227:07.@topic, 103974215:0J)
+pos(115689095:1U.@def, 108562067:1M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8356]
+{org:en}
+The freshwater content of swamps and wetlands is much greater and reaches 0.03%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200743344:1W.@entry, 301278818:1K)
+man(301278818:1K, 400099341:35)
+aoj(301278818:1K, 105809192:0H.@topic.@def)
+and:01(109477890:13.@entry.@pl, 109452395:0S.@pl)
+man(301278818:1K, 400099341:35)
+aoj(301278818:1K, 105809192:0H.@topic.@def)
+and:01(109477890:13.@entry.@pl, 109452395:0S.@pl)
+gol(200743344:1W.@entry, "0.03%":24)
+mod(105809192:0H.@topic.@def, 303161011:06)
+obj(200743344:1W.@entry, 105809192:0H.@topic.@def)
+mod(105809192:0H.@topic.@def, :01)
+mod(105809192:0H.@topic.@def, :01)
+man(301278818:1K, 400053744:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8357]
+{org:en}
+A huge volume of freshwater is in water-bearing geological formations (0.0234 HTM1 of which 0.01053 HTM2 are freshwater).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000669:0X.@entry, 115689095:0J)
+qua(115689095:0J, 104990220:09.@indef)
+aoj(302905591:1E, 100925207:1P.@entry.@pl)
+qua:01(HTM2:2U, "0.01053":2M)
+qua(115689095:0J, 104990220:09.@indef)
+aoj(302905591:1E, 100925207:1P.@entry.@pl)
+qua:01(HTM2:2U, "0.01053":2M)
+mod(100925207:1P.@pl, 300217297:16)
+pof:01(HTM2:2U, HTM1:28.@entry)
+obj(600000669:0X.@entry, 100925207:1P.@pl)
+aoj(303161154:04, 104990220:09.@indef)
+aoj(303161154:04, 104990220:09.@indef)
+obj(300217297:16, 107935504:10)
+aoj:01(115689095:33, HTM2:2U)
+[W]
+:01.@parenthesis.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8358]
+{org:en}
+Underground ice in the permafrost zone contains 0.82% of freshwater.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:15.@entry, 107614198:0E.@topic)
+mod(105611062:10.@def, 109390146:0P)
+plc(107614198:0E.@topic, 105611062:10.@def)
+mod(105611062:10.@def, 109390146:0P)
+plc(107614198:0E.@topic, 105611062:10.@def)
+qua(115689095:1N, "0.82%":1E)
+obj(202701210:15.@entry, 115689095:1N)
+mod(107614198:0E.@topic, 303160997:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8359]
+{org:en}
+Atmosphere has 0.04% and living organisms contain 0.003% of the freshwater resource.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202701210:18.@entry, 200065370:0D)
+mod(100004475:0Y.@topic.@pl, 300005839:0R)
+qua(105154676:25.@def, "0.003%":1G)
+mod(100004475:0Y.@topic.@pl, 300005839:0R)
+qua(105154676:25.@def, "0.003%":1G)
+obj(202701210:18.@entry, 105154676:25.@def)
+obj(200065370:0D, "0.04%":0H)
+aoj(202701210:18.@entry, 100004475:0Y.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(200065370:0D, 108499057:02.@topic)
+aoj(200065370:0D, 108499057:02.@topic)
+mod(105154676:25.@def, 303161011:1U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8360]
+{org:en}
+Owing to moisture circulation on the Earth, water is permanently moving and is renewed at an extremely low rate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:01.@entry, 600000225:02)
+obj(100368302:0K, 114535431:0B)
+man:01(301206474:2X, 400535251:2N)
+man:01(202774016:29.@entry, 113325010:31.@indef)
+obj(600000225:02, 100368302:0K)
+obj(100368302:0K, 114535431:0B)
+man:01(301206474:2X, 400535251:2N)
+man:01(202774016:29.@entry, 113325010:31.@indef)
+obj(600000225:02, 100368302:0K)
+obj:01(202774016:29.@entry, 107935504:1A.@topic)
+man:01(200124442:1V.@progress, 400087916:1J)
+and:01(202774016:29.@entry, 200124442:1V.@progress)
+obj:01(200124442:1V.@progress, 107935504:1A.@topic)
+obj:01(200124442:1V.@progress, 107935504:1A.@topic)
+aoj:01(301206474:2X, 113325010:31.@indef)
+plc(100368302:0K, 108562067:13.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8361]
+{org:en}
+The rate of water renewal is highest for living organisms (a few hours).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300705498:0V.@entry, 113325010:06.@topic.@def)
+qua:01(105131023:1U.@entry.@pl, 600000101:1O)
+man(300705498:0V.@entry, 400099341:20)
+qua:01(105131023:1U.@entry.@pl, 600000101:1O)
+man(300705498:0V.@entry, 400099341:20)
+ben(300705498:0V.@entry, 100004475:1D.@pl)
+obj(101248852:0K, 107935504:0E)
+tim(300705498:0V.@entry, :01:01.@parenthesis)
+mod(113325010:06.@topic.@def, 101248852:0K)
+mod(113325010:06.@topic.@def, 101248852:0K)
+mod(100004475:1D.@pl, 300005839:16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8362]
+{org:en}
+Only 8 days are necessary for full moisture renewal in the atmosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300343552:0I.@entry, 114484516:09.@topic.@pl)
+mod(114484516:09.@topic.@pl, 303161004:02)
+obj(101248852:1A, 114535431:11)
+mod(114484516:09.@topic.@pl, 303161004:02)
+obj(101248852:1A, 114535431:11)
+plc(101248852:1A, 108499057:1P.@def)
+pur(300343552:0I.@entry, 101248852:1A)
+qua(114484516:09.@topic.@pl, "8":07)
+qua(114484516:09.@topic.@pl, "8":07)
+aoj(300106020:0W, 114535431:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8363]
+{org:en}
+The period of water renewal in rivers and reservoirs are respectively 19 and 52 days.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(114484516:2O.@entry.@pl, 106843520:09.@topic.@def)
+plc(101248852:0P, :01:01)
+and:02("52":2H.@entry, "19":2A)
+plc(101248852:0P, :01:01)
+and:02("52":2H.@entry, "19":2A)
+qua(114484516:2O.@entry.@pl, :02:02.@entry)
+and:01(104078574:1B.@entry.@pl, 109411430:10.@pl)
+man(114484516:2O.@entry.@pl, 400137915:1U)
+obj(101248852:0P, 107935504:0J)
+obj(101248852:0P, 107935504:0J)
+mod(106843520:09.@topic.@def, 101248852:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8364]
+{org:en}
+Water rotation period in other water bodies is essentially greater.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301278818:1P.@entry, 106843520:0H.@topic)
+obj(100342028:08, 107935504:02)
+plc(106843520:0H.@topic, 102861886:13.@pl)
+obj(100342028:08, 107935504:02)
+plc(106843520:0H.@topic, 102861886:13.@pl)
+man(301278818:1P.@entry, 400099341:2Z)
+mod(102861886:13.@pl, 107935504:0X)
+man(301278818:1P.@entry, 400535347:1D)
+mod(102861886:13.@pl, 600000053:0R)
+mod(102861886:13.@pl, 600000053:0R)
+mod(106843520:0H.@topic, 100342028:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8365]
+{org:en}
+It is equal to 5 years for swamps and 17 years for lakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300889831:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+pur:01(115201505:0M.@pl, 109452395:0W.@pl)
+pur:01(115201505:1E.@entry.@pl, 109328904:1O.@pl)
+pur:01(115201505:0M.@pl, 109452395:0W.@pl)
+pur:01(115201505:1E.@entry.@pl, 109328904:1O.@pl)
+and:01(115201505:1E.@entry.@pl, 115201505:0M.@pl)
+obj(300889831:08.@entry, :01:01)
+qua:01(115201505:0M.@pl, "5":0K)
+qua:01(115201505:0M.@pl, "5":0K)
+qua:01(115201505:1E.@entry.@pl, "17":1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8366]
+{org:en}
+About 1400 years is required for complete groundwater replacement and 2650 years for renewal of the World Ocean.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202774169:2D.@entry, 202774169:0P)
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+{org:en}
+The most invariable water bodies are glaciers and underground ice.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8368]
+{org:en}
+Their periods of water renewal reach 9700 and 10 000 years respectively.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8369]
+{org:en}
+Moisture circulation within small areas and the whole planet is carried out both every second and on a long-term time scale.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(109394007:1K.@entry.@def, 102735688:10.@pl.@def)
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+obj:02(600000140:2Z.@entry, 101902877:3E.@indef)
+obj(100368302:0B.@topic, 114535431:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8370]
+{org:en}
+This can create either favorable or extremely severe conditions for life and economic activity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201640207:0B.@entry.@ability, 600000022:02.@topic)
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+pur(105798863:1J.@pl, :02:02)
+mod:02(100407535:2F.@entry, 300840212:26)
+mod(105798863:1J.@pl, 600001327:0I)
+and:02(100407535:2F.@entry, 100006269:1X)
+obj(201640207:0B.@entry.@ability, 105798863:1J.@pl)
+man:01(301129185:1C.@entry, 400535251:12)
+man:01(301129185:1C.@entry, 400535251:12)
+aoj(:01, 105798863:1J.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8371]
+{org:en}
+It is appropriate to recollect Antoine de Saint-Exuperit's view on water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300134701:08.@entry, 202772391:0N)
+pos(100881649:1P, 500323210:0X)
+pos(100881649:1P, 500323210:0X)
+obj(100881649:1P, 107935504:1X)
+obj(202772391:0N, 100881649:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8372]
+{org:en}
+It is impossible to say, that you are necessary for life
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301823092:08.@entry, 200923197:0M)
+aoj(300343552:14, 400121135:0W.@topic)
+aoj(300343552:14, 400121135:0W.@topic)
+pur(300343552:14, 100006269:1H)
+obj(200923197:0M, 300343552:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8373]
+{org:en}
+you are the life
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100006269:0E.@entry.@def, 400121135:02.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8374]
+{org:en}
+The academician V.I. Vernadskiy wrote
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200993014:0Y.@entry.@past, 500323167:0I.@topic.@def)
+mod(500323167:0I.@topic.@def, 109759069:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8375]
+{org:en}
+water stands apart in the history of our planet.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200670991:08.@entry, 107935504:02.@topic)
+mod(106155567:0S.@def, 109394007:18)
+mod(106155567:0S.@def, 109394007:18)
+gol(200670991:08.@entry, 300567860:0F)
+scn(200670991:08.@entry, 106155567:0S.@def)
+mod(109394007:18, 600000005:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8376]
+{org:en}
+There is no natural body equivalent to water in its influence on the most mighty geological processes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:08.@not.@entry, 102861886:0M)
+obj(100157081:1I, 100029677:2M.@pl)
+plc(300890351:0R, 100157081:1I)
+aoj(302905591:2B, 100029677:2M.@pl)
+obj(100157081:1I, 100029677:2M.@pl)
+plc(300890351:0R, 100157081:1I)
+aoj(302905591:2B, 100029677:2M.@pl)
+aoj(301335708:0E, 102861886:0M)
+aoj(301826575:24, 100029677:2M.@pl)
+aoj(300890351:0R, 102861886:0M)
+mod(100157081:1I, 600000016:1E)
+mod(100157081:1I, 600000016:1E)
+obj(300890351:0R, 107935504:15)
+man(301826575:24, 400536271:1Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8377]
+{org:en}
+There is no terrestrial substance, mineral and rock, living organism, which did not hold it.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:08.@not.@entry, :01)
+obj(200004492:2E.@past.@not, 600000016:2J)
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+and:01(114662574:11, 100019613:0Q)
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+aoj(300124918:0E, :01)
+mod(100004475:1Q, 300005839:1J)
+mod(100004475:1Q, 300005839:1J)
+aoj(200004492:2E.@past.@not, 100004475:1Q.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8378]
+{org:en}
+The whole terrestrial substance is covered and penetrated by it
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:01.@entry, 100019613:0O.@topic.@def)
+mod(100019613:0O.@topic.@def, 300514884:06)
+mod(100019613:0O.@topic.@def, 300514884:06)
+agt(:01.@entry, 600000016:1R)
+and:01(200728954:1D.@entry, 200048633:11)
+aoj(300124918:0C, 100019613:0O.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8379]
+{org:en}
+The consequences of global water circulation provide strong evidence for the significance of water on the Earth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200406963:1B.@entry, 105170574:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(107935504:2N, 108562067:30.@def)
+mod(105823932:1Q, 301068609:1J)
+aoj(301568684:0M, 107935504:0T)
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+mod(105823932:1Q, 301068609:1J)
+aoj(301568684:0M, 107935504:0T)
+pur(105823932:1Q, 105169813:27.@def)
+obj(100368302:0Z, 107935504:0T)
+obj(200406963:1B.@entry, 105823932:1Q)
+mod(105170574:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 100368302:0Z)
+mod(105170574:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 100368302:0Z)
+mod(105169813:27.@def, 107935504:2N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8380]
+{org:en}
+The amount of water reaching the World Ocean and that received by the land is steady in geological time scales.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300919445:28.@entry, 100033615:06.@def.@topic)
+and:01(600000030:1J.@entry, 107935504:0G)
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+obj:01(200743344:0M.@progress, 107935504:0G)
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+obj:01(200743344:0M.@progress, 107935504:0G)
+aoj(302905591:2I, 101902877:2X.@pl)
+agt:01(200117346:1K.@past, 109334396:20.@def)
+man(300919445:28.@entry, 101902877:2X.@pl)
+obj:01(200117346:1K.@past, 600000030:1J)
+obj:01(200117346:1K.@past, 600000030:1J)
+mod(100033615:06.@def.@topic, :01)
+gol:01(200743344:0M.@progress, 500323558:15.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8381]
+{org:en}
+Moisture balance is not observed in shorter periods of times.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200732552:0Q.@entry.@not, 102777100:0B.@topic)
+mod(102777100:0B.@topic, 114535431:02)
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+mod(102777100:0B.@topic, 114535431:02)
+aoj(300709021:12, 106843520:1A.@pl)
+mod(106843520:1A.@pl, 100028270:1L.@pl)
+tim(200732552:0Q.@entry.@not, 106843520:1A.@pl)
+man(300709021:12, 400099341:1S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8382]
+{org:en}
+The excess of water runoff to the World Ocean over evaporation results in ocean level rise and flooding of the lowlands along the coasts.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774178:1T.@entry, 105118437:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100183357:0M, 107935504:0G)
+obj:01(600000135:3H, 105934029:3R.@def.@pl)
+obj:01(115690440:2S.@entry, 109344198:38.@def.@pl)
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+obj:01(115690440:2S.@entry, 109344198:38.@def.@pl)
+obj(105118437:06.@topic.@def, 100183357:0M)
+and:01(115690440:2S.@entry, 100324384:2G)
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+mod:01(105093890:2A, 109376198:24)
+obj(202774178:1T.@entry, :01:01)
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+aoj:01(600000135:3H, 109344198:38.@def.@pl)
+to(100183357:0M, 500323558:16.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8383]
+{org:en}
+Conversely, when the ocean level falls, the volume of glaciers increases.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+agt(200147815:0Z, 105093890:0T.@def)
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+mod(105093890:0T.@def, 109376198:0N)
+obj(600000033:0E, 200147815:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8384]
+{org:en}
+Obviously, the instability of the World Ocean level as a planetary factor has an influence on the existence of people, organization of economy, and evolution of water and land ecosystems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(113477023:4D.@entry, 101008378:3K)
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+obj(113954253:2Z.@def, :01:01)
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+mod(108368757:55.@pl, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8385]
+{org:en}
+These and many other processes on the Earth are closely connected with the natural and chemical properties of water.
+{/org}
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+and:02(100029677:0N.@pl.@entry, 600000022:02.@pl)
+man(300566099:1N.@entry, 400160440:1E)
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+plc(:02.@topic, 108562067:14.@def)
+aoj(:01, 104012260:2H.@def.@pl)
+mod:02(100029677:0N.@pl.@entry, 600000270:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8386]
+{org:en}
+Water (oxide of hydrogen, HTM1 ) is the elementary steady chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+cnt(107935504:02.@topic, :01.@parenthesis)
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+aoj(300750296:16, 115690228:1O.@entry.@def)
+mod:01(114971519:09.@entry, 114640434:0I)
+mod(115690228:1O.@entry.@def, :02)
+cnt:01(HTM1:0S, 114971519:09.@entry)
+cnt:01(HTM1:0S, 114971519:09.@entry)
+and:02(114648100:2M.@entry, 114640434:29)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8387]
+{org:en}
+Its molecular mass is equal to 18.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300889831:0O.@entry, 101042242:0G.@topic)
+mod(101042242:0G.@topic, 301542252:06)
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+mod(101042242:0G.@topic, 600000016:02)
+obj(300889831:0O.@entry, "18":0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8388]
+{org:en}
+The share of oxygen thus is 88.81% and the share of hydrogen is 11.19% of its molecule mass.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(101042242:2H.@entry, "88.81%":0U)
+mod(101085098:19.@topic.@def, 114640434:1I)
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+mod(101085098:06.@topic.@def, 114648100:0F)
+mod(101085098:19.@topic.@def, 114640434:1I)
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+mod(101085098:06.@topic.@def, 114648100:0F)
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+man("88.81%":0U, 600000141:0M)
+aoj(101042242:2H.@entry, 101085098:19.@topic.@def)
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+aoj("88.81%":0U, 101085098:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(101042242:2H.@entry, 114682133:28)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8389]
+{org:en}
+Special conditions are required to form a water molecule from its component parts.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774169:0P.@entry, 105798863:0A.@topic.@pl)
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+mod(103892891:26.@pl, 103081021:1W)
+mod(114682133:1E.@indef, 107935504:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8390]
+{org:en}
+At a temperature of 300 HTM1 conjugation of oxygen and hydrogen has a slow character, but at a temperature of 550 HTM2 it happens explosively.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200339934:3G.@entry, 200065370:1U.@contrast)
+qua(HTM1:0Q, "300":0M)
+man(200339934:3G, 400334396:3O)
+mod(105011790:2P.@indef, HTM2:38)
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+qua(HTM1:0Q, "300":0M)
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+aoj(300980527:20, 104616916:25.@indef)
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+scn(200339934:3G.@entry, 105011790:2P.@indef)
+and:01(114640434:1L.@entry, 114648100:1A)
+scn(200065370:1U.@contrast, 105011790:07.@indef)
+obj(200339934:3G.@entry, 108006741:0V)
+obj(108006741:0V, :01)
+obj(200065370:1U.@contrast, 104616916:25.@indef)
+obj(108006741:0V, :01)
+obj(200065370:1U.@contrast, 104616916:25.@indef)
+qua(HTM2:38, "550":34)
+mod(105011790:07.@indef, HTM1:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8391]
+{org:en}
+Structural breakdown of water molecules is carried out only at higher temperatures.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:19.@entry, 105781800:0D.@topic)
+obj(105781800:0D.@topic, 114682133:0W.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:1T, 105011790:20.@pl)
+obj(105781800:0D.@topic, 114682133:0W.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:1T, 105011790:20.@pl)
+man(202774207:19.@entry, 400535197:1L)
+mod(114682133:0W.@pl, 107935504:0Q)
+scn(202774207:19.@entry, 105011790:20.@pl)
+aoj(300586060:02, 105781800:0D.@topic)
+aoj(300586060:02, 105781800:0D.@topic)
+man(300705498:1T, 400099341:2Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8392]
+{org:en}
+Thermal dissociation occurs at noticeable magnitude at temperatures above 2000 HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200723349:0N.@entry, 100384802:0A.@topic)
+bas(600001335:1Y, HTM1:29)
+aoj(301286799:0X, 105090441:18)
+bas(600001335:1Y, HTM1:29)
+aoj(301286799:0X, 105090441:18)
+scn(200723349:0N.@entry, 105090441:18)
+mod(100384802:0A.@topic, 301250565:02)
+scn(200723349:0N.@entry, 105011790:1L.@pl)
+qua(HTM1:29, "2000":24)
+qua(HTM1:29, "2000":24)
+qua(105011790:1L.@pl, 600001335:1Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8393]
+{org:en}
+It reaches HTM1 a maximum at temperatures higher than 4000 HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200743344:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+man(300705498:18, 400099341:20)
+aoj(300705498:18, 105011790:0V.@pl)
+man(300705498:18, 400099341:20)
+aoj(300705498:18, 105011790:0V.@pl)
+gol(200743344:05.@entry, 108598132:0K.@indef)
+scn(200743344:05.@entry, 105011790:0V.@pl)
+qua(HTM2:1P, "4000":1K)
+qua(HTM2:1P, "4000":1K)
+bas(300705498:18, HTM2:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8394]
+{org:en}
+Water is a chemical compound HTM1 that can be found in a liquid, solid and gaseous state.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115690228:0D.@entry.@indef, 107935504:02.@topic)
+and:01(300291181:1V, 300432453:1N)
+aoj(:01, 100024720:2D.@indef)
+and:01(300291181:1V, 300432453:1N)
+aoj(:01, 100024720:2D.@indef)
+scn(200715239:1C.@ability, 100024720:2D.@indef)
+obj(200715239:1C.@ability, 115690228:0D.@entry.@indef)
+and:01(302262542:25.@entry, 300291181:1V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8395]
+{org:en}
+The aggregative state of water depends on temperature and pressure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0X.@entry, 100024720:0I.@topic.@def)
+obj(100024720:0I.@topic.@def, 107935504:0R)
+obj(100024720:0I.@topic.@def, 107935504:0R)
+and:01(100113113:1O.@entry, 105011790:18)
+obj(202663848:0X.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj(303161352:06, 100024720:0I.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8396]
+{org:en}
+A molecule of water ( HTM1 ) consists of atoms of hydrogen and oxygen.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774237:0V.@entry, 114682133:04.@topic.@indef)
+cnt(107935504:0G, HTM1:0O.@parenthesis)
+and:01(114648100:1T.@entry, 114640434:1G)
+cnt(107935504:0G, HTM1:0O.@parenthesis)
+and:01(114648100:1T.@entry, 114640434:1G)
+mod(114585519:17.@pl, :01)
+obj(202774237:0V.@entry, 114585519:17.@pl)
+mod(114682133:04.@topic.@indef, 107935504:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8397]
+{org:en}
+The existence of the three hydrogen ( HTM1 protium, HTM2 deuterium (D), HTM3 tritium (T)) and six oxygen ( HTM4 , HTM5 , HTM6 , HTM7 , HTM8 , HTM9 ) isotopes, indicates that water is normally a mixture of various water isotopes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200923793:4H.@entry, 113954253:06.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(114641046:1N, HTM2:1I)
+and:02(114648100:2S.@entry, 114640434:0T.@def)
+aoj(303160904:5R, 114619658:65.@pl)
+and:03(HTM6:3F, HTM5:38)
+equ:01(106833220:2G.@parenthesis, 114611521:27.@entry)
+mod(100380083:5G.@indef, 114619658:65.@pl)
+and:03(HTM8:3T, HTM7:3M)
+mod:02(114640434:0T.@def, "3":0N)
+mod(114619658:47.@pl, :02)
+mod:01(114641046:1N, HTM2:1I)
+and:02(114648100:2S.@entry, 114640434:0T.@def)
+aoj(303160904:5R, 114619658:65.@pl)
+and:03(HTM6:3F, HTM5:38)
+equ:01(106833220:2G.@parenthesis, 114611521:27.@entry)
+mod(100380083:5G.@indef, 114619658:65.@pl)
+and:03(HTM8:3T, HTM7:3M)
+mod:02(114640434:0T.@def, "3":0N)
+mod(114619658:47.@pl, :02)
+cnt:01(114641046:1N, 106831498:1Y.@parenthesis)
+aoj(100380083:5G.@indef, 107935504:4W.@topic)
+and:03(HTM9:40.@entry, HTM8:3T)
+cnt:02(114640434:0T.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj(113954253:06.@topic.@def, 114619658:47.@pl)
+and:01(114641046:1N, 112693033:19)
+obj(200923793:4H.@entry, 100380083:5G.@indef)
+mod:01(112693033:19, HTM1:14)
+mod:02(114648100:2S.@entry, "6":2O)
+mod(114619658:65.@pl, 107935504:5Z)
+mod:01(112693033:19, HTM1:14)
+mod:02(114648100:2S.@entry, "6":2O)
+mod(114619658:65.@pl, 107935504:5Z)
+and:03(HTM5:38, HTM4:31)
+mod:01(114611521:27.@entry, HTM3:22)
+man(100380083:5G.@indef, 400106921:55)
+and:03(HTM7:3M, HTM6:3F)
+and:01(114611521:27.@entry, 114641046:1N)
+cnt(:02, :03.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8398]
+{org:en}
+Each kind of water differs in its hydrological, radioactive and biological properties.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202666239:0L.@entry, 105839024:07.@topic)
+and:01(300426907:1E, 303161050:10)
+aoj(:01, 104012260:25.@pl)
+and:01(300426907:1E, 303161050:10)
+aoj(:01, 104012260:25.@pl)
+mod(104012260:25.@pl, 600000016:0W)
+mod(105839024:07.@topic, 600000848:02)
+plc(202666239:0L.@entry, 104012260:25.@pl)
+mod(105839024:07.@topic, 107935504:0F)
+mod(105839024:07.@topic, 107935504:0F)
+and:01(301405904:1U.@entry, 300426907:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8399]
+{org:en}
+In fluvial, lake, pluvial, melted, glacial, underground and marine water by far the most common is the "easy" oxygen isotope HTM1
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(114619658:3V.@def.@entry, 107935504:24)
+and:01(302736015:14, 301505991:0W)
+mod(114619658:3V.@def.@entry, 114648100:3O)
+cnt(114619658:3V.@def.@entry, HTM1:43)
+and:01(109328904:0H, 302729812:08)
+and:01(300124353:1T.@entry, 303160997:1D)
+and:01(302736015:14, 301505991:0W)
+mod(114619658:3V.@def.@entry, 114648100:3O)
+cnt(114619658:3V.@def.@entry, HTM1:43)
+and:01(109328904:0H, 302729812:08)
+and:01(300124353:1T.@entry, 303160997:1D)
+aoj(114619658:3V.@def.@entry, 115692603:2Q.@topic)
+and:01(303155406:0N, 109328904:0H)
+mod(107935504:24, :01.@entry)
+man(114619658:3V.@def.@entry, 400047056:2A)
+and:01(301505991:0W, 303155406:0N)
+aoj(303161865:2L, 115692603:2Q.@topic)
+and:01(301505991:0W, 303155406:0N)
+aoj(303161865:2L, 115692603:2Q.@topic)
+mod(114619658:3V.@def.@entry, 300015097:3D.@single_quote)
+and:01(303160997:1D, 302736015:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8400]
+{org:en}
+less common is the "heavy" one HTM1 , and the oxygen isotope with mass number 17 is very rare.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300017024:2T.@entry, 300485711:07.@topic)
+aoj(300462409:0R.@single_quote, 600000027:13.@def)
+obj(600000019:21, 103835412:2B)
+aoj(600000019:21, 114619658:1T.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300485711:07.@topic, 600000027:13.@def)
+aoj(300462409:0R.@single_quote, 600000027:13.@def)
+obj(600000019:21, 103835412:2B)
+aoj(600000019:21, 114619658:1T.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300485711:07.@topic, 600000027:13.@def)
+man(300017024:2T.@entry, 400031899:2O)
+mod(103835412:2B, 101042242:26)
+aoj(300017024:2T.@entry, 114619658:1T.@topic.@def)
+man(300485711:07.@topic, 400099868:02)
+cnt(103835412:2B, "17":2I)
+man(300485711:07.@topic, 400099868:02)
+cnt(103835412:2B, "17":2I)
+mod(114619658:1T.@topic.@def, 114648100:1M)
+cnt(600000027:13.@def, HTM1:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8401]
+{org:en}
+The most common water isotope integrates protium and oxygen isotope HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200466651:0W.@entry, 114619658:0O.@def.@topic)
+aoj(300485711:0B, 114619658:0O.@def.@topic)
+mod(114619658:1Q, :01)
+aoj(300485711:0B, 114619658:0O.@def.@topic)
+mod(114619658:1Q, :01)
+cnt(114619658:1Q, HTM1:1Y)
+man(300485711:0B, 400536271:06)
+obj(200466651:0W.@entry, 114619658:1Q)
+mod(114619658:0O.@def.@topic, 107935504:0I)
+mod(114619658:0O.@def.@topic, 107935504:0I)
+and:01(114648100:1J.@entry, 112693033:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8402]
+{org:en}
+It forms 99.73% of the water resources of the planet.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200144850:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+qua(105154676:0V.@def.@pl, "99.73%":0B)
+qua(105154676:0V.@def.@pl, "99.73%":0B)
+mod(105154676:0V.@def.@pl, 109394007:1C.@def)
+obj(200144850:05.@entry, 105154676:0V.@def.@pl)
+mod(105154676:0V.@def.@pl, 107935504:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8403]
+{org:en}
+It is a necessary condition for the existence of life on the planet.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105798863:0K.@entry.@indef, 600000016:02.@topic)
+obj(113954253:12.@def, 100006269:1F)
+obj(113954253:12.@def, 100006269:1F)
+aoj(300343552:0A, 105798863:0K.@entry.@indef)
+pur(105798863:0K.@entry.@indef, 113954253:12.@def)
+plc(100006269:1F, 109394007:1R.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8404]
+{org:en}
+Chemically pure water is colorless and flavorless.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:01.@entry, 400129089:02)
+aoj(300361125:0D, 107935504:0H.@topic)
+aoj(300361125:0D, 107935504:0H.@topic)
+and:01(303162570:14.@entry, 300404202:0Q)
+aoj(:01.@entry, 107935504:0H.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8405]
+{org:en}
+In natural conditions its clarity is rarely 100%, and it almost always has color.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200065370:21.@entry, "100%":1A)
+plc("100%":1A, 105798863:0D.@pl)
+man(200065370:21.@entry, 400019339:1U)
+mod(104820258:0S.@topic, 600000016:0O)
+plc("100%":1A, 105798863:0D.@pl)
+man(200065370:21.@entry, 400019339:1U)
+mod(104820258:0S.@topic, 600000016:0O)
+obj(200065370:21.@entry, 104674968:25)
+man("100%":1A, 400035385:13)
+aoj(200065370:21.@entry, 600000016:1K.@topic)
+aoj("100%":1A, 104820258:0S.@topic)
+aoj("100%":1A, 104820258:0S.@topic)
+man(400019339:1U, 400073033:1N)
+mod(105798863:0D.@pl, 101245950:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8406]
+{org:en}
+It is also characterized by taste, as it contains various chemical compounds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202697950:0D.@entry, 600000039:11)
+aoj(202701210:17, 600000016:14)
+man(202697950:0D.@entry, 400047534:08)
+aoj(202701210:17, 600000016:14)
+man(202697950:0D.@entry, 400047534:08)
+aoj(202697950:0D.@entry, 100882702:0U)
+aoj(303160904:1G, 115690228:1O.@pl)
+obj(202697950:0D.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+obj(202701210:17, 115690228:1O.@pl)
+obj(202701210:17, 115690228:1O.@pl)
+obj(600000039:11, 202701210:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8407]
+{org:en}
+The other HTM1 varieties form only 0.27% of planetary water resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200144850:0R.@entry, 104751305:0H.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod("0.27%":11, 303161004:0W)
+mod(105154676:1Q.@pl, 107935504:1K)
+mod("0.27%":11, 303161004:0W)
+mod(105154676:1Q.@pl, 107935504:1K)
+qua(105154676:1Q.@pl, "0.27%":11)
+mod(104751305:0H.@topic.@def.@pl, HTM1:0C)
+obj(200144850:0R.@entry, 105154676:1Q.@pl)
+mod(104751305:0H.@topic.@def.@pl, 600000270:06)
+mod(104751305:0H.@topic.@def.@pl, 600000270:06)
+aoj(302780093:1A, 107935504:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8408]
+{org:en}
+For example, tritium waters (HTO) are only 13 to 20 kg in the Earth's hydrosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000107:02.@entry, 115669290:1I)
+fmt:01("20":1F.@entry, "13":19)
+mod(115669290:1I, 303161004:14)
+mod(115689188:0N.@topic, 114611521:0F)
+fmt:01("20":1F.@entry, "13":19)
+mod(115669290:1I, 303161004:14)
+mod(115689188:0N.@topic, 114611521:0F)
+plc(115669290:1I, 109307902:1Y.@def)
+equ(500324101:0V.@parenthesis, 115689188:0N.@topic)
+aoj(115669290:1I, 115689188:0N.@topic)
+pos(109307902:1Y.@def, 108562067:1S)
+pos(109307902:1Y.@def, 108562067:1S)
+qua(115669290:1I, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8409]
+{org:en}
+In the atmosphere its amount is only about 0.07 to 0.10 kg.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(115669290:1M.@entry, 108499057:09.@def)
+fmt:01("0.10":1H.@entry, "0.07":19)
+qua(115669290:1M.@entry, 400071165:13)
+fmt:01("0.10":1H.@entry, "0.07":19)
+qua(115669290:1M.@entry, 400071165:13)
+mod(115669290:1M.@entry, 303161004:0Y)
+aoj(115669290:1M.@entry, 100033615:0O.@topic)
+mod(100033615:0O.@topic, 600000016:0K)
+mod(100033615:0O.@topic, 600000016:0K)
+bas(400071165:13, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8410]
+{org:en}
+In oceans its content is less than in continental waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(400099868:0R.@entry, 109376198:05.@pl)
+mod(105809192:0G.@topic, 600000016:0C)
+plc(:2F, 115689188:1G.@pl)
+mod(105809192:0G.@topic, 600000016:0C)
+plc(:2F, 115689188:1G.@pl)
+bas(400099868:0R.@entry, :2F)
+aoj(400099868:0R.@entry, 105809192:0G.@topic)
+aoj(301566916:14, 115689188:1G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8411]
+{org:en}
+Each type of natural waters has a specific isotope structure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0U.@entry, 104504486:07.@topic)
+mod(104504486:07.@topic, 600000848:02)
+mod(104931965:1H.@indef, 114619658:19)
+mod(104504486:07.@topic, 600000848:02)
+mod(104931965:1H.@indef, 114619658:19)
+aoj(301099951:10, 104931965:1H.@indef)
+obj(200065370:0U.@entry, 104931965:1H.@indef)
+aoj(301335708:0F, 115689188:0N.@pl)
+aoj(301335708:0F, 115689188:0N.@pl)
+mod(104504486:07.@topic, 115689188:0N.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8412]
+{org:en}
+Pluvial water is enriched by protium.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200171586:0J.@entry, 107935504:0A.@topic)
+aoj(303155406:02, 107935504:0A.@topic)
+agt(200171586:0J.@entry, 112693033:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8413]
+{org:en}
+In melted water, on the other hand, the content of heavy isotopes of hydrogen is rather less, and concentration of the oxygen isotope HTM1 is greater.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(301278818:40.@entry, 400099868:2I)
+mod(105809192:16.@topic.@def, 114619658:1N.@pl)
+mod(114619658:3K.@def, 114648100:3D)
+mod(100375071:2S.@topic, 114619658:3K.@def)
+aoj(301505991:05, 107935504:0C)
+aoj(400099868:2I, 105809192:16.@topic.@def)
+mod(105809192:16.@topic.@def, 114619658:1N.@pl)
+mod(114619658:3K.@def, 114648100:3D)
+mod(100375071:2S.@topic, 114619658:3K.@def)
+aoj(301505991:05, 107935504:0C)
+aoj(400099868:2I, 105809192:16.@topic.@def)
+man(301278818:40.@entry, 400099341:5F)
+aoj(300462409:1H, 114640434:1Z)
+man(400099868:2I, 600000146:0J)
+aoj(301278818:40.@entry, 100375071:2S.@topic)
+mod(114619658:1N.@pl, 114640434:1Z)
+plc(400099868:2I, 107935504:0C)
+mod(114619658:1N.@pl, 114640434:1Z)
+plc(400099868:2I, 107935504:0C)
+cnt(114619658:3K.@def, HTM1:3S)
+man(400099868:2I, 600000114:2B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8414]
+{org:en}
+This facilitates determination of the origin of any volume of water, and study of the diverse processes of water transformation in the global hydrologic cycle, including continental systems of air circulation and small and large river catchment basins.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200518395:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod:02(100368302:5W.@pl, 104727214:5S)
+mod:03(107341038:4K.@def, 303161193:4A)
+obj:03(100029677:2Y.@def.@pl, 100398704:3H)
+aoj:02(:01, 102801525:78.@entry.@pl)
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+aoj:03(301566916:55, 104377057:5H.@pl)
+mod:03(100398704:3H, 107935504:3B)
+mod:02(100368302:5W.@pl, 104727214:5S)
+mod:03(107341038:4K.@def, 303161193:4A)
+obj:03(100029677:2Y.@def.@pl, 100398704:3H)
+aoj:02(:01, 102801525:78.@entry.@pl)
+obj:03(104345028:2A.@entry, 100029677:2Y.@def.@pl)
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+aoj:03(301566916:55, 104377057:5H.@pl)
+mod:03(100398704:3H, 107935504:3B)
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+and:03(104345028:2A.@entry, 100151497:0M)
+mod:03(104923743:17.@def, 107935504:1V)
+mod:03(104377057:5H.@pl, :02)
+plc:03(100398704:3H, 107341038:4K.@def)
+mod:02(102983357:6Y, 109411430:6S)
+obj(200518395:07.@entry, :03:03)
+obj:03(100151497:0M, 104923743:17.@def)
+obj:03(600000007:4V, 104377057:5H.@pl)
+aoj:03(302067491:2Q, 100029677:2Y.@def.@pl)
+obj:03(100151497:0M, 104923743:17.@def)
+obj:03(600000007:4V, 104377057:5H.@pl)
+aoj:03(302067491:2Q, 100029677:2Y.@def.@pl)
+mod:02(102801525:78.@entry.@pl, 102983357:6Y)
+aoj:03(600000007:4V, 100029677:2Y.@def.@pl)
+mod:03(104990220:1L, 600000052:1H)
+and:02(102801525:78.@entry.@pl, 100368302:5W.@pl)
+aoj:03(301568684:43, 107341038:4K.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8415]
+{org:en}
+Some water isotopes don't support functions of living organisms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201720773:0S.@entry.@not, 114619658:0D.@topic.@pl)
+mod(114619658:0D.@topic.@pl, 107935504:07)
+mod(100004475:1K.@pl, 300005839:1D)
+mod(114619658:0D.@topic.@pl, 107935504:07)
+mod(100004475:1K.@pl, 300005839:1D)
+obj(100720565:10.@pl, 100004475:1K.@pl)
+obj(201720773:0S.@entry.@not, 100720565:10.@pl)
+qua(114619658:0D.@topic.@pl, 600000034:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8416]
+{org:en}
+On the contrary, they decelerate chemical responses and are physiologically inert.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(400535290:02.@entry, :01:01)
+obj:01(200438495:0O, 105212808:18.@pl)
+man:01(300034322:26.@entry, 400115370:1Q)
+obj:01(200438495:0O, 105212808:18.@pl)
+man:01(300034322:26.@entry, 400115370:1Q)
+aoj:01(300034322:26.@entry, 600000020:0J.@topic)
+and:01(300034322:26.@entry, 200438495:0O)
+mod:01(105212808:18.@pl, 114806838:0Z)
+mod:01(105212808:18.@pl, 114806838:0Z)
+agt:01(200438495:0O, 600000020:0J.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8417]
+{org:en}
+Water with deuterium instead of protium, is named "heavy" water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200947439:1A.@entry, 107935504:02.@topic)
+aoj(600000209:0N, 114641046:0D)
+aoj(600000019:08, 107935504:02.@topic)
+aoj(600000209:0N, 114641046:0D)
+aoj(600000019:08, 107935504:02.@topic)
+aoj(300462409:1M.@single_quote, 107935504:1Y)
+gol(200947439:1A.@entry, 107935504:1Y)
+obj(600000209:0N, 112693033:0Y)
+obj(600000209:0N, 112693033:0Y)
+obj(600000019:08, 114641046:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8418]
+{org:en}
+Heavy water ( HTM1 ) was first noticed by G. Luice and R. MacDonald during prolonged electrolysis and distillation of water in 1933.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201059123:0X.@entry.@past, 107935504:08.@topic)
+aoj(300462409:02, 107935504:08.@topic)
+and:01(500323446:1L.@entry, 500323295:18)
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+and:02(113468306:2W.@entry, 100255065:2F)
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+and:01(500323446:1L.@entry, 500323295:18)
+agt(201059123:0X.@entry.@past, :01)
+and:02(113468306:2W.@entry, 100255065:2F)
+dur(201059123:0X.@entry.@past, :02)
+aoj(303161884:25, :02)
+tim(201059123:0X.@entry.@past, "1933":3L)
+obj(:02, 107935504:3C)
+obj(:02, 107935504:3C)
+man(201059123:0X.@entry.@past, 600000153:0R)
+cnt(107935504:08.@topic, HTM1:0G.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8419]
+{org:en}
+It looked like the usual water which is colorless and flavorless, but freezes and begins to boil at a higher temperature (3.8 and 101.4 HTM1 ) HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202665617:08.@entry.@past, 600000016:02)
+cnt:04(105011790:3A.@indef, :03.@parenthesis)
+and(:04, :01.@contrast)
+obj:04(200012613:27, 107935504:0U.@pl.@def)
+aoj(300489108:0O, 107935504:0U.@pl.@def)
+qua:03(HTM1:41.@entry, :02:02)
+obj:04(200348746:2J.@entry, 200328128:2T)
+cnt:04(105011790:3A.@indef, :03.@parenthesis)
+and(:04, :01.@contrast)
+obj:04(200012613:27, 107935504:0U.@pl.@def)
+aoj(300489108:0O, 107935504:0U.@pl.@def)
+qua:03(HTM1:41.@entry, :02:02)
+obj:04(200348746:2J.@entry, 200328128:2T)
+aoj(:01.@contrast, 107935504:0U.@pl.@def)
+man:04(300705498:33, 400099341:5J)
+agt:04(200348746:2J.@entry, 107935504:0U.@pl.@def)
+obj(202665617:08.@entry.@past, 107935504:0U.@pl.@def)
+aoj:04(300705498:33, 105011790:3A.@indef)
+and:04(200348746:2J.@entry, 200012613:27)
+aoj:04(300705498:33, 105011790:3A.@indef)
+and:04(200348746:2J.@entry, 200012613:27)
+and:01(303162570:1N.@entry, 300404202:19)
+and:04("101.4":3V.@entry, "3.8":3N)
+scn:04(200328128:2T, 105011790:3A.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8420]
+{org:en}
+The uncharacteristic properties of heavy water are used for deceleration of nuclear reactions and definition of the origin of natural water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:1H.@entry, 104012260:0N.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300462409:11, 107935504:17)
+aoj:01(300331259:26, 100202816:2E.@pl)
+mod(:01, 104923743:3A.@def)
+mod(104012260:0N.@topic.@def.@pl, 107935504:17)
+aoj(300462409:11, 107935504:17)
+aoj:01(300331259:26, 100202816:2E.@pl)
+mod(:01, 104923743:3A.@def)
+mod(104012260:0N.@topic.@def.@pl, 107935504:17)
+obj(100330674:1Q, :01)
+aoj(301335708:3K, 107935504:3S)
+pur(201158572:1H.@entry, 100330674:1Q)
+mod(104923743:3A.@def, 107935504:3S)
+mod(104923743:3A.@def, 107935504:3S)
+and:01(104702957:2S.@entry, 100202816:2E.@pl)
+aoj(300357983:06, 104012260:0N.@topic.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8421]
+{org:en}
+The heavy water content in rivers and lakes is characterized by the ratio between protium and deuterium of about 1:6800
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202697950:1D.@entry, 105809192:0I.@topic.@def)
+and:01(109328904:14.@entry.@pl, 109411430:0T.@pl)
+and:02(114641046:2R.@entry, 112693033:2F)
+aoj(600000024:27, 113819207:21.@def)
+mod(105809192:0I.@topic.@def, 107935504:0C)
+and:01(109328904:14.@entry.@pl, 109411430:0T.@pl)
+and:02(114641046:2R.@entry, 112693033:2F)
+aoj(600000024:27, 113819207:21.@def)
+mod(105809192:0I.@topic.@def, 107935504:0C)
+qua(113819207:21.@def, 400071165:38)
+plc(105809192:0I.@topic.@def, :01:01)
+aoj(202697950:1D.@entry, 113819207:21.@def)
+bas(400071165:38, "16800":3E)
+bas(400071165:38, "16800":3E)
+obj(600000024:27, :02)
+aoj(300462409:06, 107935504:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8422]
+{org:en}
+and in seas it is equal to 1:5600.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300889831:0K.@entry, :02)
+obj(300889831:0K.@entry, "15600":0S)
+obj(300889831:0K.@entry, "15600":0S)
+aoj(300889831:0K.@entry, 600000016:0E.@topic)
+plc(300889831:0K.@entry, 109426788:09.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8423]
+{org:en}
+This relation reaches its maximum in the Arctic ice (1:5500), and its minimum in snow cover (1:30 000).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200743344:0G.@entry, 100031921:07.@topic)
+mod:01(107614198:1C.@def, 102735538:15)
+plc:01(108600274:1Y.@entry, 100988893:2E)
+mod(108598132:0Q, 600000016:0M)
+mod:01(100988893:2E, 111508382:29)
+mod:01(107614198:1C.@def, 102735538:15)
+plc:01(108600274:1Y.@entry, 100988893:2E)
+mod(108598132:0Q, 600000016:0M)
+mod:01(100988893:2E, 111508382:29)
+gol(200743344:0G.@entry, 108598132:0Q)
+tim:01(100988893:2E, "130000":2L.@parenthesis)
+plc(200743344:0G.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(100031921:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod:01(108600274:1Y.@entry, 600000016:1U)
+mod(100031921:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod:01(108600274:1Y.@entry, 600000016:1U)
+and:01(108600274:1Y.@entry, 107614198:1C.@def)
+tim:01(107614198:1C.@def, "15500":1H.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8424]
+{org:en}
+The water molecule can be approximated to an isosceles triangle.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202666060:0S.@entry.@ability, 114682133:0C.@topic.@def)
+mod(114682133:0C.@topic.@def, 107935504:06)
+mod(114682133:0C.@topic.@def, 107935504:06)
+aoj(302372951:1B, 104480853:1K.@indef)
+gol(202666060:0S.@entry.@ability, 104480853:1K.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8425]
+{org:en}
+There are two atoms of hydrogen in the bottom corners of the triangle and an oxygen atom at its top.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(114585519:0J.@pl, 114640434:0S)
+mod:01(114585519:2O.@entry.@indef, 114648100:2H)
+mod:01(103109486:1F.@def.@pl, 104480853:1U.@def)
+mod:01(114585519:0J.@pl, 114640434:0S)
+mod:01(114585519:2O.@entry.@indef, 114648100:2H)
+mod:01(103109486:1F.@def.@pl, 104480853:1U.@def)
+plc:01(114585519:2O.@entry.@indef, 104453666:30)
+plc:01(114585519:0J.@pl.@indef, 103109486:1F.@def.@pl)
+and:01(114585519:2O.@entry.@indef, 114585519:0J.@pl.@indef)
+qua:01(114585519:0J.@pl.@indef, "2":0F)
+qua:01(114585519:0J.@pl.@indef, "2":0F)
+mod:01(104453666:30, 600000016:2W)
+mod:01(103109486:1F.@def.@pl, 102878222:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8426]
+{org:en}
+The HTM1 angle H-O-H and the inter-nuclear HTM3 distances H-H, O-H are HTM4 important in the aggregative state of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301275562:26.@entry, :02.@topic)
+cnt:02(105084201:1E.@def.@pl.@entry, :01)
+aoj(303161352:2N, 100024720:2Z.@def)
+and:01(500324216:1T.@entry, 500324098:1O)
+cnt:02(105084201:1E.@def.@pl.@entry, :01)
+aoj(303161352:2N, 100024720:2Z.@def)
+and:01(500324216:1T.@entry, 500324098:1O)
+obj(100024720:2Z.@def, 107935504:38)
+cnt:02(109702673:0B.@def, 500324100:0H)
+scn(301275562:26.@entry, 100024720:2Z.@def)
+aoj:02(303163398:0V, 105084201:1E.@entry.@def.@pl)
+aoj:02(303163398:0V, 105084201:1E.@entry.@def.@pl)
+and:02(105084201:1E.@def.@pl.@entry, 109702673:0B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8427]
+{org:en}
+They reach respectively minimum and maximum values in water vapor and ice.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200743344:07.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+and:01(303161017:12.@entry, 303161105:0Q)
+man(200743344:07.@entry, 400137915:0D)
+and:01(303161017:12.@entry, 303161105:0Q)
+man(200743344:07.@entry, 400137915:0D)
+gol(200743344:07.@entry, 104979425:1A.@pl)
+mod:02(115055633:1P, 107935504:1K)
+plc(200743344:07.@entry, :02:02)
+and:02(107614198:1Z.@entry, 115055633:1P)
+and:02(107614198:1Z.@entry, 115055633:1P)
+mod(104979425:1A.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8428]
+{org:en}
+The diameter of the water molecule is equal to 2.76 angstroms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300889831:14.@entry, 105101815:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(105101815:06.@topic.@def, 114682133:0S.@def)
+mod(105101815:06.@topic.@def, 114682133:0S.@def)
+qua(113658027:1H.@pl, "2.76":1C)
+obj(300889831:14.@entry, 113658027:1H.@pl)
+mod(114682133:0S.@def, 107935504:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8429]
+{org:en}
+It requires 2248.9 HTM1 Joule mole HTM2 for its formation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774169:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj(600000025:11, 113726074:0Q)
+qua(113726074:0Q, HTM1:0M)
+aoj(600000025:11, 113726074:0Q)
+qua(113726074:0Q, HTM1:0M)
+pur(113726074:0Q, 100925207:1N)
+mod(100925207:1N, 600000016:1J)
+obj(202774169:05.@entry, 113726074:0Q)
+obj(600000025:11, 101889520:0W)
+obj(600000025:11, 101889520:0W)
+qua(HTM1:0M, "2248.9":0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8430]
+{org:en}
+The water molecule has a dipole moment, related to distribution of electrons in the molecule.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0L.@entry, 114682133:0C.@topic.@def)
+obj(101083077:1G, 109271904:1W.@pl)
+aoj(303161005:15, 106022509:0X.@indef)
+obj(101083077:1G, 109271904:1W.@pl)
+aoj(303161005:15, 106022509:0X.@indef)
+mod(106022509:0X.@indef, 103204134:0R)
+mod(114682133:0C.@topic.@def, 107935504:06)
+obj(200065370:0L.@entry, 106022509:0X.@indef)
+plc(109271904:1W.@pl, 114682133:2D.@def)
+plc(109271904:1W.@pl, 114682133:2D.@def)
+obj(303161005:15, 101083077:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8431]
+{org:en}
+The electrons on two exterior orbits of the oxygen atom form two poles of negative charge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200144850:1M.@entry, 109271904:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(109271904:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 108612049:0W.@pl)
+qua(103976657:1V.@pl, "2":1R)
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+plc(109271904:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 108612049:0W.@pl)
+qua(103976657:1V.@pl, "2":1R)
+aoj(300952395:0N, 108612049:0W.@pl)
+mod(103976657:1V.@pl, 100974762:2D)
+qua(108612049:0W.@pl, "2":0J)
+obj(200144850:1M.@entry, 103976657:1V.@pl)
+mod(108612049:0W.@pl, 114585519:1H.@def)
+mod(108612049:0W.@pl, 114585519:1H.@def)
+aoj(300075515:24, 100974762:2D)
+mod(114585519:1H.@def, 114648100:1A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8432]
+{org:en}
+They are further away from the hydrogen atoms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000810:0J.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+mod(114585519:15.@def.@pl, 114640434:0W)
+mod(114585519:15.@def.@pl, 114640434:0W)
+obj(600000810:0J.@entry, 114585519:15.@def.@pl)
+man(600000810:0J.@entry, 600000168:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8433]
+{org:en}
+The protons of hydrogen atoms are responsible for two poles of positive electrical charges in the water molecule.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300324878:10.@entry, 109400037:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300358678:1T, 100974762:2D.@pl)
+qua(103976657:1K.@pl, "2":1G)
+mod(109400037:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 114585519:0Q.@pl)
+aoj(300358678:1T, 100974762:2D.@pl)
+qua(103976657:1K.@pl, "2":1G)
+mod(109400037:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 114585519:0Q.@pl)
+mod(103976657:1K.@pl, 100974762:2D.@pl)
+mod(114682133:2Y.@def, 107935504:2S)
+pur(300324878:10.@entry, 103976657:1K.@pl)
+mod(100974762:2D.@pl, 302826701:22)
+mod(100974762:2D.@pl, 302826701:22)
+plc(100974762:2D.@pl, 114682133:2Y.@def)
+mod(114585519:0Q.@pl, 114640434:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8434]
+{org:en}
+As a result there is an asymmetry in the disposition of centers of gravity of positive and negative charges in the molecule, or a dipole.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(202603699:0K.@entry, 104623612:17.@def)
+mod(107512147:1X, 100974762:2U.@pl)
+obj(104623612:17.@def, 100725506:1M.@pl)
+and:01(300075515:2L.@entry, 300358678:28)
+mod(107512147:1X, 100974762:2U.@pl)
+obj(104623612:17.@def, 100725506:1M.@pl)
+and:01(300075515:2L.@entry, 300358678:28)
+aoj(202603699:0K.@entry, 105065717:0Q.@indef)
+aoj(:01, 100974762:2U.@pl)
+man(202603699:0K.@entry, 600000159:02)
+plc(100974762:2U.@pl, :02:02)
+plc(100974762:2U.@pl, :02:02)
+mod(100725506:1M.@pl, 107512147:1X)
+or:02(103204134:3O.@entry.@indef, 114682133:39.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8435]
+{org:en}
+Approaching dipole molecules have mutual gravitation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0V.@entry, 114682133:0L.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301732601:02, 114682133:0L.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301732601:02, 114682133:0L.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303161651:10, 106198313:17)
+obj(200065370:0V.@entry, 106198313:17)
+mod(114682133:0L.@topic.@pl, 103204134:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8436]
+{org:en}
+The main points of positive and negative charges gravitate stronger than the repulsion by similar charges HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201835280:1F.@entry, 103974215:0B.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301409581:2K, 100974762:2S.@pl)
+man(301068609:1P, 400099341:4G)
+aoj(:01, 100974762:17.@pl)
+aoj(301409581:2K, 100974762:2S.@pl)
+man(301068609:1P, 400099341:4G)
+aoj(:01, 100974762:17.@pl)
+bas(301068609:1P, 100961001:27.@def)
+mod(103974215:0B.@topic.@pl, 301512527:06)
+gol(201835280:1F.@entry, 301068609:1P)
+mod(103974215:0B.@topic.@pl, 100974762:17.@pl)
+mod(103974215:0B.@topic.@pl, 100974762:17.@pl)
+ins(100961001:27.@def, 100974762:2S.@pl)
+and:01(300075515:0Y.@entry, 300358678:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8437]
+{org:en}
+This aspect of HTM1 molecules interaction leads to the formation of hydrogen connection HTM2 s.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774203:18.@entry, 104733118:07.@topic)
+mod(104733118:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(100145218:27.@pl, 114640434:1Y)
+mod(104733118:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(100145218:27.@pl, 114640434:1Y)
+obj(100925207:1L.@def, 100145218:27.@pl)
+mod(114682133:0M.@pl, HTM1:0H)
+obj(202774203:18.@entry, 100925207:1L.@def)
+mod(100039021:0W, 114682133:0M.@pl)
+mod(100039021:0W, 114682133:0M.@pl)
+mod(104733118:07.@topic, 100039021:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8438]
+{org:en}
+Its durability is more than that of the chemical and less than that of the intermolecular connections.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 115669589:06.@topic)
+bas:01(400099341:0K, 600000030:0U)
+mod:01(600000030:1T, 100145218:2K.@def.@pl)
+bas:01(400099341:0K, 600000030:0U)
+mod:01(600000030:1T, 100145218:2K.@def.@pl)
+bas:01(400099868:1J.@entry, 600000030:1T)
+mod(115669589:06.@topic, 600000016:02)
+and:01(400099868:1J.@entry, 400099341:0K)
+mod:01(600000030:0U, 114806838:16.@def)
+mod:01(600000030:0U, 114806838:16.@def)
+mod:01(100145218:2K.@def.@pl, 302901178:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8439]
+{org:en}
+The energy of hydrogen connection varies from 8368 up to 33 472 Joule mole -1 according to the aggregative state of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303160998:10.@entry, 104633197:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(303161352:2Z, 100024720:3B.@def)
+qua(113726074:1T, "33472":1N)
+src(303160998:10.@entry, "8368":1C)
+obj(600000046:2I, 100024720:3B.@def)
+aoj(303161352:2Z, 100024720:3B.@def)
+qua(113726074:1T, "33472":1N)
+src(303160998:10.@entry, "8368":1C)
+obj(600000046:2I, 100024720:3B.@def)
+man(303160998:10.@entry, 600000047:1H)
+mod(100145218:0P, 114640434:0G)
+obj(600000025:24, 101889520:1Z)
+man(303160998:10.@entry, 600000046:2I)
+mod(104633197:06.@topic.@def, 100145218:0P)
+aoj(600000025:24, 113726074:1T)
+mod(104633197:06.@topic.@def, 100145218:0P)
+aoj(600000025:24, 113726074:1T)
+obj(600000047:1H, 113726074:1T)
+obj(100024720:3B.@def, 107935504:3K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8440]
+{org:en}
+The dipole moment and the ability to organize hydrogen connections result in the existence of water structure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774178:1X.@entry, :01)
+pur:01(105200169:0S.@entry.@def.@topic, 200404642:13)
+mod(104931965:2U, 107935504:2O)
+mod:01(106022509:0D.@def.@topic, 103204134:06)
+pur:01(105200169:0S.@entry.@def.@topic, 200404642:13)
+mod(104931965:2U, 107935504:2O)
+mod:01(106022509:0D.@def.@topic, 103204134:06)
+obj(113954253:2B.@def, 104931965:2U)
+mod:01(100145218:1L.@pl, 114640434:1C)
+obj(202774178:1X.@entry, 113954253:2B.@def)
+obj:01(200404642:13, 100145218:1L.@pl)
+obj:01(200404642:13, 100145218:1L.@pl)
+and:01(105200169:0S.@entry.@def.@topic, 106022509:0D.@def.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8441]
+{org:en}
+Water structure is characterized by the relative position and interaction between groups of molecules.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202697950:0L.@entry, 104931965:08.@topic)
+obj(600000024:24, 100031264:2C.@pl)
+and:01(100039021:1S.@entry, 100083448:1F)
+obj(600000024:24, 100031264:2C.@pl)
+and:01(100039021:1S.@entry, 100083448:1F)
+aoj(300006032:16, :01.@def)
+mod(104931965:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+aoj(202697950:0L.@entry, :01)
+mod(100031264:2C.@pl, 114682133:2M.@pl)
+mod(100031264:2C.@pl, 114682133:2M.@pl)
+aoj(600000024:24, :01.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8442]
+{org:en}
+The crystalline structure of snow and ice proves its existence.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200664788:18.@entry, 104931965:0I.@topic.@def)
+and:01(107614198:14.@entry, 111508382:0V)
+mod(104931965:0I.@topic.@def, :01)
+and:01(107614198:14.@entry, 111508382:0V)
+mod(104931965:0I.@topic.@def, :01)
+mod(113954253:1J, 600000016:1F)
+obj(200664788:18.@entry, 113954253:1J)
+aoj(303161298:06, 104931965:0I.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8443]
+{org:en}
+However, presence of groups of water molecules is also possible in a liquid aggregative state.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(301821266:1L.@entry, 400027384:02)
+aoj(303161352:26, 100024720:2I.@indef)
+scn(301821266:1L.@entry, 100024720:2I.@indef)
+mod(114682133:13.@pl, 107935504:0X)
+aoj(303161352:26, 100024720:2I.@indef)
+scn(301821266:1L.@entry, 100024720:2I.@indef)
+mod(114682133:13.@pl, 107935504:0X)
+man(301821266:1L.@entry, 400047534:1G)
+mod(100031264:0N.@pl, 114682133:13.@pl)
+aoj(301821266:1L.@entry, 101233802:0B.@topic)
+mod(101233802:0B.@topic, 100031264:0N.@pl)
+mod(101233802:0B.@topic, 100031264:0N.@pl)
+mod(100024720:2I.@indef, 107119643:1Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8444]
+{org:en}
+Ideas about the existence of water structure first appeared in the 1930s.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200422090:1H.@entry.@past, 105833840:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(113954253:0I.@def, 104931965:11)
+mod(106843520:21.@def, "1930":1X)
+obj(113954253:0I.@def, 104931965:11)
+mod(106843520:21.@def, "1930":1X)
+man(200422090:1H.@entry.@past, 600000153:1B)
+tim(200422090:1H.@entry.@past, 106843520:21.@def)
+mod(104931965:11, 107935504:0V)
+mod(104931965:11, 107935504:0V)
+obj(105833840:02.@topic.@pl, 113954253:0I.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8445]
+{org:en}
+The modern statements on this problem are formulated by D. Bernal and R. Fauler (1933), and O.Ya. Samoilov (1946).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201633173:18.@entry, 106722453:0D.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(500323454:20.@entry, 500323246:1M)
+and:02(500323423:2M.@entry, :01)
+mod(105687338:0W, 600000017:0R)
+and:01(500323454:20.@entry, 500323246:1M)
+and:02(500323423:2M.@entry, :01)
+mod(105687338:0W, 600000017:0R)
+tim(:02, "1946":32.@parenthesis)
+mod(106722453:0D.@topic.@def.@pl, 300414354:06)
+agt(201633173:18.@entry, :02)
+obj(106722453:0D.@topic.@def.@pl, 105687338:0W)
+obj(106722453:0D.@topic.@def.@pl, 105687338:0W)
+tim:02(:01, "1933":2B.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8446]
+{org:en}
+Accordingly water molecules in ice crystals build a tetrahedral lattice.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200226882:1A.@entry, 400063089:02)
+mod(114682133:0K.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0E)
+aoj(303162863:1I, 103646916:1U.@indef)
+mod(114682133:0K.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0E)
+aoj(303162863:1I, 103646916:1U.@indef)
+obj(200226882:1A.@entry, 103646916:1U.@indef)
+agt(200226882:1A.@entry, 114682133:0K.@topic.@pl)
+mod(103142679:11.@pl, 107614198:0X)
+mod(103142679:11.@pl, 107614198:0X)
+plc(114682133:0K.@topic.@pl, 103142679:11.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8447]
+{org:en}
+It is similar to a crystalline lattice of tridymite mineral.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161264:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj(303161298:0K, 103646916:0W.@indef)
+aoj(303161298:0K, 103646916:0W.@indef)
+mod(103646916:0W.@indef, 114662574:1H)
+obj(303161264:08.@entry, 103646916:0W.@indef)
+mod(114662574:1H, 115079557:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8448]
+{org:en}
+Water molecules in this lattice oscillate around their average position.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201878063:0Y.@entry, 114682133:08.@topic.@pl)
+plc(114682133:08.@topic.@pl, 103646916:0Q)
+mod(100083448:1T, 600000020:1F.@pl)
+plc(114682133:08.@topic.@pl, 103646916:0Q)
+mod(100083448:1T, 600000020:1F.@pl)
+obj(600000090:18, 100083448:1T)
+mod(103646916:0Q, 600000017:0L)
+plc(201878063:0Y.@entry, 600000090:18)
+mod(114682133:08.@topic.@pl, 107935504:02)
+mod(114682133:08.@topic.@pl, 107935504:02)
+mod(100083448:1T, 300486290:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8449]
+{org:en}
+At HTM1 water molecules make up to HTM2 re-orientations per second in ice crystals.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202775710:0Q.@entry, 600000213:1L)
+qua(106208614:16.@pl, HTM2:11)
+plc(202775710:0Q.@entry, 107935504:0A)
+mod(103142679:22.@pl, 107614198:1Y)
+qua(106208614:16.@pl, HTM2:11)
+plc(202775710:0Q.@entry, 107935504:0A)
+mod(103142679:22.@pl, 107614198:1Y)
+agt(202775710:0Q.@entry, 114682133:0G.@pl)
+plc(107180372:1O, 103142679:22.@pl)
+obj(202775710:0Q.@entry, 106208614:16.@pl)
+obj(600000213:1L, 107180372:1O)
+obj(600000213:1L, 107180372:1O)
+mod(107935504:0A, HTM1:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8450]
+{org:en}
+The structure of ice is selected depending on the molecules' disposition in a crystalline lattice HTM1 , HTM2 and HTM3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774500:0Q.@entry, 104931965:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(103646916:2K.@indef, :01)
+plc(104623612:1R.@def, 103646916:2K.@indef)
+aoj(303161298:28, 103646916:2K.@indef)
+mod(103646916:2K.@indef, :01)
+plc(104623612:1R.@def, 103646916:2K.@indef)
+aoj(303161298:28, 103646916:2K.@indef)
+obj(202663848:0Z.@progress, 104623612:1R.@def)
+and:01(HTM2:2Z, HTM1:2S)
+met(202774500:0Q.@entry, 202663848:0Z.@progress)
+and:01(HTM3:38.@entry, HTM2:2Z)
+and:01(HTM3:38.@entry, HTM2:2Z)
+obj(104623612:1R.@def, 114682133:1G.@pl)
+mod(104931965:06.@topic.@def, 107614198:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8451]
+{org:en}
+All possible transitions and reorientation of molecules are taken into account by the HTM1 structure of ice.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774261:23.@entry, :01:01.@entry)
+mod(:01.@entry, 300521584:02)
+mod(104931965:2S.@def, HTM1:2N)
+mod(:01.@entry, 300521584:02)
+mod(104931965:2S.@def, HTM1:2N)
+mod(104931965:2S.@def, 107614198:35)
+and:01(106208614:0Y.@entry.@topic, 106401328:0I.@pl.@topic)
+agt(202774261:23.@entry, 104931965:2S.@def)
+aoj(301821266:06, :01.@entry)
+aoj(301821266:06, :01.@entry)
+obj(:01.@entry, 114682133:1J.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8452]
+{org:en}
+In a solid aggregative state, a crystalline structure is traced, with large number of hollows in ice.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200729109:1N.@entry, 100024720:0P.@indef)
+qua(109304750:2G.@pl, 103835412:26)
+obj(600000018:1V, 109304750:2G.@pl)
+aoj(300291181:07, 100024720:0P.@indef)
+qua(109304750:2G.@pl, 103835412:26)
+obj(600000018:1V, 109304750:2G.@pl)
+aoj(300291181:07, 100024720:0P.@indef)
+man(200729109:1N.@entry, 600000018:1V)
+aoj(303161298:0Y, 104931965:1A.@topic.@indef)
+obj(200729109:1N.@entry, 104931965:1A.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(300527870:20, 103835412:26)
+aoj(300527870:20, 103835412:26)
+plc(109304750:2G.@pl, 107614198:2R)
+aoj(303161352:0D, 100024720:0P.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8453]
+{org:en}
+The melting of ice and the increase of water temperature do not cause the destruction of the water structure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201645601:1U.@entry.@emphasis.@not, :01)
+mod:01(100363260:0T.@entry.@def.@topic, 105011790:1B)
+mod(104931965:2T.@def, 107935504:2N)
+mod:01(100363260:0T.@entry.@def.@topic, 105011790:1B)
+mod(104931965:2T.@def, 107935504:2N)
+obj(100217014:24.@def, 104931965:2T.@def)
+obj:01(115668736:06.@def.@topic, 107614198:0H)
+obj(201645601:1U.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 100217014:24.@def)
+mod:01(105011790:1B, 107935504:15)
+mod:01(105011790:1B, 107935504:15)
+and:01(100363260:0T.@entry.@def.@topic, 115668736:06.@def.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8454]
+{org:en}
+Simultaneously distances between the nuclei of the HTM1 molecule decrease and distances between molecules increase.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200153263:30.@entry, 200151689:1V)
+obj(200151689:1V, 105084201:0H.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000024:2I, 114682133:2Q.@pl)
+mod(105434927:13.@def.@pl, 114682133:1M.@def)
+obj(200151689:1V, 105084201:0H.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000024:2I, 114682133:2Q.@pl)
+mod(105434927:13.@def.@pl, 114682133:1M.@def)
+aoj(600000024:2I, 105084201:28.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000024:0R, 105434927:13.@def.@pl)
+obj(200153263:30.@entry, 105084201:28.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(600000024:0R, 105084201:0H.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(600000024:0R, 105084201:0H.@topic.@pl)
+man(200151689:1V, 400120095:02)
+mod(114682133:1M.@def, HTM1:1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8455]
+{org:en}
+Temperature rise results in gradual destruction of a part of the hydrogen connections and the water structure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774178:0J.@entry, 100324384:0E.@topic)
+and:01(104931965:2U.@entry.@def, 100145218:24.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301373314:0U, 100217014:12)
+obj(100324384:0E.@topic, 105011790:02)
+and:01(104931965:2U.@entry.@def, 100145218:24.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301373314:0U, 100217014:12)
+obj(100324384:0E.@topic, 105011790:02)
+obj(100217014:12, 103892891:1J.@indef)
+mod:01(100145218:24.@def.@pl, 114640434:1V)
+obj(202774178:0J.@entry, 100217014:12)
+mod:01(104931965:2U.@entry.@def, 107935504:2O)
+mod:01(104931965:2U.@entry.@def, 107935504:2O)
+mod(103892891:1J.@indef, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8456]
+{org:en}
+Even at boiling temperature, about 32.5% of hydrogen connections remain in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(202637592:1V.@entry, 107935504:25)
+qua(100145218:1J.@pl, 400071165:0V)
+man(202637592:1V.@entry, 400017639:02)
+qua(100145218:1J.@pl, 400071165:0V)
+man(202637592:1V.@entry, 400017639:02)
+scn(202637592:1V.@entry, 105011790:0I)
+mod(100145218:1J.@pl, 114640434:1A)
+obj(202637592:1V.@entry, 100145218:1J.@pl)
+bas(400071165:0V, "32.5%":11)
+bas(400071165:0V, "32.5%":11)
+mod(105011790:0I, 100247792:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8457]
+{org:en}
+Hydrogen connections and therefore water structure are absent in the gaseous state.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300165171:1L.@entry, :01)
+man:01(100145218:0B.@pl.@topic, 400043003:0R)
+and:01(104931965:17.@entry.@topic, 100145218:0B.@pl.@topic)
+man:01(100145218:0B.@pl.@topic, 400043003:0R)
+and:01(104931965:17.@entry.@topic, 100145218:0B.@pl.@topic)
+aoj(302262542:1Z, 100024720:27.@def)
+scn(300165171:1L.@entry, 100024720:27.@def)
+mod:01(100145218:0B.@pl.@topic, 114640434:02)
+mod:01(100145218:0B.@pl.@topic, 114640434:02)
+mod:01(104931965:17.@entry.@topic, 107935504:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8458]
+{org:en}
+Conversion of water to the solid state (at normal atmospheric pressure) happens at a temperature of about 0 HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200339934:21.@entry, 100094788:02.@topic)
+aoj:01(302831736:1G, 100113113:1R.@entry)
+scn(100094788:02.@topic, :01:01.@parenthesis)
+bas(400071165:2T, HTM1:31)
+aoj(300291181:0T, 100024720:0Z.@def)
+aoj:01(302831736:1G, 100113113:1R.@entry)
+scn(100094788:02.@topic, :01:01.@parenthesis)
+bas(400071165:2T, HTM1:31)
+aoj(300291181:0T, 100024720:0Z.@def)
+qua(105011790:2E.@indef, 400071165:2T)
+gol(100094788:02.@topic, 100024720:0Z.@def)
+scn(200339934:21.@entry, 105011790:2E.@indef)
+obj(100094788:02.@topic, 107935504:0G)
+obj(100094788:02.@topic, 107935504:0G)
+qua(HTM1:31, "0":2Z)
+aoj:01(301593649:19, 100113113:1R.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8459]
+{org:en}
+This process is named crystallization and is accompanied by calorification.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202025550:1B.@entry, 200947439:0I)
+mod(100029677:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+obj(200947439:0I, 100029677:07.@topic)
+mod(100029677:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+obj(200947439:0I, 100029677:07.@topic)
+agt(202025550:1B.@entry, 115694882:1Q)
+obj(202025550:1B.@entry, 100029677:07.@topic)
+gol(200947439:0I, 105772044:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8460]
+{org:en}
+Freezing of one kilogram of water releases 33.3 HTM1 Joule kg -1 of heat.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201757994:10.@entry, 115669251:02.@topic)
+aoj(600000025:1S, 113726074:1J)
+qua(113726074:1J, HTM1:1F)
+qua(107935504:0U, 113724582:0I)
+aoj(600000025:1S, 113726074:1J)
+qua(113726074:1J, HTM1:1F)
+qua(107935504:0U, 113724582:0I)
+qua(105725527:29, 113726074:1J)
+obj(115669251:02.@topic, 107935504:0U)
+obj(201757994:10.@entry, 105725527:29)
+obj(600000025:1S, 115669290:1P)
+obj(600000025:1S, 115669290:1P)
+qua(HTM1:1F, "33.3":1E)
+qua(113724582:0I, "1":0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8461]
+{org:en}
+Water has an abnormally high freezing-point.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:08.@entry, 107935504:02.@topic)
+mod(103974215:14.@indef, 303161716:0V)
+mod(103974215:14.@indef, 303161716:0V)
+aoj(300705498:0Q, 103974215:14.@indef)
+obj(200065370:08.@entry, 103974215:14.@indef)
+man(300705498:0Q, 400227171:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8462]
+{org:en}
+Water analogues, i.e. oxides of sulfur, selenium and tellurium (elements from the sixth group of Mendeleev's periodic table), have freezing-points well below 0
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:3O.@entry, 104746430:08.@topic.@pl)
+cnt(:01, :02.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000219:4E, 104614505:4K)
+mod:02(100031264:2I.@def, "6":2C)
+mod(103974215:42.@pl, 303161716:3T)
+frm:02(105868954:1U.@entry.@pl, 100031264:2I.@def)
+obj(115689159:0J, 114971519:0O.@pl)
+cnt(:01, :02.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000219:4E, 104614505:4K)
+mod:02(100031264:2I.@def, "6":2C)
+mod(103974215:42.@pl, 303161716:3T)
+frm:02(105868954:1U.@entry.@pl, 100031264:2I.@def)
+obj(115689159:0J, 114971519:0O.@pl)
+obj(200065370:3O.@entry, 103974215:42.@pl)
+and:01(114654175:16, 114656219:0Y)
+mod(104746430:08.@topic.@pl, 107935504:02)
+aoj:02(300594004:37, 104379243:3G)
+man(200065370:3O.@entry, 600000219:4E)
+and:01(114657228:1J.@entry, 114654175:16)
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+and:01(114657228:1J.@entry, 114654175:16)
+aoj(115689159:0J, 104746430:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod:02(104379243:3G, 500323405:2R)
+man(600000219:4E, 400011093:49)
+mod:02(100031264:2I.@def, 104379243:3G)
+mod(114971519:0O.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8463]
+{org:en}
+The freezing is inversely proportional to the molecular mass of the oxides.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300482948:0R.@entry, 115669251:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(101042242:1L.@def, 114971519:1X.@def.@pl)
+mod(101042242:1L.@def, 114971519:1X.@def.@pl)
+man(300482948:0R.@entry, 400175919:0I)
+obj(300482948:0R.@entry, 101042242:1L.@def)
+mod(101042242:1L.@def, 301542252:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8464]
+{org:en}
+Accordingly, water should have the lowest freezing-point.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200065370:0S.@entry.@should.@past, 115694701:02)
+man(301206474:11, 400536271:1N)
+aoj(301206474:11, 103974215:1H.@def)
+man(301206474:11, 400536271:1N)
+aoj(301206474:11, 103974215:1H.@def)
+obj(200065370:0S.@entry.@should.@past, 103974215:1H.@def)
+aoj(200065370:0S.@entry.@should.@past, 107935504:0F.@topic)
+mod(103974215:1H.@def, 303161716:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8465]
+{org:en}
+The abnormally high temperature of water crystallization depends upon its chemical structure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202776364:1M.@entry, 105011790:0L.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300705498:0H, 105011790:0L.@topic.@def)
+aoj(302692624:23, 104931965:2C)
+aoj(300705498:0H, 105011790:0L.@topic.@def)
+aoj(302692624:23, 104931965:2C)
+mod(104931965:2C, 600000016:1Z)
+mod(105772044:16, 107935504:10)
+obj(202776364:1M.@entry, 104931965:2C)
+man(300705498:0H, 400227171:06)
+man(300705498:0H, 400227171:06)
+mod(105011790:0L.@topic.@def, 105772044:16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8466]
+{org:en}
+The fact that HTM1 freezes at HTM2 ensures the preservation of aquatic ecosystems under the ice cover in rivers and lakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202774184:10.@entry, 105817396:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(200012613:0L, HTM1:0G)
+obj(600000009:2B, 100988893:2P.@def)
+mod(108368757:20.@pl, 600000009:2B)
+and:01(109328904:39.@entry.@pl, 109411430:2Y.@pl)
+obj(200012613:0L, HTM1:0G)
+obj(600000009:2B, 100988893:2P.@def)
+mod(108368757:20.@pl, 600000009:2B)
+and:01(109328904:39.@entry.@pl, 109411430:2Y.@pl)
+obj(100819024:1C.@def, 108368757:20.@pl)
+mod(100988893:2P.@def, 107614198:2L)
+obj(202774184:10.@entry, 100819024:1C.@def)
+scn(200012613:0L, HTM2:0V)
+plc(100988893:2P.@def, :01:01)
+scn(200012613:0L, HTM2:0V)
+plc(100988893:2P.@def, :01:01)
+aoj(300124077:1S, 108368757:20.@pl)
+cnt(105817396:06.@topic.@def, 200012613:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8467]
+{org:en}
+Solutes in water lower the freezing-point.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200531489:0J.@entry, 115047849:02.@topic.@pl)
+plc(115047849:02.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0D)
+plc(115047849:02.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0D)
+mod(103974215:12.@def, 303161716:0T)
+obj(200531489:0J.@entry, 103974215:12.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8468]
+{org:en}
+If concentration exceeds HTM1 , water freezes at a temperature below HTM2 (at normal atmospheric pressure).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200012613:14.@entry, 202669081:0J)
+obj(600000219:1R, HTM2:1X)
+scn(200012613:14.@entry, 105011790:1F.@indef)
+aoj(202669081:0J, 100375071:05)
+obj(600000219:1R, HTM2:1X)
+scn(200012613:14.@entry, 105011790:1F.@indef)
+aoj(202669081:0J, 100375071:05)
+scn(200012613:14.@entry, :01:01.@parenthesis)
+aoj:01(302831736:2D, 100113113:2O.@entry)
+obj(200012613:14.@entry, 107935504:0Y.@topic)
+aoj:01(301593649:26, 100113113:2O.@entry)
+aoj:01(301593649:26, 100113113:2O.@entry)
+aoj(600000219:1R, 105011790:1F.@indef)
+obj(202669081:0J, HTM1:0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8469]
+{org:en}
+For example, at mineralization HTM1 , the freezing-point is equal to HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000107:02.@entry, 300889831:1Q)
+mod(115689274:0I, HTM1:0X)
+obj(300889831:1Q, HTM2:1Y)
+mod(115689274:0I, HTM1:0X)
+obj(300889831:1Q, HTM2:1Y)
+aoj(300889831:1Q, 103974215:1H.@topic.@def)
+scn(300889831:1Q, 115689274:0I)
+mod(103974215:1H.@topic.@def, 303161716:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8470]
+{org:en}
+Freezing of water means seasonal formation of ice and snow cover, prolonged accumulation of glaciers, long-term snow and permafrost.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200708840:0K.@entry, 115669251:02.@topic)
+mod:02(100988893:1S, :01)
+and:02(111508382:3N, 100372013:2G)
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+mod:02(100988893:1S, :01)
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+aoj(301494273:0Q, 100925207:0Z)
+obj:02(100372013:2G, 109289331:2W.@pl)
+obj(100925207:0Z, :02)
+obj(115669251:02.@topic, 107935504:0E)
+and:02(100372013:2G, 100988893:1S)
+obj(200708840:0K.@entry, 100925207:0Z)
+and:01(111508382:1N.@entry, 107614198:1F)
+mod:02(111508382:3N, 303161456:3D)
+and:01(111508382:1N.@entry, 107614198:1F)
+mod:02(111508382:3N, 303161456:3D)
+and:02(109390146:40.@entry, 111508382:3N)
+mod:02(100372013:2G, 303161884:26)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8471]
+{org:en}
+The appearance of water in ice reflects the response of the water body to changes of thermal conditions due to its interaction with bounding media (air and ground).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200821580:0X.@entry, 100050195:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100039021:39, 600000016:35)
+to(102861886:1W.@def, 100191142:24.@pl)
+obj(100050195:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0K)
+obj(200821580:0X.@entry, 105212808:1A.@def)
+cnt(106254475:3Z.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod(105798863:2N.@pl, 301250565:2F)
+mod(100039021:39, 600000016:35)
+to(102861886:1W.@def, 100191142:24.@pl)
+obj(100050195:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0K)
+obj(200821580:0X.@entry, 105212808:1A.@def)
+cnt(106254475:3Z.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod(105798863:2N.@pl, 301250565:2F)
+rsn(200821580:0X.@entry, 600000001:2Y)
+obj(200567291:3Q.@progress, 106254475:3Z.@pl)
+obj(100191142:24.@pl, 105798863:2N.@pl)
+man(200821580:0X.@entry, 600000018:3L)
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+obj(600000018:3L, 200567291:3Q.@progress)
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+and:01(303155671:4E.@entry, 104727214:46)
+obj(600000001:2Y, 100039021:39)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8472]
+{org:en}
+Supercooling of an upper layer means fast or slow formation of ice crystals.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200708840:0X.@entry, 202776679:02.@progress.@topic)
+man:01(300323873:13, 400099341:2Y)
+aoj(:01, 100925207:1G)
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+man:01(300323873:13, 400099341:2Y)
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+mod(100925207:1G, 103142679:1X.@pl)
+obj(202776679:02.@progress.@topic, 101463259:0R.@indef)
+obj(200708840:0X.@entry, 100925207:1G)
+mod(103142679:1X.@pl, 107614198:1T)
+mod(103142679:1X.@pl, 107614198:1T)
+or:01(300980527:1B.@entry, 300323873:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8473]
+{org:en}
+Formation and thickness of ice cover on rivers and reservoirs depend on air temperature and heat storage in the water mass.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:1S.@entry, :01)
+mod(100988893:0X, 107614198:0T)
+mod:03(105011790:25, 104727214:22)
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+mod:03(105011790:25, 104727214:22)
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+obj(:01, 100988893:0X)
+obj(202663848:1S.@entry, 100811355:2Q)
+and:02(104078574:1H.@entry.@pl, 109411430:16.@pl)
+mod(101042242:3B.@def, 107935504:35)
+and:02(104078574:1H.@entry.@pl, 109411430:16.@pl)
+mod(101042242:3B.@def, 107935504:35)
+and:03(105725527:2L.@entry, 105011790:25)
+plc(100988893:0X, :02:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8474]
+{org:en}
+Positive water temperature under ice cover ensures favorable conditions for aquatic ecosystems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202774184:19.@entry, 105011790:0H.@topic)
+mod(105011790:0H.@topic, 600000009:0T)
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+obj(600000009:0T, 100988893:13)
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+obj(600000009:0T, 100988893:13)
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+mod(105011790:0H.@topic, 107935504:0B)
+obj(202774184:19.@entry, 105798863:1R.@pl)
+aoj(300358678:02, 105011790:0H.@topic)
+aoj(300358678:02, 105011790:0H.@topic)
+aoj(300124077:26, 108368757:2E.@pl)
+mod(100988893:13, 107614198:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8475]
+{org:en}
+Water bodies also play an important water-supply role.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200013328:0K.@entry, 102861886:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(113563522:18, 107935504:12)
+aoj(301275562:0S, 100722061:1F.@indef)
+mod(113563522:18, 107935504:12)
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+obj(200013328:0K.@entry, 100722061:1F.@indef)
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+mod(102861886:08.@topic.@pl, 107935504:02)
+mod(100722061:1F.@indef, 113563522:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8476]
+{org:en}
+Deep-frozen rivers lose their biological and economic value.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201099592:0L.@entry, 109411430:0E.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303163140:02, 109411430:0E.@topic.@pl)
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+aoj(303163140:02, 109411430:0E.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104979425:1J, :01)
+mod(104979425:1J, 600000020:0Q.@pl)
+obj(201099592:0L.@entry, 104979425:1J)
+and:01(300840212:1B.@entry, 301405904:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8477]
+{org:en}
+Under the ice cover water bodies change their regime into the winter one.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(200109660:0Z.@entry, 600000027:1Z.@def)
+mod(107935504:0M, 100988893:0G)
+obj(600000003:02, 102861886:0S.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000027:1Z.@def, 115237782:1S)
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+obj(600000027:1Z.@def, 115237782:1S)
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+obj(200109660:0Z.@entry, 115669360:1C)
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+mod(100988893:0G, 107614198:0C)
+mod(102861886:0S.@def.@pl, 107935504:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8478]
+{org:en}
+Input of underground, more mineralized water in rivers is accompanied by an increase in mineralization and a decrease of dissolved oxygen concentration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202025550:1O.@entry, 103573154:02.@topic)
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+man(303161257:0T, 400099341:0O)
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+scn(107935504:15, 109411430:1E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8479]
+{org:en}
+Under natural conditions the concentrations of heavy metals and organic matter are reduced in water, thus naturally improving water quality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200045817:2J.@entry, 600000003:02)
+mod:01(100020827:24.@entry, 301093142:1X)
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+obj(202774185:3G.@progress, 104723816:3W)
+plc(200045817:2J.@entry, 107935504:2U)
+obj(100375071:0V.@topic.@def.@pl, :01:01.@entry)
+obj(400121135:31, 200045817:2J.@entry)
+aoj(301335708:08, 105798863:0G.@pl)
+mod(104723816:3W, 107935504:3Q)
+obj(200045817:2J.@entry, 100375071:0V.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000003:02, 105798863:0G.@pl)
+man(202774185:3G.@progress, 400038625:36)
+obj(600000003:02, 105798863:0G.@pl)
+man(202774185:3G.@progress, 400038625:36)
+man(202774185:3G.@progress, 400121135:31)
+and:01(100020827:24.@entry, 107065149:1G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8480]
+{org:en}
+The process of transformation of ice into water is called melting.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115668736:1O.@entry, 100029677:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100398704:0H, 107614198:0Z)
+mod(100398704:0H, 107614198:0Z)
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+obj(200107231:1H.@past, 115668736:1O.@entry)
+gol(100398704:0H, 107935504:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8481]
+{org:en}
+The melting heat is numerically equal to the heat of crystallization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300889831:0Y.@entry, 105725527:0E.@topic.@def)
+mod(105725527:1B.@def, 105772044:1J)
+mod(105725527:1B.@def, 105772044:1J)
+man(300889831:0Y.@entry, 400411171:0M)
+obj(300889831:0Y.@entry, 105725527:1B.@def)
+aoj(303162263:06, 105725527:0E.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8482]
+{org:en}
+The melting heat of ice is abnormally high in comparison with the other chemical compounds (with the exception of ammonia).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300705498:14.@entry, 105725527:0E.@topic.@def)
+mod(115690228:22.@def.@pl, 600000053:1W)
+obj(600000228:19, 115690228:22.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303162263:06, 105725527:0E.@topic.@def)
+mod(115690228:22.@def.@pl, 600000053:1W)
+obj(600000228:19, 115690228:22.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303162263:06, 105725527:0E.@topic.@def)
+man(300705498:14.@entry, 400227171:0T)
+mod(105725527:0E.@topic.@def, 107614198:0M)
+man(300705498:14.@entry, 600000228:19)
+obj:01(600000985:2M.@entry, 114743582:38)
+obj:01(600000985:2M.@entry, 114743582:38)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 115690228:22.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8483]
+{org:en}
+It is predetermined by the ice crystalline lattice.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200702773:0B.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj(303161298:0X, 103646916:19)
+aoj(303161298:0X, 103646916:19)
+mod(103646916:19, 107614198:0T.@def)
+aoj(200702773:0B.@entry, 103646916:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8484]
+{org:en}
+The high melting heat of ice has great importance for the climate of our planet.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0V.@entry, 105725527:0J.@topic.@def)
+mod(109394007:23, 600000005:1Z)
+aoj(301278818:0Z, 105168261:15)
+aoj(303162263:0B, 105725527:0J.@topic.@def)
+mod(109394007:23, 600000005:1Z)
+aoj(301278818:0Z, 105168261:15)
+aoj(303162263:0B, 105725527:0J.@topic.@def)
+pur(105168261:15, 114519366:1O.@def)
+aoj(300705498:06, 105725527:0J.@topic.@def)
+obj(200065370:0V.@entry, 105168261:15)
+mod(105725527:0J.@topic.@def, 107614198:0R)
+mod(105725527:0J.@topic.@def, 107614198:0R)
+obj(114519366:1O.@def, 109394007:23)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8485]
+{org:en}
+Ice and snow formation is accompanied by heat release, which is used in warming the atmosphere and lithosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(202025550:0Z.@entry, 100925207:0M.@topic)
+obj(200372958:29.@progress, :02:02)
+mod(100210940:1J.@pl, 105725527:1E)
+and:01(111508382:0D.@entry, 107614198:05)
+obj(200372958:29.@progress, :02:02)
+mod(100210940:1J.@pl, 105725527:1E)
+and:01(111508382:0D.@entry, 107614198:05)
+obj(201158572:21, 100210940:1J.@pl)
+obj(100925207:0M.@topic, :01:01.@entry)
+obj(202025550:0Z.@entry, 100210940:1J.@pl)
+and:02(109339810:30.@entry.@def, 108499057:2L.@def)
+and:02(109339810:30.@entry.@def, 108499057:2L.@def)
+pur(201158572:21, 200372958:29.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8486]
+{org:en}
+Conversely, ice melting and the absorption of solar radiation explains the transitional seasons of the year (spring, autumn) in polar and temperate climate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200939277:1R.@entry, 400078050:02)
+obj(:01, 101252918:1H)
+scn(115201505:2W.@def, 114519366:45)
+mod(115236475:2H.@def.@pl, 115201505:2W.@def)
+aoj(302799016:1C, 101252918:1H)
+mod(114519366:45, 300358820:3L)
+obj(:01, 101252918:1H)
+scn(115201505:2W.@def, 114519366:45)
+mod(115236475:2H.@def.@pl, 115201505:2W.@def)
+aoj(302799016:1C, 101252918:1H)
+mod(114519366:45, 300358820:3L)
+obj(200939277:1R.@entry, 115236475:2H.@def.@pl)
+obj:01(115668736:0I.@topic, 107614198:0E)
+tim:02(104288272:32.@entry, 115668575:3A)
+agt(200939277:1R.@entry, :01)
+and:01(113423922:0Y.@entry.@def.@topic, 115668736:0I.@topic)
+cnt(115201505:2W.@def, :02.@parenthesis)
+and:01(113423922:0Y.@entry.@def.@topic, 115668736:0I.@topic)
+cnt(115201505:2W.@def, :02.@parenthesis)
+aoj(302944694:24, 115236475:2H.@def.@pl)
+mod(114519366:45, 302401590:3V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8487]
+{org:en}
+At a temperature lower than HTM1 and a pressure less than 610 Pascal HTM2 , water transformation between a gaseous and a solid state is possible.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(301821266:48.@entry, :01:01)
+qua:01(113711303:22, "610":1Y)
+aoj(:02, 100024720:3Z.@indef)
+obj(100398704:2Q.@topic, 107935504:2K)
+man:01(301206474:0M, 400099341:42)
+qua:01(100113113:1F.@entry.@indef, 400099868:1O)
+qua:01(113711303:22, "610":1Y)
+aoj(:02, 100024720:3Z.@indef)
+obj(100398704:2Q.@topic, 107935504:2K)
+man:01(301206474:0M, 400099341:42)
+qua:01(100113113:1F.@entry.@indef, 400099868:1O)
+aoj(600000024:35, 100398704:2Q.@topic)
+bas:01(301206474:0M, HTM1:0X)
+and:01(100113113:1F.@entry.@indef, 105011790:0A.@indef)
+aoj(301821266:48.@entry, 100398704:2Q.@topic)
+aoj:01(301206474:0M, 105011790:0A.@indef)
+and:02(300291181:3T.@entry, 302262542:3F)
+aoj:01(301206474:0M, 105011790:0A.@indef)
+and:02(300291181:3T.@entry, 302262542:3F)
+obj(600000024:35, 100024720:3Z.@indef)
+bas:01(400099868:1O, 113711303:22)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8488]
+{org:en}
+This process is called sublimation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200107231:0I.@entry, 100029677:07.@topic)
+mod(100029677:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+gol(200107231:0I.@entry, 107297927:0P.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8489]
+{org:en}
+Water vapor can crystallize directly, by-passing the liquid state.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200143704:0H.@entry.@ability, 115055633:07.@topic)
+mod(115055633:07.@topic, 107935504:02)
+obj(202776285:13.@progress, 100024720:1P.@def)
+mod(115055633:07.@topic, 107935504:02)
+obj(202776285:13.@progress, 100024720:1P.@def)
+man(200143704:0H.@entry.@ability, 115692661:0T)
+man(200143704:0H.@entry.@ability, 202776285:13.@progress)
+mod(100024720:1P.@def, 107119643:1I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8490]
+{org:en}
+Ice sublimation, from solid to gaseous phase, is the main reason for relative runoff decrease from ice melting under solar radiation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105651680:1O.@entry, 107297927:06.@topic)
+gol(107297927:06.@topic, 104676540:15)
+rsn(100351638:2F, 115668736:2X)
+mod(100351638:2F, 300006032:1Z)
+aoj(302262542:0X, 104676540:15)
+obj(600000009:35, 101252918:3G)
+gol(107297927:06.@topic, 104676540:15)
+rsn(100351638:2F, 115668736:2X)
+mod(100351638:2F, 300006032:1Z)
+aoj(302262542:0X, 104676540:15)
+obj(600000009:35, 101252918:3G)
+mod(105651680:1O.@entry, 301512527:1J)
+mod(107297927:06.@topic, 107614198:02)
+aoj(600000009:35, 115668736:2X)
+pur(105651680:1O.@entry, 100351638:2F)
+src(107297927:06.@topic, 113860793:0O)
+obj(115668736:2X, 107614198:2T)
+src(107297927:06.@topic, 113860793:0O)
+obj(115668736:2X, 107614198:2T)
+obj(100351638:2F, 100183357:28)
+aoj(302799016:3B, 101252918:3G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8491]
+{org:en}
+The main indications of such ice melting are low night and high day air temperatures.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 105816790:0B.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(301206474:1B, 113983717:1F)
+mod:01(105011790:22.@entry.@pl, 104727214:1Y)
+mod(115668736:0Z, 600001411:0Q)
+aoj:01(301206474:1B, 113983717:1F)
+mod:01(105011790:22.@entry.@pl, 104727214:1Y)
+mod(115668736:0Z, 600001411:0Q)
+aoj:01(300705498:1P, 105011790:22.@entry.@pl)
+mod(105816790:0B.@topic.@def.@pl, 301512527:06)
+and:01(105011790:22.@entry.@pl, 113983717:1F.@pl)
+mod(105816790:0B.@topic.@def.@pl, 115668736:0Z)
+mod(105816790:0B.@topic.@def.@pl, 115668736:0Z)
+mod:01(104727214:1Y, 114484516:1U)
+mod(115668736:0Z, 107614198:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8492]
+{org:en}
+Alternation of evaporation and crystallization in snow cover stimulates gradual increase of snowflake diameter and firm snow formation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200022686:1R.@entry, 101010684:02.@topic)
+and:01(105772044:0X.@entry, 113572436:0H)
+aoj:02(300842199:39, 100925207:3J.@entry)
+aoj(301142804:22, 100363260:2A)
+plc(101010684:02.@topic, 100988893:1L)
+and:01(105772044:0X.@entry, 113572436:0H)
+aoj:02(300842199:39, 100925207:3J.@entry)
+aoj(301142804:22, 100363260:2A)
+plc(101010684:02.@topic, 100988893:1L)
+mod(100363260:2A, :02)
+mod:02(105101815:2W, 111509066:2M)
+obj(200022686:1R.@entry, 100363260:2A)
+mod(100988893:1L, 111508382:1G)
+mod:02(100925207:3J.@entry, 111508382:3E)
+mod(100988893:1L, 111508382:1G)
+mod:02(100925207:3J.@entry, 111508382:3E)
+and:02(100925207:3J.@entry, 105101815:2W)
+obj(101010684:02.@topic, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8493]
+{org:en}
+The modification of snow porosity and its ability to hold melted water have a great influence on flood formation in spring.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:2F.@entry, :01.@entry)
+mod:01(104940146:0X, 111508382:0S)
+mod(100925207:3B, 100329819:35)
+aoj(301278818:2M, 100157081:2S.@indef)
+mod:01(105200169:1I.@entry.@topic, 600000016:1E)
+mod:01(104940146:0X, 111508382:0S)
+mod(100925207:3B, 100329819:35)
+aoj(301278818:2M, 100157081:2S.@indef)
+mod:01(105200169:1I.@entry.@topic, 600000016:1E)
+obj(100157081:2S.@indef, 100925207:3B)
+aoj(301505991:22, 107935504:29)
+and:01(105200169:1I.@entry.@topic, 103778302:09.@def.@topic)
+obj(200065370:2F.@entry, 100157081:2S.@indef)
+obj(200004492:1X, 107935504:29)
+pur(:01.@entry, 200004492:1X)
+obj(200004492:1X, 107935504:29)
+pur(:01.@entry, 200004492:1X)
+tim(100925207:3B, 104288272:3O)
+obj:01(103778302:09.@def.@topic, 104940146:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8494]
+{org:en}
+The more usual HTM1 transformation into the gaseous state happens through water evaporation and is accompanied by heat absorption.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202025550:2T.@entry, 200339934:1O)
+mod(100398704:0M.@topic.@def, HTM1:0H)
+man(200339934:1O, 600000026:1W)
+mod(113423922:3C, 105725527:37)
+to(100398704:0M.@topic.@def, 100024720:1I.@def)
+mod(100398704:0M.@topic.@def, HTM1:0H)
+man(200339934:1O, 600000026:1W)
+mod(113423922:3C, 105725527:37)
+to(100398704:0M.@topic.@def, 100024720:1I.@def)
+agt(202025550:2T.@entry, 113423922:3C)
+aoj(302262542:1A, 100024720:1I.@def)
+mod(113572436:2A, 107935504:24)
+obj(202025550:2T.@entry, 100398704:0M.@topic.@def)
+man(300489108:0B, 400099341:06)
+obj(600000026:1W, 113572436:2A)
+man(300489108:0B, 400099341:06)
+obj(600000026:1W, 113572436:2A)
+agt(200339934:1O, 100398704:0M.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300489108:0B, 100398704:0M.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8495]
+{org:en}
+25 HTM1 Joule kg HTM2 is necessary to evaporate one kg of water at a temperature of HTM3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300343552:10.@entry, 113726074:0A.@topic)
+obj(600000025:0J, 115669290:0G)
+qua(115669290:1R, "1":1N)
+obj(200366858:1D, 107935504:1X)
+qua(HTM1:06, "25":05)
+obj(600000025:0J, 115669290:0G)
+qua(115669290:1R, "1":1N)
+obj(200366858:1D, 107935504:1X)
+qua(HTM1:06, "25":05)
+plc(200366858:1D, 105011790:28.@indef)
+qua(113726074:0A.@topic, HTM1:06)
+pur(300343552:10.@entry, 200366858:1D)
+mod(105011790:28.@indef, HTM3:2N)
+mod(105011790:28.@indef, HTM3:2N)
+qua(107935504:1X, 115669290:1R)
+aoj(600000025:0J, 113726074:0A.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8496]
+{org:en}
+The source of the heat is the internal energy of water molecules.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104633197:15.@entry.@def, 104263614:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(114682133:1L.@pl, 107935504:1F)
+mod(114682133:1L.@pl, 107935504:1F)
+mod(104633197:15.@entry.@def, 300948670:0W)
+mod(104633197:15.@entry.@def, 114682133:1L.@pl)
+mod(104263614:06.@topic.@def, 105725527:0K.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8497]
+{org:en}
+This explains surface cooling under water evaporation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200939277:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(113572436:17, 107935504:11)
+mod(113453160:0O, 104362025:0G)
+mod(113572436:17, 107935504:11)
+mod(113453160:0O, 104362025:0G)
+mod(113453160:0O, 600000009:0W)
+obj(200939277:07.@entry, 113453160:0O)
+obj(600000009:0W, 113572436:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8498]
+{org:en}
+Evaporation is possible at any temperature above HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301821266:0H.@entry, 113572436:02.@topic)
+mod(105011790:0X, 600000052:0T)
+mod(105011790:0X, 600000052:0T)
+aoj(600001335:19, 105011790:0X)
+scn(301821266:0H.@entry, 105011790:0X)
+obj(600001335:19, HTM1:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8499]
+{org:en}
+The higher the temperature, the smaller HTM1 the amount of heat needed to evaporate 1 kg of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(301391351:18.@entry.@def, 300705498:09.@def)
+man(300705498:09.@def, 400099341:2Q)
+pur(201189113:24, 200366858:2D)
+mod(100033615:1P.@def, 105725527:1Z)
+qua(115669290:2P, "1":2N)
+man(300705498:09.@def, 400099341:2Q)
+pur(201189113:24, 200366858:2D)
+mod(100033615:1P.@def, 105725527:1Z)
+qua(115669290:2P, "1":2N)
+man(301391351:18.@entry.@def, 400099341:30)
+qua(107935504:2V, 115669290:2P)
+aoj(301391351:18.@entry.@def, 100033615:1P.@def)
+obj(200366858:2D, 107935504:2V)
+obj(200366858:2D, 107935504:2V)
+obj(201189113:24, 105725527:1Z)
+aoj(300705498:09.@def, 105011790:0K.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8500]
+{org:en}
+The higher the temperature, the deeper the water layers involved in evaporation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(300149120:15.@entry.@def, 300705498:09.@def)
+scn(300158332:1S, 113572436:24)
+aoj(300158332:1S, 101463259:1L.@def.@pl)
+scn(300158332:1S, 113572436:24)
+aoj(300158332:1S, 101463259:1L.@def.@pl)
+man(300149120:15.@entry.@def, 400099341:2I)
+man(300705498:09.@def, 400099341:28)
+aoj(300149120:15.@entry.@def, 101463259:1L.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:09.@def, 105011790:0K.@def)
+aoj(300705498:09.@def, 105011790:0K.@def)
+mod(101463259:1L.@def.@pl, 107935504:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8501]
+{org:en}
+Water boiling corresponds to evaporation through the full thickness of the water mass.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774619:0G.@entry, 100247792:08.@topic)
+aoj(300106020:1J, 104936403:1O.@def)
+obj(600000045:17, 104936403:1O.@def)
+aoj(300106020:1J, 104936403:1O.@def)
+obj(600000045:17, 104936403:1O.@def)
+mod(113572436:0V, 600000045:17)
+mod(100247792:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
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+mod(101042242:2B.@def, 107935504:25)
+mod(104936403:1O.@def, 101042242:2B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8502]
+{org:en}
+At a normal atmospheric pressure, boiling starts at a temperature of HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201075164:17.@entry, 100113113:0P.@indef)
+aoj(302831736:0E, 100113113:0P.@indef)
+mod(105011790:1J.@indef, HTM1:1Y)
+aoj(302831736:0E, 100113113:0P.@indef)
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+aoj(301593649:07, 100113113:0P.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8503]
+{org:en}
+In mountains (at a reduced atmospheric pressure) this process starts HTM1 at a lower temperature.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201075164:1R.@entry, 109359803:05.@pl)
+mod(100029677:1J.@topic, 600000017:1E)
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+scn(109359803:05.@pl, :01:01.@parenthesis)
+man(303161746:28, 400099341:44)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8504]
+{org:en}
+Conversely at increased pressure, the boiling point is at higher temperatures.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(105011790:1V.@entry.@pl, 400078050:02)
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+man(300705498:1O, 400099341:2D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8505]
+{org:en}
+The water boiling-point is abnormally high in comparison with water analogues (sulfur, selenium, tellurium oxides).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300705498:14.@entry, 104629030:0C.@topic.@def)
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+cnt(104746430:1Y.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod(104629030:0C.@topic.@def, 107935504:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8506]
+{org:en}
+The boiling point for these compounds is reduced in proportion to their molecular mass.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200045817:17.@entry, 104629030:06.@topic.@def)
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+mod(103081859:0U.@pl, 600000017:0O.@pl)
+mod(101042242:2C, 301542252:22)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8507]
+{org:en}
+Extrapolation of linear dependence shows that water should have a boiling-point at about HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:11.@entry, 105781145:02.@topic)
+bas(400071165:2C, HTM1:2I)
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+obj(200065370:1P.@should.@past, 104629030:1W.@indef)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8508]
+{org:en}
+The high boiling point is associated with the water structure and the hydrogen connections in the water molecules.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200713167:0S.@entry, 104629030:0B.@topic.@def)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8509]
+{org:en}
+Boiling of water is only possible when these connections are broken at a high temperature.
+{/org}
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+obj(600000033:10, 200030463:1R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8510]
+{org:en}
+This water anomaly determines the unique high thermal capacity of the Earth's hydrosphere, the thermoregulating role of water bodies, and the heating function of marine and oceanic currents.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200699815:0L.@entry, 108622763:0D.@topic)
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+mod:02(102861886:3K.@pl, 107935504:3E)
+aoj:02(:01, 111443532:53.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8511]
+{org:en}
+In a physical sense, when water evaporates, the number of molecules flying out of water exceeds the number of molecules coming back.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202669081:2H.@entry, 105651971:0G.@indef)
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+mod(103835412:2T.@def, 114682133:33.@pl)
+obj(600000096:24, 107935504:2B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8512]
+{org:en}
+The process of their returning is called condensation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200107231:10.@entry, 100029677:06.@topic.@def)
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+obj(100029677:06.@topic.@def, 200879028:0N.@progress)
+gol(200107231:10.@entry, 106246700:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8513]
+{org:en}
+The condensation heat is equivalent to the evaporation heat (if other conditions are equal).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(300890351:0R.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
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+mod:01(105798863:20.@topic.@pl, 600000053:1U)
+mod(105725527:0J.@topic.@def, 106246700:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8514]
+{org:en}
+Water vapor pressure increases with the growth of evaporation rate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100113113:0D.@topic, 115055633:07)
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+mod(113325010:1R, 113572436:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8515]
+{org:en}
+The more heat is transmitted to a water mass, the higher the evaporation rate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(400099341:09.@def, 105725527:0I.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8516]
+{org:en}
+This regularity is related to the increase of kinetic energy of molecules when water heats up.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301563349:1C, 104633197:1K)
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+mod(104767347:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(104633197:1K, 114682133:1U.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8517]
+{org:en}
+The rise of water temperature causes increase of the evaporation rate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201645601:0W.@entry, 100324384:06.@topic.@def)
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+obj(100324384:06.@topic.@def, 105011790:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8518]
+{org:en}
+The evaporation rate depends on the velocity of vapor removal from the surface and hence the wind velocity.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8519]
+{org:en}
+The stronger the wind velocity, the higher the evaporation rate.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8520]
+{org:en}
+Increased evaporation velocities (with vapor removal from the evaporating surface) is associated with the decrease of condensation rate.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8521]
+{org:en}
+Evaporation and condensation play an important role in water supply for the whole planet, and in global and inland water cycles.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200013328:0V.@entry, :01)
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+mod(107341038:3F.@pl, 107935504:39)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8522]
+{org:en}
+These processes have special significance in the arid territories of the Earth, where there is water resources scarcity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105154676:2V.@pl, 107935504:2P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8523]
+{org:en}
+Elimination of this famine requires heavy investment in projects of water desalination and redistribution of water resources from regions with surplus to those with scarcity of water.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8524]
+{org:en}
+At the same time, there are more economical and ecologically safe methods of water supply in arid zones.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202603699:0Q.@entry, 400535235:02)
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+aoj(300806991:2N, 105611062:2S.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8525]
+{org:en}
+These are based on artificial increase of the condensation rate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8526]
+{org:en}
+Such methods were used by our ancestors in the dry subtropics, e.g. in the Crimea.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:8527]
+{org:en}
+Constructions of specially treated stone were created at some significant height.
+{/org}
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+obj(200078760:0T.@past, 104326084:11)
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+obj(100873381:02.@topic.@pl, 104326084:11)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8528]
+{org:en}
+At night saturated marine air cooled on the stones to a lower temperature and condensed onto an artificially enlarged stone surface.
+{/org}
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+plc(200369864:0W.@past, 104326084:1A.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8529]
+{org:en}
+The harvested water was sufficient for the supply of a small settlement.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(303163308:06, 107935504:0G.@topic.@def)
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+
+[S:8530]
+{org:en}
+Nowadays there are possibilities of building commercial plants for artificial increase of condensation rate.
+{/org}
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+man(202603699:0H.@entry, 115691838:02)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8531]
+{org:en}
+Chemical aspects of water
+{/org}
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+aoj(302692624:02, 104733118:0B.@entry.@pl)
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+[S:8532]
+{org:en}
+Water is chemically pure only in exclusive cases.
+{/org}
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+man(300361125:0M.@entry, 400129089:0B)
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+aoj(301862386:0Z, 102974697:19.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8533]
+{org:en}
+Naturally it always contains greater or smaller amount of dissolved and suspended matter.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8534]
+{org:en}
+Mineralization is the amount of dissolved mineral substances in water.
+{/org}
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+mod(100019613:1G.@pl, 114662574:18)
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+aoj(301506258:0Y, 114662574:18)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8535]
+{org:en}
+In fresh waters, it is measured in HTM1 or HTM2.
+{/org}
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+plc(200647094:0P.@entry, 107935504:0B.@pl)
+or:01(HTM2:19.@entry, HTM1:11)
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+aoj(300205295:05, 107935504:0B.@pl)
+{/unl}
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+[S:8536]
+{org:en}
+For other types of waters, concentration of dissolved matter is measured in practical salinity units (PSU).
+{/org}
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+mod(104504486:0C.@pl, 600000031:06)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8537]
+{org:en}
+The range of chemical compounds in water is very diverse, as there is variation in the content of the principal ions, dissolved gases, biogenic and organic substances, and microelements.
+{/org}
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+man(302067491:1F.@entry, 600000039:1O)
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+mod(105809192:2H.@def, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8538]
+{org:en}
+In general water components have natural or anthropogenic origins.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(103081021:0J.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0D)
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+or:01(303161088:1A.@entry, 301335708:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8539]
+{org:en}
+Each kind of water body has characteristic properties
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105839024:07.@topic, 600000848:02)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8540]
+{org:en}
+salinity, alkalinity, hardness, acidity, corrosive properties, etc.
+{/org}
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+and(105039709:0C, 115668809:02)
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+and(104012260:1H.@pl, 105039526:0Y)
+and(104710588:0O, 105039709:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8541]
+{org:en}
+These determine life conditions of aquatic ecosystems, and the scope for water resource use for people and economic development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:02(105798863:0N.@pl, 100006269:0I)
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+obj:02(105798863:0N.@pl, 108368757:19.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8542]
+{org:en}
+Natural and anthropogenic factors have an influence on water quality, which depends on both mineralization, dissolved and suspended matter.
+{/org}
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+mod:03(115689274:2M, 600000323:2H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8543]
+{org:en}
+At constant mineralization and chemical composition, water quality can be reduced by anthropogenic or natural diminution of water content, or increase of suspended sediments (turbidity).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(200045817:24.@entry.@ability, :01:01)
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+or:02(301335708:2W.@entry, 303161088:2F)
+{/unl}
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+[S:8544]
+{org:en}
+Fresh waters are subdivided into four groups according to their mineralization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000111:1B, 115689274:1U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8545]
+{org:en}
+Mineralization of rivers is considered to be small, medium, high and very high, if the substances' concentration in water is respectively less than 0.2, 0.2 to 0.5, 0.5 to 1.0 and > 1.0 HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+bas(400099868:3W, HTM1:5F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8546]
+{org:en}
+Most rivers have small and medium water mineralization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0E.@entry, 109411430:07.@topic.@pl)
+qua(109411430:07.@topic.@pl, 600000067:02)
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+and:01(300617752:0T.@entry, 301391351:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8547]
+{org:en}
+Spatial variability is most evident in small rivers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161365:0U.@entry, 104735233:0A.@topic)
+aoj(301391351:15, 109411430:1B.@pl)
+aoj(301391351:15, 109411430:1B.@pl)
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+aoj(302841066:02, 104735233:0A.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8548]
+{org:en}
+The difference between maximum and minimum mineralization for rivers with drainage area from 1 to 100 HTM1 reaches 100 to 1000% in comparison with the zone water mineralization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200743344:31.@entry, 104748836:06.@topic.@def)
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+obj(600000024:0H, 115689274:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8549]
+{org:en}
+Mineralization of medium size and large rivers is of the same order.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000267:1S.@entry, 115689274:02.@topic)
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+mod:01(105095691:0R.@pl, 300617752:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8550]
+{org:en}
+Water mineralization varies along the large rivers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303160998:0N.@entry, 115689274:08.@topic)
+aoj(300527870:14, 109411430:1A.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300527870:14, 109411430:1A.@def.@pl)
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+man(303160998:0N.@entry, 600000105:0U)
+obj(115689274:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8551]
+{org:en}
+It is connected with the heterogeneity of factors of chemical weathering in various parts of catchment areas, and dilution of more mineralized rivers by tributaries with less mineralization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201069190:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
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+qua:01(115689274:5E, 400099868:59)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8552]
+{org:en}
+The mineral substances, dissolved in water, are divided into macro- and micro-components.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200642098:1E.@entry, 100019613:0E.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+plc(301506258:0Q, 107935504:13)
+aoj(301506258:0Q, 100019613:0E.@topic.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8553]
+{org:en}
+Macrocomponents (the main ions) include calcium, sodium, magnesium, and potassium cations and HTM1 , HTM2 , HTM3 , HTM4 anions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0Y.@entry, 115691101:02.@topic.@pl)
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+mod:03(109238294:2C.@pl, 114650807:22)
+and:04(:03.@entry, 114644249:1N.@pl)
+mod:01(109315159:0S.@entry.@pl, 301512527:0N)
+and:02(HTM2:2Y, HTM1:2R)
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+and:02(HTM3:35, HTM2:2Y)
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+mod:03(109197815:3L.@entry.@pl, :02.@entry)
+and:04(114644249:1N.@pl, 114655371:1F.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8554]
+{org:en}
+The macrocomponents comprise around 90 to 95% of all substances in fresh water and up to 99% of saline waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774449:0M.@entry, 115691101:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+qua:03(:02, 600000129:0V)
+bas:03(600000350:2C, "99%":2K)
+qua:03("%":1A, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8555]
+{org:en}
+In natural conditions the main concentration of ions in water is determined by dissolution and leaching of mountain and sedimentary rocks, and disintegration and oxidation of plant and animal substances.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(200699815:1V.@entry, 105798863:0D.@pl)
+and:02(100348008:3X.@entry.@pl, 109359803:38.@pl)
+and:05(:03.@entry, :02)
+mod(105798863:0D.@pl, 301335708:05)
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+and:05(:03.@entry, :02)
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+mod(100375071:0X.@topic, 301512527:0S)
+mod:05(100019613:5S.@pl, :04)
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+mod(100375071:0X.@topic, 109315159:1E.@pl)
+and:03(113530408:4U.@entry, 114561461:4B)
+obj(200699815:1V.@entry, 100375071:0X.@topic)
+aoj:02(302952109:3L, 100348008:3X.@entry.@pl)
+obj:05(:03.@entry, 100019613:5S.@pl)
+aoj:02(302952109:3L, 100348008:3X.@entry.@pl)
+obj:05(:03.@entry, 100019613:5S.@pl)
+and:01(115669517:2S.@entry, 100215314:2C)
+plc(109315159:1E.@pl, 107935504:1M)
+and:04(100015388:5L.@entry, 100017222:5B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8556]
+{org:en}
+Changes of water mineralization and especially anion concentration also depend, however, on the kind and the intensity of human impact.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:1Z.@entry, 100191142:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(400535221:0Z, 100375071:1G)
+and:01(105036394:33.@entry.@def, 105839024:2Q.@def)
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+obj(202663848:1Z.@entry, :01:01.@entry)
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+mod(100375071:1G, 109197815:1A)
+mod(107338552:3Q, 301258617:3K)
+mod(:01.@entry, 107338552:3Q)
+mod(115689274:0J, 107935504:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8557]
+{org:en}
+The content of cations in water is determined by their migration ability (rate of dissolution) and biological significance (degree of absorption by living organisms).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:11.@entry, 105809192:06.@topic.@def)
+mod:03(105200169:1V, 101123095:1L)
+obj:02(105094565:3L.@entry, 113423922:3V)
+cnt:03(105169813:37.@entry, :02.@parenthesis)
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+cnt:03(105169813:37.@entry, :02.@parenthesis)
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+mod:02(100004475:4G.@pl, 300005839:49)
+agt(200699815:11.@entry, :03)
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+ins:02(113423922:3V, 100004475:4G.@pl)
+aoj:03(301405904:2W, 105169813:37.@entry)
+mod:03(105200169:1V, 600000020:1F.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8558]
+{org:en}
+Natural water bodies are divided into the following types
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200642098:0R.@entry, 102861886:0G.@topic.@pl)
+mod(102861886:0G.@topic.@pl, 301335708:02)
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+gol(200642098:0R.@entry, 104504486:1I.@def.@pl)
+mod(102861886:0G.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8559]
+{org:en}
+fresh, brackish, or saline.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+or(301074458:0M.@entry, 301074062:09)
+or(301074062:09, 300205295:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8560]
+{org:en}
+Certain combinations of anions and cations in water distinguishes hydrochemical water types, e.g. hydrocarbonate-calcium or chloride-sodium.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200650353:1I.@entry, 115699356:2N)
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+obj(115699356:2N, 114655371:3R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8561]
+{org:en}
+Passing from humid to arid zones the hydrocarbonate-calcium water is replaced by the chloride-sodium one.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200162688:1Z.@entry, 202049696:02.@progress)
+aoj(300806991:0O, 105611062:0T.@pl)
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+aoj(302549393:0F, :0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8562]
+{org:en}
+Microcomponents are the chemical elements whose concentrations are essentially less than HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105868954:0Z.@entry.@def.@pl, 115691831:02.@topic.@pl)
+man(400099868:29, 400535347:1X)
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+mod(100375071:1E.@pl, 105868954:0Z.@entry.@def.@pl)
+bas(400099868:29, HTM1:2J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8563]
+{org:en}
+Microcomponents are composed of cations such as ions of lithium, rubidium, cesium etc., and anions such as bromine, iodine, fluorine, boron, and ions of heavy metals (e.g. copper, zinc, nickel, silver, lead), and radioactive and some other elements.
+{/org}
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+Oxygen concentration in summer is largely controlled by photosynthesis.
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+In the meromixis, the oxygen deficit is explained by its absorption by living organisms and organic oxidation.
+{/org}
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+Sometimes the remaining organic oxidation leads to the anaerobic conditions and to the formation of carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide in water.
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+{org:en}
+Nutrients in water are of great value for water ecosystems.
+{/org}
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+pur(600000451:0Y.@entry, 108368757:1E.@pl)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8572]
+{org:en}
+There are chemical elements tightly connected with aquatic communities, and supply of these nutrients are often limiting factors for plant growth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
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+The main nutrients are silicon, nitrogen, phosphorus and iron.
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+
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+Nitrogen and phosphorus concentration are usually of key importance.
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+
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+Nitrogen in water occurs in the form of ammonium, nitrate and nitrite ions and organic compounds (suspensions, colloids, and molecules).
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+
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+Transformation of nitrogen causes liberation of ammonia, but this is oxidized to nitrites and nitrates by bacteria.
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+The nitrites and nitrates are then assimilated by animals and plants.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
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+With an oxygen deficit, the process proceeds in the opposite direction.
+{/org}
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+
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+Phosphorus in water is presented in both inorganic and organic compounds.
+{/org}
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+Its concentration is determined by the direction and intensity of interchange between living organisms and inorganic forms of phosphorus.
+{/org}
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+Economic activity greatly effects phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations in surface and underground waters, and it can affect iron content.
+{/org}
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+
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+In well vegetated wetlands, however, the strong acids present (e.g. carbonic acid), react with iron to form humic compounds.
+{/org}
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+The natural colloidal iron content in such water can be quite high.
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+
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+Analysis of natural waters involves not only dissolved minerals, but also organic compounds HTM1 primarily compounds of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen.
+{/org}
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+Their existence in water is laregely determined by the vital functions of living organisms, i.e. their metabolism.
+{/org}
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+obj(115689159:2M, 113514314:2X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8586]
+{org:en}
+According to their origin organic compounds are divided into autochthonous (formed in the water body) and allochthonous (coming from an inflowing river or the catchment area).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200642098:1L.@entry, 600000046:05)
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+src:03(200341917:3W.@entry.@progress, :02:02)
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+src:03(200341917:3W.@entry.@progress, :02:02)
+and:04(300180496:3H.@entry, 300180359:21)
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+cnt:04(300180359:21, :01.@parenthesis)
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+obj(600000046:05, 104923743:0O)
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+obj(200642098:1L.@entry, 103081859:17.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:0Z, 103081859:17.@topic.@pl)
+or:02(115689952:4Y.@entry.@def, 109411430:4L.@indef.@def)
+aoj(301093142:0Z, 103081859:17.@topic.@pl)
+or:02(115689952:4Y.@entry.@def, 109411430:4L.@indef.@def)
+cnt:04(300180496:3H.@entry, :03.@parenthesis)
+plc:01(200144850:2G.@entry.@past, 102861886:30.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8587]
+{org:en}
+Dissolved organic compounds increase the mobility of some heavy metals, as well as influencing dissolved oxygen content and water flavor.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200153263:0U.@entry, 103081859:0K.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(105809192:36, 114648100:2Z)
+obj(600000015:22, 202536557:2D.@progress)
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+aoj(301506258:2P, 105844282:3O)
+man(200153263:0U.@entry, 600000015:22)
+aoj(301506258:02, 103081859:0K.@topic.@pl)
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+aoj(301506258:02, 103081859:0K.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202536557:2D.@progress, 105844282:3O)
+qua(107065149:1O.@pl, 600000034:1J)
+and:01(107935504:3I.@entry, 105809192:36)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8588]
+{org:en}
+An important factor in aquatic ecosystems is the hydrogen ion concentration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100375071:1S.@entry.@def, 105858317:0F.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(300124077:0P, 108368757:0X.@pl)
+plc(105858317:0F.@topic.@indef, 108368757:0X.@pl)
+aoj(300124077:0P, 108368757:0X.@pl)
+plc(105858317:0F.@topic.@indef, 108368757:0X.@pl)
+mod(109315159:1O, 114640434:1F)
+mod(100375071:1S.@entry.@def, 109315159:1O)
+aoj(301275562:05, 105858317:0F.@topic.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8589]
+{org:en}
+They appear as a consequence of dissociation of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions ( HTM1 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200422090:07.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+mod(109315159:20.@pl, :01)
+obj(100384802:0Y, 109315159:20.@pl)
+mod(109315159:20.@pl, :01)
+obj(100384802:0Y, 109315159:20.@pl)
+obj(600000321:0E, 100384802:0Y)
+man(200422090:07.@entry, 600000321:0E)
+and:01(114914775:1R.@entry, 114640434:1E)
+and:01(114914775:1R.@entry, 114640434:1E)
+cnt(109315159:20.@pl, HTM1:27.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8590]
+{org:en}
+As the hydrogen ion concentration is small in water, it is convenient to use its logarithm with a reversed sign ( HTM1 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300604617:1P.@entry, 600000039:02)
+plc(301391351:13, 107935504:1C)
+obj(600000019:2L, 106646243:31.@indef)
+aoj(600000019:2L, 106812631:2B)
+obj(600000039:02, 301391351:13)
+plc(301391351:13, 107935504:1C)
+obj(600000019:2L, 106646243:31.@indef)
+aoj(600000019:2L, 106812631:2B)
+obj(600000039:02, 301391351:13)
+obj(201158572:23, 106812631:2B)
+mod(109315159:0I, 114640434:09)
+aoj(302467982:2S, 106646243:31.@indef)
+aoj(300604617:1P.@entry, 201158572:23)
+mod(100375071:0M.@topic.@def, 109315159:0I)
+cnt(106646243:31.@indef, HTM1:38.@parenthesis)
+mod(100375071:0M.@topic.@def, 109315159:0I)
+cnt(106646243:31.@indef, HTM1:38.@parenthesis)
+mod(106812631:2B, 600000016:27)
+aoj(301391351:13, 100375071:0M.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8591]
+{org:en}
+pH is a measure of degree of disturbance in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100174412:3O.@entry.@indef, 105039106:3G.@topic)
+plc(100333829:49, 107935504:4O)
+plc(100333829:49, 107935504:4O)
+mod(105094565:3Z, 100333829:49)
+mod(100174412:3O.@entry.@indef, 105094565:3Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8592]
+{org:en}
+In the equilibrium state, the product of concentration of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions (at a temperature of HTM1 ) amounts to HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(202775281:3E.@entry, 100024720:0L.@def)
+scn(109315159:2H.@pl, :02:02.@parenthesis)
+mod(103748886:0W.@topic.@def, 100375071:17)
+mod:02(105011790:2S.@entry.@indef, HTM1:37)
+scn(109315159:2H.@pl, :02:02.@parenthesis)
+mod(103748886:0W.@topic.@def, 100375071:17)
+mod:02(105011790:2S.@entry.@indef, HTM1:37)
+gol(202775281:3E.@entry, HTM2:3P)
+and:01(114914775:24.@entry, 114640434:1R)
+obj(202775281:3E.@entry, 103748886:0W.@topic.@def)
+mod(109315159:2H.@pl, :01.@entry)
+mod(109315159:2H.@pl, :01.@entry)
+mod(100375071:17, 109315159:2H.@pl)
+mod(100024720:0L.@def, 105659365:09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8593]
+{org:en}
+Their concentrations in water are equal.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300889831:10.@entry, 100375071:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100375071:08.@topic.@pl, 600000020:02.@pl)
+plc(100375071:08.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8594]
+{org:en}
+For such conditions pH = 7, and the medium reaction is neutral.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(300359160:1L.@entry, 105798863:0B.@pl)
+mod(100202816:19.@def.@topic, 300617752:12)
+mod(100202816:19.@def.@topic, 300617752:12)
+cnt(105798863:0B.@pl, 115694200:0M)
+aoj(300359160:1L.@entry, 100202816:19.@def.@topic)
+mod(105798863:0B.@pl, 600001411:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8595]
+{org:en}
+At pH > 7, the equilibrium is broken due to the increase of hydroxyl concentration, and the water becomes alkaline.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200149583:2S.@entry, 200030463:0W)
+rsn(200030463:0W, 600000001:13)
+scn(200030463:0W, "pH > 7":05)
+mod(100375071:1Z, 114914775:1Q)
+rsn(200030463:0W, 600000001:13)
+scn(200030463:0W, "pH > 7":05)
+mod(100375071:1Z, 114914775:1Q)
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+obj(600000001:13, 100363260:1E.@def)
+obj(600000001:13, 100363260:1E.@def)
+obj(200030463:0W, 105659365:0H.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8596]
+{org:en}
+Otherwise water is characterized by an acid reaction.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202697950:0L.@entry, 600000301:02)
+mod(100202816:1A.@indef, 114607521:15)
+mod(100202816:1A.@indef, 114607521:15)
+aoj(202697950:0L.@entry, 100202816:1A.@indef)
+obj(202697950:0L.@entry, 107935504:0C.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8597]
+{org:en}
+Acidity and alkalinity are of key importance for water quality and living conditions of ecosystems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000150:10.@entry, :01)
+obj:02(105798863:24.@entry.@pl, 108368757:2I.@pl)
+mod(105168261:11, 303161027:0W)
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+obj:02(105798863:24.@entry.@pl, 108368757:2I.@pl)
+mod(105168261:11, 303161027:0W)
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+obj(600000150:10.@entry, 105168261:11)
+mod:02(104723816:1L.@pl, 107935504:1F)
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+mod:02(105798863:24.@entry.@pl, 300005839:1X)
+mod:02(105798863:24.@entry.@pl, 300005839:1X)
+and:02(105798863:24.@entry.@pl, 104723816:1L.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8598]
+{org:en}
+In general, volcanic, mine, marsh and underground waters are acid, with pH of HTM1 , HTM2 , HTM3 and HTM4 respectively.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300025470:1R.@entry, 107935504:1G.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(109347779:0U, 103768132:0O)
+and:02(HTM4:2V.@entry, HTM3:2M)
+obj(600000018:1X, 105039106:22)
+mod(107935504:1G.@topic.@pl, :01)
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+and:02(HTM4:2V.@entry, HTM3:2M)
+obj(600000018:1X, 105039106:22)
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+man(300025470:1R.@entry, 400137915:30)
+and:01(301355746:0E, 600000266:02)
+and:02(HTM2:2F, HTM1:28)
+man(300025470:1R.@entry, 600000018:1X)
+and:01(103768132:0O, 301355746:0E)
+and:02(HTM3:2M, HTM2:2F)
+and:01(103768132:0O, 301355746:0E)
+and:02(HTM3:2M, HTM2:2F)
+mod(105039106:22, :02)
+and:01(303160997:14.@entry, 109347779:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8599]
+{org:en}
+An alkaline reaction is typical for rivers, lakes, seas and oceanic waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301595440:0Q.@entry, 100202816:0E.@topic.@indef)
+and:01(109328904:1A.@pl, 109411430:12.@pl)
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+and:01(109328904:1A.@pl, 109411430:12.@pl)
+aoj:01(301381196:1Q, 107935504:1Y.@entry.@pl)
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+aoj(300025728:05, 100202816:0E.@topic.@indef)
+and:01(109426788:1H.@pl, 109328904:1A.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8600]
+{org:en}
+For rivers and fresh lakes pH is in the range 6.2 to 9.2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(600000287:16.@entry, :01:01.@entry)
+aoj:01(300205295:0K, 109328904:0Q.@entry.@pl)
+fmt:02("9.2":1Q.@entry, "6.2":1J)
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+and:01(109328904:0Q.@entry.@pl, 109411430:09.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8601]
+{org:en}
+For saline lakes, seas and oceans the pH is in the range of 7.8 to10.5.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(600000287:1H.@entry, :01:01)
+and:01(109426788:0K.@pl, 109328904:0D.@pl)
+fmt:02("10.5":1W.@entry, "7.8":1Q)
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+aoj:01(301074458:06, 109328904:0D.@pl)
+and:01(109376198:0T.@entry.@pl, 109426788:0K.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8602]
+{org:en}
+Suspended sediment
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302351692:02, 109428967:0C.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8603]
+{org:en}
+Falling rain and melting snow erode the catchment area of water bodies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200274724:0W.@entry, :01.@topic)
+and:01(111508382:0R.@entry, 105045208:0A)
+mod(102861886:1U.@pl, 107935504:1O)
+and:01(111508382:0R.@entry, 105045208:0A)
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+obj:01(200147815:02.@progress, 105045208:0A)
+obj:01(200223928:0J.@progress, 111508382:0R.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8604]
+{org:en}
+As a result, a great amount of mineral particles are involved in movement along the slopes, in both temporary and permanent streams.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200401538:1J.@entry, 600000159:02)
+aoj(301278818:0H, 100033615:0N.@topic.@indef)
+plc(109437454:2E.@def.@pl, 107406765:3I.@pl)
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+and:01(301754421:38.@entry, 303161677:2U)
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+mod(106326406:15.@pl, 114662574:0X)
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+aoj(:01, 107406765:3I.@pl)
+obj(600000135:24, 109437454:2E.@def.@pl)
+obj(100033615:0N.@topic.@indef, 106326406:15.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8605]
+{org:en}
+They are deposited in accumulation zones or reach the receiving basins as river sediment load.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+or(200743344:1A.@entry, 202310855:0B)
+mod(105611062:11.@pl, 100372013:0O)
+obj(600000008:21, 103679986:2J)
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+agt(200117346:1K.@progress, 102801525:1U.@def.@pl)
+plc(202310855:0B, 105611062:11.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8606]
+{org:en}
+Only a very small part of the mineral particles eroded from the catchment area reaches the sea, lakes or reservoirs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200743344:29.@entry, 400535197:02)
+src(200274724:1E.@past, 115689952:1U.@def)
+mod(103892891:0K.@topic.@indef, 106326406:14.@def.@pl)
+or:01(104078574:2Z.@entry.@pl, 109328904:2Q.@pl)
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+or:01(104078574:2Z.@entry.@pl, 109328904:2Q.@pl)
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+aoj(301391351:0E, 103892891:0K.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(301391351:0E, 103892891:0K.@topic.@indef)
+or:01(109328904:2Q.@pl, 109426788:2L.@def.@pl)
+mod(106326406:14.@def.@pl, 114662574:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8607]
+{org:en}
+The greater the catchment area, the less the percentage of this sediment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(400099868:19.@entry.@def, 301278818:09.@def)
+aoj(301278818:09.@def, 115689952:0L.@def)
+aoj(301278818:09.@def, 115689952:0L.@def)
+mod(113817526:1I.@def, 109428967:1X)
+aoj(400099868:19.@entry.@def, 113817526:1I.@def)
+man(301278818:09.@def, 400099341:21)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8608]
+{org:en}
+Sediment transport occurs as suspended and tractional loads.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200723349:0L.@entry, 113570236:0B.@topic)
+obj(113570236:0B.@topic, 109428967:02)
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+aoj(:01, 103679986:1K.@pl)
+obj(600000008:0S, 103679986:1K.@pl)
+man(200723349:0L.@entry, 600000008:0S)
+and:01(303162364:19.@entry, 302351692:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8609]
+{org:en}
+Suspended sediment in streamflow causes water turbidity and is measured as HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200647094:1T.@entry, 201645601:0Z)
+obj(201645601:0Z, 104703932:1C)
+obj(600000023:22, HTM1:25)
+aoj(302351692:02, 109428967:0C.@topic)
+obj(201645601:0Z, 104703932:1C)
+obj(600000023:22, HTM1:25)
+aoj(302351692:02, 109428967:0C.@topic)
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+plc(109428967:0C.@topic, 115691606:0O)
+obj(200647094:1T.@entry, 109428967:0C.@topic)
+mod(104703932:1C, 107935504:16)
+mod(104703932:1C, 107935504:16)
+aoj(201645601:0Z, 109428967:0C.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8610]
+{org:en}
+This is dependent on many factors, in particular on the intensity of the erosion processes in different climatic zones.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300556174:0A.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(105036394:1M.@def, 100029677:2B.@def.@pl)
+aoj(600000185:11, 105858317:0S.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:2O, 105611062:37.@pl)
+mod(105036394:1M.@def, 100029677:2B.@def.@pl)
+aoj(600000185:11, 105858317:0S.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:2O, 105611062:37.@pl)
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+mod(100029677:2B.@def.@pl, 113475538:23)
+obj(300556174:0A.@entry, 105858317:0S.@pl)
+plc(100029677:2B.@def.@pl, 105611062:37.@pl)
+plc(100029677:2B.@def.@pl, 105611062:37.@pl)
+obj(600000185:11, 105036394:1M.@def)
+mod(105611062:37.@pl, 303055374:2Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8611]
+{org:en}
+The main reasons for high loads of suspended sediments in rivers are the following
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(108223263:23.@entry.@def, 105651680:0B.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302351692:11, 109428967:1B.@pl)
+scn(109428967:1B.@pl, 109411430:1O.@pl)
+aoj(302351692:11, 109428967:1B.@pl)
+scn(109428967:1B.@pl, 109411430:1O.@pl)
+mod(105651680:0B.@topic.@pl, 301512527:06)
+obj(105651680:0B.@topic.@pl, 109428967:1B.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:0N, 103679986:0S.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:0N, 103679986:0S.@pl)
+qua(109428967:1B.@pl, 103679986:0S.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8612]
+{org:en}
+;;frequency and intensity of storm rainfall, erodability of the rocks in the catchment area, lack of woody and grassy vegetation, large gradients, and the length of the slope in the catchment.frequency and intensity of storm rainfall, erodibility of the rocks in the catchment area, lack of woody and grassy vegetation, large gradients, and the length of the slope in the catchment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(103656231:5D.@entry.@def, 105068461:4N.@pl)
+mod(115692710:1Q, 100348008:29.@def.@pl)
+and(114449405:39, 115692710:1Q)
+and(105068461:4N.@pl, 114449405:39)
+and:01(105036394:0M.@entry, 113598237:08)
+and:03(300209620:3R.@entry, 301152189:3H)
+mod(115692710:1Q, 100348008:29.@def.@pl)
+and(114449405:39, 115692710:1Q)
+and(105068461:4N.@pl, 114449405:39)
+and:01(105036394:0M.@entry, 113598237:08)
+and:03(300209620:3R.@entry, 301152189:3H)
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+mod:02(:01.@entry, 115689316:19)
+aoj(:03, 101065057:3Y)
+mod(103656231:5D.@entry.@def, 109437454:5R.@def)
+plc(100348008:29.@def.@pl, 115689952:2M.@def)
+obj(114449405:39, 101065057:3Y)
+plc(100348008:29.@def.@pl, 115689952:2M.@def)
+obj(114449405:39, 101065057:3Y)
+aoj(300527870:4H, 105068461:4N.@pl)
+mod:02(115689316:19, 100974630:13)
+and(115692710:1Q, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8613]
+{org:en}
+Sediment load is reflected in water turbidity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200821580:0J.@entry, 103679986:0B.@topic)
+mod(103679986:0B.@topic, 109428967:02)
+mod(103679986:0B.@topic, 109428967:02)
+mod(104703932:12, 107935504:0W)
+scn(200821580:0J.@entry, 104703932:12)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8614]
+{org:en}
+Minimum average long-term turbidity has been characterized for arctic rivers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202697950:1B.@entry.@complete, 104703932:0S.@topic)
+mod(105856979:0A, 303161105:02)
+mod(104703932:0S.@topic, 105856979:0A)
+mod(105856979:0A, 303161105:02)
+mod(104703932:0S.@topic, 105856979:0A)
+aoj(301252151:1T, 109411430:20.@pl)
+pur(202697950:1B.@entry.@complete, 109411430:20.@pl)
+mod(104703932:0S.@topic, 303161456:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8615]
+{org:en}
+It fluctuates within HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200270699:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+obj(600000042:0G, HTM1:0N)
+man(200270699:05.@entry, 600000042:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8616]
+{org:en}
+In temperate climates turbidity does not usually exceed HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202669081:1F.@entry, HTM1:1M)
+scn(202669081:1F.@entry, 114519366:0F.@pl)
+scn(202669081:1F.@entry, 114519366:0F.@pl)
+man(202669081:1F.@entry, 400535718:17.@not)
+aoj(202669081:1F.@entry, 104703932:0O)
+mod(114519366:0F.@pl, 302401590:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8617]
+{org:en}
+It reaches its highest values in developed parts of the steppe zone (turbidity can be more than HTM1 ), and in zones of monsoon climate and loess soils, with a high content of fine particles (up to HTM2 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200743344:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+cnt:04(105611062:1T.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod:04(109335240:44.@pl, :02)
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+aoj:04(300705498:4I, 105809192:4N.@indef)
+gol(200743344:05.@entry, 104979425:0P.@pl)
+man:01(HTM1:2Q.@entry.@ability.@ability, 400099341:2G)
+obj:04(600000019:4B, 105809192:4N.@indef)
+mod:04(105611062:35.@entry.@pl, 109335240:44.@pl)
+cnt:04(105611062:1T.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod:04(109335240:44.@pl, :02)
+aoj(300705498:0H, 104979425:0P.@pl)
+aoj:04(300705498:4I, 105809192:4N.@indef)
+gol(200743344:05.@entry, 104979425:0P.@pl)
+man:01(HTM1:2Q.@entry.@ability.@ability, 400099341:2G)
+obj:04(600000019:4B, 105809192:4N.@indef)
+mod:04(105611062:35.@entry.@pl, 109335240:44.@pl)
+mod:04(103892891:19.@pl, 300741867:0Z)
+plc(200743344:05.@entry, :04:04)
+aoj:01(HTM1:2Q.@entry.@ability.@ability, 104703932:1Z.@topic)
+mod:02(114519366:3M, 111484570:3E)
+and:04(105611062:35.@entry.@pl, 103892891:19.@pl)
+mod:04(103892891:19.@pl, 105611062:1T.@def)
+man(200743344:05.@entry, :03.@parenthesis)
+mod:04(105611062:1T.@def, 109445289:1M)
+and:02(114942631:3Y.@entry, 114519366:3M)
+man(300705498:0H, 400536271:5S)
+mod:04(105611062:1T.@def, 109445289:1M)
+and:02(114942631:3Y.@entry, 114519366:3M)
+man(300705498:0H, 400536271:5S)
+aoj:04(300850183:4Y, 106326406:53.@pl)
+mod(104979425:0P.@pl, 600000016:0D)
+obj:03(600000047:5E.@entry, HTM2:5K)
+mod:04(105809192:4N.@indef, 106326406:53.@pl)
+aoj:04(600000019:4B, 109335240:44.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8618]
+{org:en}
+Natural factors determine the background level of suspended sediments collected from a catchment area.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200699815:0I.@entry, 105858317:0A.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302351692:1G, 109428967:1Q.@pl)
+mod(105093890:17.@def, 102769075:0W)
+aoj(302351692:1G, 109428967:1Q.@pl)
+mod(105093890:17.@def, 102769075:0W)
+obj(105093890:17.@def, 109428967:1Q.@pl)
+mod(105858317:0A.@topic.@pl, 301335708:02)
+obj(200699815:0I.@entry, 105093890:17.@def)
+src(201384439:20, 115689952:2H.@indef)
+src(201384439:20, 115689952:2H.@indef)
+obj(201384439:20, 109428967:1Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8619]
+{org:en}
+Their transportation in water bodies depends on the stream carrying capacity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:13.@entry, 100315986:08.@topic)
+obj(100315986:08.@topic, 600000020:02.@pl)
+obj(200235110:1P.@progress, 107406765:1I.@def)
+obj(100315986:08.@topic, 600000020:02.@pl)
+obj(200235110:1P.@progress, 107406765:1I.@def)
+agt(200235110:1P.@progress, 100720951:1Y)
+obj(202663848:13.@entry, 100720951:1Y)
+mod(102861886:0W.@pl, 107935504:0Q)
+mod(102861886:0W.@pl, 107935504:0Q)
+plc(100315986:08.@topic, 102861886:0W.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8620]
+{org:en}
+It is a function of flow velocity HTM1 and river depth HTM2 , according to the relation HTM3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100720565:0A.@entry.@indef, 600000016:02.@topic)
+cnt:01(105094725:1F, HTM2:1L)
+and:01(105094725:1F, 115689301:0R)
+obj(600000111:1S, 100031921:29.@def)
+cnt:01(105094725:1F, HTM2:1L)
+and:01(105094725:1F, 115689301:0R)
+obj(600000111:1S, 100031921:29.@def)
+aoj(600000111:1S, :01)
+cnt:01(115689301:0R, HTM1:10)
+mod(100720565:0A.@entry.@indef, :01)
+mod:01(115689301:0R, 100329227:0M)
+mod:01(115689301:0R, 100329227:0M)
+mod:01(105094725:1F, 109411430:19)
+cnt(100031921:29.@def, HTM3:2I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8621]
+{org:en}
+The higher the Froude number, Fr, the greater the probability of transit of suspended sediments along the river.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(301278818:1A.@entry.@def, 300705498:09.@def)
+equ(500323824:0Y.@def, 500323825:0K)
+aoj(600000135:2W, 109428967:2M.@pl)
+obj(104756172:1M.@def, 115394674:21)
+aoj(300705498:09.@def, 500323824:0Y.@def)
+equ(500323824:0Y.@def, 500323825:0K)
+aoj(600000135:2W, 109428967:2M.@pl)
+obj(104756172:1M.@def, 115394674:21)
+aoj(300705498:09.@def, 500323824:0Y.@def)
+man(301278818:1A.@entry.@def, 400099341:3E)
+obj(600000135:2W, 109411430:36.@def)
+aoj(301278818:1A.@entry.@def, 104756172:1M.@def)
+aoj(302351692:2C, 109428967:2M.@pl)
+aoj(302351692:2C, 109428967:2M.@pl)
+obj(115394674:21, 109428967:2M.@pl)
+man(300705498:09.@def, 400099341:34)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8622]
+{org:en}
+At some values of Froude number, rivers are not capable of carrying all sediments.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(300308015:1E.@entry.@not, 104979425:0A.@pl)
+qua(500323825:0K, 104979425:0A.@pl)
+obj(200235110:1P.@progress, 109428967:22.@pl)
+qua(500323825:0K, 104979425:0A.@pl)
+obj(200235110:1P.@progress, 109428967:22.@pl)
+obj(300308015:1E.@entry.@not, 200235110:1P.@progress)
+aoj(300308015:1E.@entry.@not, 109411430:0Z.@topic.@pl)
+qua(104979425:0A.@pl, 600000034:05)
+qua(104979425:0A.@pl, 600000034:05)
+qua(109428967:22.@pl, 600000011:1Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8623]
+{org:en}
+A part of these sediments is deposited in riverbeds and on floodplains.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202310855:0V.@entry, 103892891:04.@topic.@indef)
+mod(103892891:04.@topic.@indef, 109428967:0I.@pl)
+mod(103892891:04.@topic.@indef, 109428967:0I.@pl)
+and:01(109281914:1P.@entry.@pl, 109415671:18.@pl)
+gol(202310855:0V.@entry, :01)
+mod(109428967:0I.@pl, 600000017:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8624]
+{org:en}
+Conversely, if the stream can carry more suspended sediments than it contains, erosion of the bottom and the riverbanks takes place.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774213:3K.@entry, 400078050:02)
+aoj(202701210:1Z, 600000016:1W)
+agt(200235110:0W.@ability, 107406765:0L.@def)
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+qua(109428967:1H.@pl, 400099341:12)
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+obj(202774213:3K.@entry, 113475538:29.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+obj(200235110:0W.@ability, 109428967:1H.@pl)
+obj(200235110:0W.@ability, 109428967:1H.@pl)
+and:01(109415584:33.@entry.@def.@pl, 102878222:29.@def)
+aoj(302351692:17, 109428967:1H.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8625]
+{org:en}
+Regulation of suspended sediment concentration by soil erosion and changes of carrying capacity has long-term and seasonal features.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:2Q.@entry, 100805034:02.@topic)
+and:01(100191142:1X.@entry.@pl, 113475538:1L.@pl)
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+aoj(302351692:0G, 100375071:0Z)
+mod(100805034:02.@topic, 100375071:0Z)
+mod(:01, 200235110:28.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8626]
+{org:en}
+Depending on climatic, soil, botanical and hydrological characteristics of rivers and their catchment areas, long or short-term changes of deposited volume are observed in channels.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+met(200732552:4P.@entry, 202663848:02.@progress)
+and:01(303161050:1C.@entry, 303162440:0Y)
+or:03(303162340:3I.@entry, 300015589:3A)
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+and:02(115689952:2T.@entry.@pl, 109411430:2C.@pl)
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+obj(200732552:4P.@entry, 100191142:3T.@topic.@pl)
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+obj(202310855:44.@past, 104990220:4E)
+and:01(303162440:0Y, 109335240:0S)
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+mod:02(115689952:2T.@entry.@pl, 600000020:2N.@pl)
+aoj(:01.@entry, 104731497:1T.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8627]
+{org:en}
+These processes can have a negative influence on safety of residential and industrial facilities in valleys and on shores.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0M.@entry.@ability, 100029677:08.@topic.@pl)
+plc(100578549:2G.@pl, :02:02)
+aoj(300075515:0T, 100157081:12.@indef)
+and:02(104204468:39.@entry.@pl, 109468604:2U.@pl)
+plc(100578549:2G.@pl, :02:02)
+aoj(300075515:0T, 100157081:12.@indef)
+and:02(104204468:39.@entry.@pl, 109468604:2U.@pl)
+obj(100157081:12.@indef, 100188620:1F)
+and:01(301188648:25.@entry, 300485044:1P)
+obj(200065370:0M.@entry.@ability, 100157081:12.@indef)
+aoj(:01, 100578549:2G.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 100578549:2G.@pl)
+obj(100188620:1F, 100578549:2G.@pl)
+mod(100029677:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8628]
+{org:en}
+;;As a significant part of the nutrients and microelements (up to 60 to 98%) is carried as suspended particles, their movement (e.g. transit into receiving basins or deposition on the riverbed) has a long-lasting affect on water quality and conditions for aquatic fauna and flora.As a significant part of the nutrients and microelements (up to 60 to 98%) is carried as suspended particles, their movement (e.g. transit into receiving basins or deposition on the riverbed) has a long-lasting effect on water quality and conditions for aquatic fauna and flora.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200065370:5E.@entry, 600000039:02)
+man(200235110:28, :03.@parenthesis)
+aoj(:05.@parenthesis, 100279835:3A.@topic)
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+gol:05(201853696:3P, :04)
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+pur(:06, :07:07)
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+mod:03("%":22, :02)
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+gol:05(201853696:3P, :04)
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+aoj(300625055:07, 103892891:0J.@indef)
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+mod(:06, 107935504:67)
+obj(600000039:02, 200235110:28)
+mod(103892891:0J.@indef, :01)
+aoj(200065370:5E.@entry, 100279835:3A.@topic)
+man(200235110:28, 600000008:2G)
+mod(100279835:3A.@topic, 600000020:34.@pl)
+and:06(105798863:6P.@entry.@pl, 104723816:6D.@pl)
+man(200235110:28, 600000008:2G)
+mod(100279835:3A.@topic, 600000020:34.@pl)
+and:06(105798863:6P.@entry.@pl, 104723816:6D.@pl)
+or:04(100208943:4M.@entry, 102801525:4C.@pl)
+fmt:02("98":20.@entry, "60":1U)
+aoj(303163450:5K, 104809642:5X.@indef)
+obj:03(600000047:1O.@entry, "%":22)
+plc:05(:04, 109415671:54.@def)
+and:07(115669739:7M.@entry, 107993279:7C)
+and:01(115690208:19.@entry.@pl, 100021734:0V.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8629]
+{org:en}
+Total annual output of suspended sediments to the World Ocean is estimated at 15 HTM1 tons.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200672433:1V.@entry, 100914632:0F.@topic)
+qua(100914632:0F.@topic, 303160907:02)
+qua(HTM1:2C, "15":2B)
+aoj(302351692:0P, 109428967:0Z.@pl)
+qua(100914632:0F.@topic, 303160907:02)
+qua(HTM1:2C, "15":2B)
+aoj(302351692:0P, 109428967:0Z.@pl)
+qua(115668835:2G.@pl, HTM1:2C)
+to(109428967:0Z.@pl, 500323558:1M.@def)
+gol(200672433:1V.@entry, 115668835:2G.@pl)
+aoj(300678024:08, 100914632:0F.@topic)
+aoj(300678024:08, 100914632:0F.@topic)
+mod(100914632:0F.@topic, 109428967:0Z.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8630]
+{org:en}
+The tractional load is carried along riverbeds as a rolling motion of sand and gravel particles, pebbles and boulders, or displacement of riverbed features, composed of these materials.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200235110:0P.@entry, 103679986:0H.@topic.@def)
+mod:03(103325769:4F.@pl, 109415671:46)
+obj(107163593:1Q.@indef, :03:03)
+mod:02(106326406:2J.@pl, :01)
+obj(600000105:0X, 109415671:13.@pl)
+and:02(109227839:36.@entry.@pl, 109388023:2U.@pl)
+obj:03(100209446:3N.@entry, 103325769:4F.@pl)
+mod:03(103325769:4F.@pl, 109415671:46)
+obj(107163593:1Q.@indef, :03:03)
+mod:02(106326406:2J.@pl, :01)
+obj(600000105:0X, 109415671:13.@pl)
+and:02(109227839:36.@entry.@pl, 109388023:2U.@pl)
+obj:03(100209446:3N.@entry, 103325769:4F.@pl)
+man(200235110:0P.@entry, 600000105:0X)
+mod:03(103729951:57.@pl, 600000017:51)
+or:03(100209446:3N.@entry, :02:02.@entry)
+aoj(303162364:06, 103679986:0H.@topic.@def)
+man(200235110:0P.@entry, 600000023:1D)
+obj:03(300529266:4P, 103729951:57.@pl)
+mod(107163593:1Q.@indef, 100783762:1I)
+obj:03(300529266:4P, 103729951:57.@pl)
+mod(107163593:1Q.@indef, 100783762:1I)
+and:01(114698884:2C.@entry, 115019030:23)
+obj(600000023:1D, 107163593:1Q.@indef)
+and:02(109388023:2U.@pl, 106326406:2J.@pl)
+aoj:03(300529266:4P, 103325769:4F.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8631]
+{org:en}
+It is considered, that the annual amount of tractional load does not normally exceed 2-10% of suspended sediment load.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200691312:08.@entry, 202669081:28.@emphasis)
+aoj(302351692:2O, 103679986:37)
+man(202669081:28.@emphasis, 400106921:1Z.@not)
+aoj(300678024:0T, 100033615:10.@def)
+aoj(302351692:2O, 103679986:37)
+man(202669081:28.@emphasis, 400106921:1Z.@not)
+aoj(300678024:0T, 100033615:10.@def)
+obj(202669081:28.@emphasis, "2-10%":2F)
+obj(100033615:10.@def, 103679986:1L)
+agt(202669081:28.@emphasis, 100033615:10.@def)
+mod(103679986:37, 109428967:2Y)
+mod(103679986:37, 109428967:2Y)
+mod("2-10%":2F, 103679986:37)
+aoj(303162364:1A, 103679986:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8632]
+{org:en}
+Unlike rivers, lakes are closed or semi-closed natural bodies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(102861886:1L.@entry.@pl, 600000315:02)
+or:01(303161901:11.@entry, 301653538:0R)
+aoj(301653538:16, 102861886:1L.@entry.@pl)
+or:01(303161901:11.@entry, 301653538:0R)
+aoj(301653538:16, 102861886:1L.@entry.@pl)
+mod(102861886:1L.@entry.@pl, :01)
+aoj(102861886:1L.@entry.@pl, 109328904:0H.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000315:02, 109411430:09.@pl)
+obj(600000315:02, 109411430:09.@pl)
+mod(102861886:1L.@entry.@pl, 301335708:1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8633]
+{org:en}
+They completely or partially accumulate all mineral and organic substances from the catchment area of their inflowing rivers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200158804:0V.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+qua:02(114662574:1A.@pl, 600000011:16)
+frm:02(100019613:1U.@entry.@pl, 115689952:2E.@def)
+or:01(400007703:0L.@entry, 400157624:07)
+mod:02(109411430:3C.@pl, 600000020:2W.@pl)
+qua:02(114662574:1A.@pl, 600000011:16)
+frm:02(100019613:1U.@entry.@pl, 115689952:2E.@def)
+or:01(400007703:0L.@entry, 400157624:07)
+mod:02(109411430:3C.@pl, 600000020:2W.@pl)
+man(200158804:0V.@entry, :01)
+mod:02(115689952:2E.@def, 109411430:3C.@pl)
+obj(200158804:0V.@entry, :02:02)
+aoj:02(301093142:1M, 100019613:1U.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:02(301093142:1M, 100019613:1U.@entry.@pl)
+and:02(100019613:1U.@entry.@pl, 114662574:1A.@pl)
+aoj:02(301295255:32, 109411430:3C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8634]
+{org:en}
+Mineralization and water analysis in lakes and reservoirs depends on the water flow and balance.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:1O.@entry, 100634276:0R.@topic)
+mod(100634276:0R.@topic, :01)
+mod:03(100329227:29.@def, 107935504:23)
+mod(100634276:0R.@topic, :01)
+mod:03(100329227:29.@def, 107935504:23)
+and:03(102777100:2I.@entry.@def, 100329227:29.@def)
+and:02(104078574:1D.@entry.@pl, 109328904:13.@pl)
+obj(202663848:1O.@entry, :03:03)
+and:01(107935504:0L.@entry, 115689274:02)
+and:01(107935504:0L.@entry, 115689274:02)
+plc(100634276:0R.@topic, :02:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8635]
+{org:en}
+Water analysis and mineralization of flowing lakes have characteristics close to that of their inputs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:1H.@entry, :01)
+mod(103573154:2P.@pl, 600000020:2J.@pl)
+obj(600000143:22, 600000030:2B)
+mod:01(100634276:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+mod(103573154:2P.@pl, 600000020:2J.@pl)
+obj(600000143:22, 600000030:2B)
+mod:01(100634276:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+aoj(600000143:22, 104731497:1M.@pl)
+and:01(115689274:0L.@entry.@topic, 100634276:08.@topic)
+obj(200065370:1H.@entry, 104731497:1M.@pl)
+obj(:01, 109328904:1B.@pl)
+obj(:01, 109328904:1B.@pl)
+mod(600000030:2B, 103573154:2P.@pl)
+aoj(303161988:13, 109328904:1B.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8636]
+{org:en}
+Closed (i.e. endorheic) lakes of arid zones are characterized by high mineralization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202697950:1E.@entry, 109328904:0Q.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 105611062:14.@pl)
+mod(109328904:0Q.@topic.@pl, 105611062:14.@pl)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 105611062:14.@pl)
+mod(109328904:0Q.@topic.@pl, 105611062:14.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:1V, 115689274:20)
+aoj(300806991:0Z, 105611062:14.@pl)
+aoj(202697950:1E.@entry, 115689274:20)
+obj:01(115689159:0A.@entry, 303163204:0F)
+obj:01(115689159:0A.@entry, 303163204:0F)
+aoj(301653538:02, 105611062:14.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8637]
+{org:en}
+They accumulate salts.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200158804:07.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+obj(200158804:07.@entry, 105717342:0I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8638]
+{org:en}
+The water mineralization could be distinguished fresh (up to HTM1 ), brackish ( HTM2 ) lakes and saline (more than HTM3 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:03.@entry, 115689274:0C.@topic.@def)
+mod(115689274:0C.@topic.@def, 107935504:06)
+or:02(301074062:2A.@entry, 300205295:1H)
+and:03(115691585:36.@entry.@ability, 109328904:2W.@pl.@ability)
+obj:01(600000047:1O.@entry, HTM1:1U)
+mod(115689274:0C.@topic.@def, 107935504:06)
+or:02(301074062:2A.@entry, 300205295:1H)
+and:03(115691585:36.@entry.@ability, 109328904:2W.@pl.@ability)
+obj:01(600000047:1O.@entry, HTM1:1U)
+obj(200650353:10.@past, :03:03.@entry)
+man:02(300205295:1H, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj(:04.@parenthesis, :03.@entry)
+cnt:02(301074062:2A.@entry, HTM2:2L.@parenthesis)
+cnt:02(301074062:2A.@entry, HTM2:2L.@parenthesis)
+aoj:03(:02, 109328904:2W.@pl)
+bas:04(400099341:3E.@entry, HTM3:3O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8639]
+{org:en}
+Water analysis of most fresh lakes indicate the presence of hydrocarbonate-calcium ions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200923793:11.@entry, 100634276:08.@topic)
+obj(100634276:08.@topic, 109328904:0V.@pl)
+mod(109315159:2D.@pl, 115690319:1Q)
+aoj(300205295:0P, 109328904:0V.@pl)
+obj(100634276:08.@topic, 109328904:0V.@pl)
+mod(109315159:2D.@pl, 115690319:1Q)
+aoj(300205295:0P, 109328904:0V.@pl)
+mod(101233802:1E.@def, 109315159:2D.@pl)
+qua(109328904:0V.@pl, 600000067:0K)
+obj(200923793:11.@entry, 101233802:1E.@def)
+mod(100634276:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+mod(100634276:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+mod(109315159:2D.@pl, 114632648:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8640]
+{org:en}
+In brackish and saline lakes sulfate and chloride are the dominant anions and sodium is the dominant cation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(109238294:2V.@entry.@def, 109197815:1X.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300791227:1O, 109197815:1X.@def.@pl)
+plc(109197815:1X.@def.@pl, 109328904:0P.@pl)
+and:01(301074458:0I.@entry, 301074062:05)
+aoj(300791227:1O, 109197815:1X.@def.@pl)
+plc(109197815:1X.@def.@pl, 109328904:0P.@pl)
+and:01(301074458:0I.@entry, 301074062:05)
+aoj(300791227:2M, 109238294:2V.@entry.@def)
+aoj(:01, 109328904:0P.@pl)
+aoj(109238294:2V.@entry.@def, 114655371:28.@topic)
+and:02(115016852:17.@entry.@topic, 115063493:0V.@topic)
+and:02(115016852:17.@entry.@topic, 115063493:0V.@topic)
+aoj(109197815:1X.@def.@pl, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8641]
+{org:en}
+Density
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+104941453:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8642]
+{org:en}
+Density changes of water play an important role in the life on our planet.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200013328:0R.@entry, 100191142:0A.@topic.@pl)
+mod(109394007:1X, 600000005:1T)
+aoj(301275562:0Z, 100722061:19.@indef)
+mod(109394007:1X, 600000005:1T)
+aoj(301275562:0Z, 100722061:19.@indef)
+plc(100722061:19.@indef, 100006269:1L.@def)
+mod(100191142:0A.@topic.@pl, 104941453:02)
+obj(200013328:0R.@entry, 100722061:19.@indef)
+obj(100191142:0A.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0L)
+obj(100191142:0A.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0L)
+plc(100006269:1L.@def, 109394007:1X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8643]
+{org:en}
+In general, density is the ratio between a unit of water mass and its volume.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(113819207:0T.@entry.@def, 600000266:02)
+mod:01(104990220:20.@entry, 600000016:1W)
+obj(600000024:0Z, :01)
+mod:01(104990220:20.@entry, 600000016:1W)
+obj(600000024:0Z, :01)
+aoj(600000024:0Z, 113819207:0T.@entry.@def)
+mod:01(101042242:1N, 107935504:1H)
+aoj(113819207:0T.@entry.@def, 104941453:0E.@topic)
+mod:01(101042242:1N, 105869857:19.@indef)
+mod:01(101042242:1N, 105869857:19.@indef)
+and:01(104990220:20.@entry, 101042242:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8644]
+{org:en}
+The density of most substances decreases with change of their aggregative state from solid to liquid and gaseous phase, but water is an exception in this respect.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105707269:3U.@entry.@contrast.@indef, 200151689:0X)
+aoj(303161352:1S, 100024720:24)
+obj(600000018:17, 100191142:1C)
+agt(200151689:0X, 104941453:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(104941453:06.@topic.@def, 100019613:0M.@pl)
+aoj(300291181:2F, 100024720:24)
+aoj(303161352:1S, 100024720:24)
+obj(600000018:17, 100191142:1C)
+agt(200151689:0X, 104941453:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(104941453:06.@topic.@def, 100019613:0M.@pl)
+aoj(300291181:2F, 100024720:24)
+man(105707269:3U.@entry.@contrast.@indef, 600000360:44)
+and:01(302262542:2Z.@entry, 300432453:2O)
+to(100024720:24, 104676540:37)
+aoj(105707269:3U.@entry.@contrast.@indef, 107935504:3I.@topic)
+aoj(:01, 104676540:37)
+mod(100191142:1C, 100024720:24)
+aoj(:01, 104676540:37)
+mod(100191142:1C, 100024720:24)
+man(200151689:0X, 600000018:17)
+qua(100019613:0M.@pl, 600000067:0H)
+mod(100024720:24, 600000020:1M.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8645]
+{org:en}
+The density of water reaches its maximum at a temperature of 4 HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200743344:0N.@entry, 104941453:06.@topic.@def)
+qua(HTM1:1T, "4":1R)
+mod(108598132:0Z, 600000016:0V)
+qua(HTM1:1T, "4":1R)
+mod(108598132:0Z, 600000016:0V)
+gol(200743344:0N.@entry, 108598132:0Z)
+scn(200743344:0N.@entry, 105011790:1C.@indef)
+mod(104941453:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0H)
+mod(104941453:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0H)
+mod(105011790:1C.@indef, HTM1:1T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8646]
+{org:en}
+It decreases at lower and higher temperatures owing to modification of HTM1 the water structure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200151689:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+man:01(300705498:0S.@entry, 400099341:30)
+aoj(:01, 105011790:0Z.@pl)
+obj(103778302:1L, 104931965:2G.@def)
+man:01(300705498:0S.@entry, 400099341:30)
+aoj(:01, 105011790:0Z.@pl)
+obj(103778302:1L, 104931965:2G.@def)
+aoj(301710543:1C, 105011790:0Z.@pl)
+obj(301710543:1C, 103778302:1L)
+scn(200151689:05.@entry, 105011790:0Z.@pl)
+man:01(301206474:0I, 400099341:2O)
+man:01(301206474:0I, 400099341:2O)
+and:01(300705498:0S.@entry, 301206474:0I)
+mod(104931965:2G.@def, 107935504:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8647]
+{org:en}
+The consequence of this anomaly is the buoyancy of ice.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104944412:15.@entry.@def, 105170574:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(108622763:0Q, 600000017:0L)
+mod(108622763:0Q, 600000017:0L)
+obj(105170574:06.@topic.@def, 108622763:0Q)
+mod(104944412:15.@entry.@def, 107614198:1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8648]
+{org:en}
+It protects water bodies from frost penetration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201128193:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+mod(102861886:0K.@pl, 107935504:0E)
+mod(102861886:0K.@pl, 107935504:0E)
+obj(201128193:05.@entry, 102861886:0K.@pl)
+src(201128193:05.@entry, 100051525:12)
+mod(100051525:12, 111440521:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8649]
+{org:en}
+Ice density depends on its porosity and to a lesser extent on its temperature.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0E.@entry, 104941453:06.@topic)
+aoj(400099868:1B, 105123416:1I.@indef)
+obj(202663848:0E.@entry, 104940146:0T)
+mod(104941453:06.@topic, 107614198:02)
+aoj(400099868:1B, 105123416:1I.@indef)
+obj(202663848:0E.@entry, 104940146:0T)
+mod(104941453:06.@topic, 107614198:02)
+gol(202663848:0E.@entry, 105123416:1I.@indef)
+mod(105011790:1W, 600000016:1S)
+scn(202663848:0E.@entry, 105011790:1W)
+man(400099868:1B, 400099341:2C)
+man(400099868:1B, 400099341:2C)
+mod(104940146:0T, 600000016:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8650]
+{org:en}
+The higher the porosity, the less the density.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(400099868:12.@entry.@def, 300705498:09.@def)
+man(300705498:09.@def, 400099341:1A)
+man(300705498:09.@def, 400099341:1A)
+aoj(300705498:09.@def, 104940146:0K.@def)
+aoj(400099868:12.@entry.@def, 104941453:1B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8651]
+{org:en}
+In temperate and arctic climates, seasonal modifications of vertical temperature distribution in lakes and reservoirs, and the corresponding changes of water density in the various layers, lead to convective instability and water mixing.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:8652]
+{org:en}
+The mixing is responsible for inflow of heat and oxygen to the bottom layers of lakes.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8653]
+{org:en}
+Were it not for the anomalous density change as a function of temperature, bottom layers could turn into zones of oxygen deficit owing to high oxygen use for oxidation of organic matter.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:8654]
+{org:en}
+This would impose major limitations on fauna and flora.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:8655]
+{org:en}
+At constant temperature, water density rises with increase in suspended sediment.
+{/org}
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+[S:8656]
+{org:en}
+This regularity holds for all possible thermal rivers conditions.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8657]
+{org:en}
+Water density at a temperature of 25 HTM1 will HTM2 rise to 0.012, 0.12 and 0.6% with turbidity of 0.2, 2 and 10 HTM3 respectively.
+{/org}
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+qua(HTM3:37, :02:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8658]
+{org:en}
+Small density increases with change of turbidity have important consequences.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8659]
+{org:en}
+Density determines the movement of muddy flows in the bottom layers of river mouths.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8660]
+{org:en}
+Depending on the bottom gradient and turbidity, these streams carry terrestrial sediments for greater or smaller distances from the coastline.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8661]
+{org:en}
+Deposits from the Amazon and Congo rivers have been detected at more than 1000 km from the shore.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8662]
+{org:en}
+In Nurek reservoir (Kyrgyzstan) and in some Alpine lakes, terrigenous sediments are found at abnormally large distances from the mouths of the inflowing rivers.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8663]
+{org:en}
+This depends on the gradient of the shelf and the water turbidity in the region of the river mouth.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8664]
+{org:en}
+At low turbidity and constant temperature, water density can go up or down depending on water mineralization.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:8665]
+{org:en}
+The higher the mineralization, the greater the water density.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Under the influence of natural changes of water mineralization, density streams and vertical mixing appear in lakes.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
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+{org:en}
+These processes have tremendous importance, as they influence the water quality and living conditions for aquatic communities.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8668]
+{org:en}
+Even at constant mineralization, the water density depends on the molecular mass of dissolved substances.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8669]
+{org:en}
+The greater the molecular mass, the greater the density.
+{/org}
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+aoj(301278818:19.@entry.@def, 104941453:1L.@def)
+man(301278818:09.@def, 400099341:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8670]
+{org:en}
+Therefore hydrocarbonate water is characterized by lower density than sulfate water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202697950:10.@entry, 400043003:02)
+bas(104941453:1N, 107935504:28)
+aoj(301206474:1H, 104941453:1N)
+bas(104941453:1N, 107935504:28)
+aoj(301206474:1H, 104941453:1N)
+aoj(202697950:10.@entry, 104941453:1N)
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+obj(202697950:10.@entry, 107935504:0R.@topic)
+mod(107935504:28, 115063493:20)
+mod(107935504:28, 115063493:20)
+man(301206474:1H, 400099341:2E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8671]
+{org:en}
+For brackish and saline water, the density changes at atmospheric pressure are described by the equation of seawater state.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(200987071:29.@entry, 107935504:0Q)
+scn(100191142:19.@topic.@def.@pl, 100113113:1W)
+mod(100185307:2Q.@def, 100024720:3B)
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+agt(200987071:29.@entry, 100185307:2Q.@def)
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+mod(100191142:19.@topic.@def.@pl, 104941453:11)
+mod(100024720:3B, 115008847:32)
+and:01(301074458:0J.@entry, 301074062:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8672]
+{org:en}
+The greater the salinity, the greater the density.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(301278818:13.@entry.@def, 301278818:09.@def)
+aoj(301278818:09.@def, 115668809:0L.@def)
+aoj(301278818:09.@def, 115668809:0L.@def)
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+aoj(301278818:13.@entry.@def, 104941453:1F.@def)
+man(301278818:09.@def, 400099341:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8673]
+{org:en}
+Water density can also vary under pressure fluctuations in seas and oceans, but to a limited extent.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303160998:0P.@entry.@ability, 104941453:08.@topic)
+plc(104770911:19.@pl, :01:01)
+man(303160998:0P.@entry.@ability, 400047534:0K)
+man(400536272:2N, 600000098:26)
+plc(104770911:19.@pl, :01:01)
+man(303160998:0P.@entry.@ability, 400047534:0K)
+man(400536272:2N, 600000098:26)
+man(303160998:0P.@entry.@ability, 600000003:0U)
+and:01(109376198:1Y.@entry.@pl, 109426788:1P.@pl)
+man(303160998:0P.@entry.@ability, 400536272:2N)
+mod(104770911:19.@pl, 100113113:10)
+mod(104770911:19.@pl, 100113113:10)
+obj(600000003:0U, 104770911:19.@pl)
+mod(104941453:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8674]
+{org:en}
+The low compressibility of water determines the relatively small increase of density with depth in the World Ocean.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200699815:0Z.@entry, 104938474:0A.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000019:2F, 104941453:27)
+aoj(301391351:1P, 100363260:1V.@def)
+mod(104938474:0A.@topic.@def, 107935504:0T)
+aoj(600000019:2F, 104941453:27)
+aoj(301391351:1P, 100363260:1V.@def)
+mod(104938474:0A.@topic.@def, 107935504:0T)
+obj(100363260:1V.@def, 104941453:27)
+plc(105094725:2K, 500323558:33.@def)
+obj(200699815:0Z.@entry, 100363260:1V.@def)
+obj(600000019:2F, 105094725:2K)
+obj(600000019:2F, 105094725:2K)
+man(301391351:1P, 400160834:1E)
+aoj(301206474:06, 104938474:0A.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8675]
+{org:en}
+Even with the deepest parts of the oceans, the density difference between surface and bottom layers does not exceed 4.4%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202669081:33.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 400017639:02)
+mod(103892891:0O.@def.@pl, 109376198:11.@def.@pl)
+mod(104748836:1L.@topic.@def, 104941453:1D)
+obj(202669081:33.@entry.@emphasis.@not, "4.4%":3A)
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+mod(103892891:0O.@def.@pl, 109376198:11.@def.@pl)
+mod(104748836:1L.@topic.@def, 104941453:1D)
+obj(202669081:33.@entry.@emphasis.@not, "4.4%":3A)
+mod:01(101463259:2N.@entry.@pl, 300229978:2G)
+agt(202669081:33.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 104748836:1L.@topic.@def)
+man(300149120:0G, 400536271:3F)
+and:01(101463259:2N.@entry.@pl, 104362025:24.@pl)
+man(202669081:33.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 600000018:07)
+aoj(300149120:0G, 103892891:0O.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000024:1W, :01)
+aoj(300149120:0G, 103892891:0O.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000024:1W, :01)
+aoj(600000024:1W, 104748836:1L.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000018:07, 103892891:0O.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8676]
+{org:en}
+The consequences of water compressibility are of greater importance in coastal zones.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000150:1M.@entry, 105170574:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(105611062:29.@pl, 300462909:21)
+mod(105168261:1N.@entry, 301278818:1F)
+mod(105611062:29.@pl, 300462909:21)
+mod(105168261:1N.@entry, 301278818:1F)
+plc(600000150:1M.@entry, 105611062:29.@pl)
+mod(104938474:0S, 107935504:0M)
+obj(600000150:1M.@entry, 105168261:1N)
+obj(105170574:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 104938474:0S)
+obj(105170574:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 104938474:0S)
+man(301278818:1F, 400099341:2E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8677]
+{org:en}
+Under conditions of water compressibility the Earth's population has adapted to the modern level of the ocean.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200299580:23.@entry.@complete, 600000003:02)
+pos(101257969:1O.@topic.@def, 108562067:1C)
+obj(105093890:2P.@def, 109376198:32.@def)
+mod(104938474:0S, 107935504:0M)
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+obj(105093890:2P.@def, 109376198:32.@def)
+mod(104938474:0S, 107935504:0M)
+gol(200299580:23.@entry.@complete, 105093890:2P.@def)
+obj(105798863:08.@pl, 104938474:0S)
+agt(200299580:23.@entry.@complete, 101257969:1O.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000003:02, 105798863:08.@pl)
+obj(600000003:02, 105798863:08.@pl)
+mod(105093890:2P.@def, 300414354:2I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8678]
+{org:en}
+With absolute incompressibility of the water, the ocean would be higher by about 30 m.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300705498:1V.@entry.@will.@past, 600000018:02)
+bas(400071165:25, "30":2B)
+man(300705498:1V.@entry.@will.@past, 400099341:34)
+aoj(300005205:07, 104938702:0G)
+bas(400071165:25, "30":2B)
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+aoj(300005205:07, 104938702:0G)
+man(300705498:1V.@entry.@will.@past, 106832464:2E)
+mod(104938702:0G, 107935504:15.@def)
+aoj(300705498:1V.@entry.@will.@past, 109376198:1G.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000018:02, 104938702:0G)
+obj(600000018:02, 104938702:0G)
+qua(106832464:2E, 400071165:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8679]
+{org:en}
+As a result, about HTM1 would be flooded (about 3.3% of the Earth's land surface).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200217152:0Z.@entry, 600000159:02)
+mod:01(109334396:22, 108562067:1Q)
+qua:01(104362025:27.@entry.@def, 400071165:18)
+bas(400071165:0F, HTM1:0L)
+mod:01(109334396:22, 108562067:1Q)
+qua:01(104362025:27.@entry.@def, 400071165:18)
+bas(400071165:0F, HTM1:0L)
+cnt(200217152:0Z.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+qua(:0M.@topic, 400071165:0F)
+obj(200217152:0Z.@entry, :0M.@topic)
+bas:01(400071165:18, "3.3%":1E)
+bas:01(400071165:18, "3.3%":1E)
+mod:01(104362025:27.@entry.@def, 109334396:22)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8680]
+{org:en}
+Favorable heat, chemical and biological conditions of water bodies are essentially connected with the abnormally low viscosity of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201069190:2D.@entry, 105725527:0C.@topic)
+and:01(301405904:0V.@entry, 302692624:0I)
+man(301206474:37, 400227171:2W)
+mod(104935003:3B.@def, 107935504:3O)
+obj(105798863:16.@pl, 102861886:1Q.@pl)
+and:01(301405904:0V.@entry, 302692624:0I)
+man(301206474:37, 400227171:2W)
+mod(104935003:3B.@def, 107935504:3O)
+obj(105798863:16.@pl, 102861886:1Q.@pl)
+man(201069190:2D.@entry, 400535347:21)
+aoj(300604978:02, 105725527:0C.@topic)
+gol(201069190:2D.@entry, 104935003:3B.@def)
+mod(102861886:1Q.@pl, 107935504:1K)
+aoj(105725527:0C.@topic, 105798863:16.@pl)
+mod(102861886:1Q.@pl, 107935504:1K)
+aoj(105725527:0C.@topic, 105798863:16.@pl)
+aoj(301206474:37, 104935003:3B.@def)
+aoj(:01, 105798863:16.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8681]
+{org:en}
+Viscosity reflects forces of internal friction between interacting layers and water volumes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200821580:0C.@entry, 104935003:02.@topic)
+obj(600000024:1D, :01)
+aoj(600000024:1D, 100712031:14)
+obj:01(202376958:1O.@progress, 101463259:20.@pl)
+obj(600000024:1D, :01)
+aoj(600000024:1D, 100712031:14)
+obj:01(202376958:1O.@progress, 101463259:20.@pl)
+mod(105035353:0L.@pl, 100712031:14)
+mod:01(104990220:2L.@entry.@pl, 107935504:2F)
+obj(200821580:0C.@entry, 105035353:0L.@pl)
+and:01(104990220:2L.@entry.@pl, 101463259:20.@pl)
+and:01(104990220:2L.@entry.@pl, 101463259:20.@pl)
+mod(100712031:14, 300948670:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8682]
+{org:en}
+The low internal friction (in comparison with other fluids) favors rapid heat transfer, movement of dissolved and suspended matter, and general smoothing the physical, chemical and biological characteristics in water bodies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200692143:1Q.@entry, 100712031:0J.@topic.@def)
+obj:01(600000396:0T.@entry, 114939445:1I.@pl)
+and:04(100279835:2I.@progress, 100201671:28.@progress)
+plc:04(104731497:5E.@def.@pl, 102861886:63.@pl)
+mod:04(100201671:28.@progress, 105725527:23)
+obj:04(201252971:42.@entry.@progress, 104731497:5E.@def.@pl)
+and:02(302351692:38.@entry, 301506258:2U)
+and:03(302692624:4Q, 300627004:4G)
+obj:01(600000396:0T.@entry, 114939445:1I.@pl)
+and:04(100279835:2I.@progress, 100201671:28.@progress)
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+and:03(302692624:4Q, 300627004:4G)
+mod(100712031:0J.@topic.@def, 300948670:0A)
+and:04(201252971:42.@entry.@progress, 100279835:2I.@progress)
+aoj:04(:02, 100020827:3I)
+and:03(301405904:53.@entry, 302692624:4Q)
+aoj(301206474:06, 100712031:0J.@topic.@def)
+obj(200692143:1Q.@entry, :04:04)
+mod:01(114939445:1I.@pl, 600000031:1C)
+obj:04(100279835:2I.@progress, 100020827:3I)
+aoj:04(:03, 104731497:5E.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(114939445:1I.@pl, 600000031:1C)
+obj:04(100279835:2I.@progress, 100020827:3I)
+aoj:04(:03, 104731497:5E.@def.@pl)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 100712031:0J.@topic.@def)
+aoj:04(300487198:3U, 201252971:42.@entry.@progress)
+mod:04(100201671:28.@progress, 300979697:1X)
+mod:04(102861886:63.@pl, 107935504:5X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8683]
+{org:en}
+These circumstances favored the formation of the Earth's biosphere, and they partly determine the living conditions of modern aquatic biocenoses.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200699815:2I.@entry, 200692143:0M.@past)
+obj(100925207:0Y.@def, 108499504:1R.@def)
+mod(105798863:33.@def.@pl, 300005839:2W)
+man(200699815:2I.@entry, 400535393:2B)
+agt(200692143:0M.@past, 105822746:08.@topic.@pl)
+obj(100925207:0Y.@def, 108499504:1R.@def)
+mod(105798863:33.@def.@pl, 300005839:2W)
+man(200699815:2I.@entry, 400535393:2B)
+agt(200692143:0M.@past, 105822746:08.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200699815:2I.@entry, 105798863:33.@def.@pl)
+mod(105822746:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+aoj(300124077:3O, 115690357:3W.@pl)
+agt(200699815:2I.@entry, 600000020:26.@topic)
+pos(108499504:1R.@def, 108562067:1F)
+mod(115690357:3W.@pl, 300414354:3H)
+pos(108499504:1R.@def, 108562067:1F)
+mod(115690357:3W.@pl, 300414354:3H)
+obj(105798863:33.@def.@pl, 115690357:3W.@pl)
+obj(200692143:0M.@past, 100925207:0Y.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8684]
+{org:en}
+In particular, water viscosity influences the magnitude and variability of abiotic factors in aquatic ecosystems, and the ability of water bodies to adapt to contamination inflows.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202536557:0X.@entry, 400535321:02)
+and:01(104735233:1Q.@entry.@def, 105090441:1C.@def)
+pur:02(102861886:3X.@pl, 200299580:47)
+and:02(105200169:3G.@entry.@def, :01)
+aoj:02(300124077:2O, 108368757:2W.@pl)
+mod:02(113499782:4U.@pl, 100276987:4G)
+and:01(104735233:1Q.@entry.@def, 105090441:1C.@def)
+pur:02(102861886:3X.@pl, 200299580:47)
+and:02(105200169:3G.@entry.@def, :01)
+aoj:02(300124077:2O, 108368757:2W.@pl)
+mod:02(113499782:4U.@pl, 100276987:4G)
+obj(202536557:0X.@entry, :02:02)
+aoj:02(303161539:25, 105858317:2D.@pl)
+gol:02(200299580:47, 113499782:4U.@pl)
+agt(202536557:0X.@entry, 104935003:0N.@topic)
+plc:02(105858317:2D.@pl, 108368757:2W.@pl)
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+plc:02(105858317:2D.@pl, 108368757:2W.@pl)
+mod:02(102861886:3X.@pl, 107935504:3R)
+mod:02(105200169:3G.@entry.@def, 102861886:3X.@pl)
+mod(104935003:0N.@topic, 107935504:0H)
+mod:02(:01, 105858317:2D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8685]
+{org:en}
+The less the viscosity, the faster the initial dilution of contaminants at their place of input.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(300323873:11.@entry.@def, 400099868:09.@def)
+plc(114821984:1W.@pl, 100721431:2I)
+obj(100362659:1K.@def, 114821984:1W.@pl)
+qua(104935003:0I.@def, 400099868:09.@def)
+plc(114821984:1W.@pl, 100721431:2I)
+obj(100362659:1K.@def, 114821984:1W.@pl)
+qua(104935003:0I.@def, 400099868:09.@def)
+man(300323873:11.@entry.@def, 400099341:2X)
+mod(100721431:2I, 600000020:2C.@pl)
+aoj(300323873:11.@entry.@def, 100362659:1K.@def)
+mod(100721431:2I, 103573154:2R)
+mod(100721431:2I, 103573154:2R)
+mod(100362659:1K.@def, 301011973:1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8686]
+{org:en}
+Water viscosity is reduced as temperature increases.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200045817:0L.@entry, 600000198:0T)
+obj(600000198:0T, 200153263:18)
+obj(600000198:0T, 200153263:18)
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+obj(200045817:0L.@entry, 104935003:08.@topic)
+obj(200153263:18, 105011790:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8687]
+{org:en}
+This explains changes of movement conditions for suspended sediments in streams, as temperature changes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200939277:07.@entry, 600000198:2B)
+mod(105798863:10.@pl, 100279835:0R)
+mod(100191142:0G.@pl, 105798863:10.@pl)
+obj(600000198:2B, 200109660:2Q)
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+mod(100191142:0G.@pl, 105798863:10.@pl)
+obj(600000198:2B, 200109660:2Q)
+obj(200939277:07.@entry, 100191142:0G.@pl)
+aoj(302351692:1F, 109428967:1P.@pl)
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+pur(105798863:10.@pl, 109428967:1P.@pl)
+agt(200109660:2Q, 105011790:2E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8688]
+{org:en}
+Other things being equal, temperature diminution is potentially capable of increasing suspended sediment concentration, as the growing viscosity reduces the fall velocity of particles (while maintaining the intensity of bottom erosion).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(300308015:1U.@entry, 100002452:08.@pl)
+mod(107030549:14.@topic, 105011790:0S)
+dur(200045817:43, :01.@parenthesis)
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+mod(115689301:4K.@def, 106326406:4W.@pl)
+mod(100375071:2Z, 109428967:2Q)
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+aoj(300889831:0L.@state, 100002452:08.@entry.@pl)
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+obj:01(600000004:57.@entry, 201017643:5D.@progress)
+agt(200045817:43, 104935003:3T.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8689]
+{org:en}
+For example, at the downstream end of reservoirs, this factor strengthens intensity of bottom and shore erosion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000107:02.@entry, 200220461:1S)
+mod(113475538:2Y, :01)
+obj(200220461:1S, 105036394:24)
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+mod(113475538:2Y, :01)
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+and:01(104204468:2S.@entry, 300229978:2H)
+mod(105036394:24, 113475538:2Y)
+mod(100728065:0X.@def, 115692677:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8690]
+{org:en}
+Ice viscosity is also abnormally high.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300705498:0Z.@entry, 104935003:06.@topic)
+mod(104935003:06.@topic, 107614198:02)
+mod(104935003:06.@topic, 107614198:02)
+man(400227171:0O, 400047534:0J)
+man(300705498:0Z.@entry, 400227171:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8691]
+{org:en}
+It is almost independent of temperature, structure, and type and duration of ice loading.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301062393:0F.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+and:01(105051249:1V.@entry, 104504486:1M)
+mod(:02, 107614198:27)
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+and:02(104931965:17, 105011790:0U)
+and:02(:01.@entry, 104931965:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8692]
+{org:en}
+The higher the ice temperature, the less its viscosity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(400099868:19.@entry.@def, 300705498:09.@def)
+mod(105011790:0O.@def, 107614198:0K)
+aoj(300705498:09.@def, 105011790:0O.@def)
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+aoj(300705498:09.@def, 105011790:0O.@def)
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+qua(104935003:1I, 400099868:19.@entry.@def)
+man(300705498:09.@def, 400099341:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8693]
+{org:en}
+This circumstance determines ice fluidity and movement of glaciers along a slope gradient.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200699815:0K.@entry, 105822746:07.@topic)
+mod:01(104734272:0Z, 107614198:0V)
+obj(:01, 109289331:1O.@pl)
+mod(105822746:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod:01(104734272:0Z, 107614198:0V)
+obj(:01, 109289331:1O.@pl)
+mod(105822746:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
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+man(200699815:0K.@entry, 202775577:1X)
+obj(202775577:1X, 105068461:2B.@indef)
+obj(202775577:1X, 105068461:2B.@indef)
+and:01(100279835:1C.@entry, 104734272:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8694]
+{org:en}
+Other physical and chemical parameters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01, 105859071:0U.@entry.@pl)
+and:01(300627004:08, 600000031:02)
+and:01(302692624:0L.@entry, 300627004:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8695]
+{org:en}
+For some organisms, processes of moisture migration in soils and snow cover, and surface tension at the boundary between water and other media (gaseous, liquid or solid) are of great significance.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(600000150:54.@entry, 100004475:0B.@pl)
+qua(100004475:0B.@pl, 600000034:06)
+aoj:04(600000024:37, 108512259:2Y.@def)
+scn(101123095:18, :04:04)
+or:02(300291181:4L.@entry, 300432453:4B)
+mod(105169813:55, 301278818:4Z)
+aoj:03(:02.@parenthesis, 106254475:3V.@entry.@pl)
+plc:04(100366675:2J.@entry, 108512259:2Y.@def)
+qua(100004475:0B.@pl, 600000034:06)
+aoj:04(600000024:37, 108512259:2Y.@def)
+scn(101123095:18, :04:04)
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+mod(105169813:55, 301278818:4Z)
+aoj:03(:02.@parenthesis, 106254475:3V.@entry.@pl)
+plc:04(100366675:2J.@entry, 108512259:2Y.@def)
+mod:01(100988893:20.@entry, 111508382:1V)
+obj(600000150:54.@entry, 105169813:55)
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+and:04(100366675:2J.@entry, :01)
+and:01(100988893:20.@entry, 109335240:1L.@pl)
+aoj(600000150:54.@entry, 100029677:0M.@topic.@pl)
+obj:04(600000024:37, :03)
+mod(101123095:18, 114535431:0Z)
+obj:04(600000024:37, :03)
+mod(101123095:18, 114535431:0Z)
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+obj(100029677:0M.@topic.@pl, 101123095:18)
+mod:03(106254475:3V.@entry.@pl, 600000031:3P)
+mod:04(100366675:2J.@entry, 104362025:2B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8696]
+{org:en}
+The abnormally high surface tension is connected with the dipole nature of the water molecule and hydrogen bonds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201069190:15.@entry, 100366675:0U.@topic.@def)
+and:01(114640434:2S.@entry, 114682133:2F)
+mod(104623113:1V.@def, 103204134:1O)
+mod(100366675:0U.@topic.@def, 104362025:0M)
+and:01(114640434:2S.@entry, 114682133:2F)
+mod(104623113:1V.@def, 103204134:1O)
+mod(100366675:0U.@topic.@def, 104362025:0M)
+mod(104623113:1V.@def, 113417410:31.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:0H, 100366675:0U.@topic.@def)
+gol(201069190:15.@entry, 104623113:1V.@def)
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+mod:01(114682133:2F, 107935504:29)
+mod(113417410:31.@def.@pl, :01)
+man(300705498:0H, 400227171:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8697]
+{org:en}
+The result is minimization of contact area, tending towards a spherical form of water surface, and ordered motion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100355919:0G.@entry, 115698567:06.@topic.@def)
+and:01(107163593:31.@entry, 103384535:22.@indef)
+mod(102735688:14, 100039297:0W)
+aoj:01(302800689:1S, 103384535:22.@indef)
+and:01(107163593:31.@entry, 103384535:22.@indef)
+mod(102735688:14, 100039297:0W)
+aoj:01(302800689:1S, 103384535:22.@indef)
+obj(100355919:0G.@entry, 102735688:14)
+obj:01(103384535:22.@indef, 104362025:2G)
+met(100355919:0G.@entry, 202439047:1A.@progress)
+aoj:01(301667519:2T, 107163593:31.@entry)
+aoj:01(301667519:2T, 107163593:31.@entry)
+obj(202439047:1A.@progress, :01:01)
+mod:01(104362025:2G, 107935504:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8698]
+{org:en}
+Water motion in soil or snow capillaries changes the humidity in seepage and filtration zones.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200109660:17.@entry, 107163593:08.@topic)
+plc(107163593:08.@topic, 102956069:0V.@pl)
+mod(105611062:2I.@pl, :02)
+or:01(111508382:0Q.@entry, 109335240:0I)
+plc(107163593:08.@topic, 102956069:0V.@pl)
+mod(105611062:2I.@pl, :02)
+or:01(111508382:0Q.@entry, 109335240:0I)
+plc(114535643:1J.@def, 105611062:2I.@pl)
+mod(102956069:0V.@pl, :01)
+obj(200109660:17.@entry, 114535643:1J.@def)
+obj(107163593:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+obj(107163593:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+and:02(100191980:27.@entry, 107432119:1V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8699]
+{org:en}
+Thus a seepage front can move from the surface to groundwater or in the opposite direction.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200124442:0R.@ability.@entry, 600000141:02)
+fmt:01(115669379:1M.@def.@entry, 104362025:1B.@def)
+or:02(106197215:2L.@entry.@def, :01:01)
+fmt:01(115669379:1M.@def.@entry, 104362025:1B.@def)
+or:02(106197215:2L.@entry.@def, :01:01)
+man(200124442:0R.@ability.@entry, :02)
+agt(200124442:0R.@ability.@entry, 103398467:0H.@indef)
+mod(103398467:0H.@indef, 107432119:09)
+mod(103398467:0H.@indef, 107432119:09)
+mod:02(106197215:2L.@entry.@def, 301663201:2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8700]
+{org:en}
+Humidity modifications can influence physical, chemical and biological processes in the soil.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202536557:0T.@entry.@ability, 103778302:0B.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(302692624:1D, 300627004:13)
+aoj(:01, 100029677:21.@pl)
+and:01(302692624:1D, 300627004:13)
+aoj(:01, 100029677:21.@pl)
+plc(100029677:21.@pl, 109335240:2I.@def)
+obj(202536557:0T.@entry.@ability, 100029677:21.@pl)
+mod(103778302:0B.@topic.@pl, 114535643:02)
+mod(103778302:0B.@topic.@pl, 114535643:02)
+and:01(301405904:1Q.@entry, 302692624:1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8701]
+{org:en}
+During irrigation in arid zones, if there is not an appropriate drainage system, salinization of the fertile soil layer can occur due to the rise of mineralized groundwater to the surface and intensive evaporation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(200723349:3L.@entry.@ability, 100695448:09)
+obj(115690051:2E.@topic, 101463259:3B.@def)
+and:01(113572436:5R.@entry, 100324384:42.@def)
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+rsn(200723349:3L.@entry.@ability, 600000001:3R)
+aoj(202603699:1B.@not, 104377057:26.@indef)
+gol:01(100324384:42.@def, 104362025:55.@def)
+obj(115690051:2E.@topic, 101463259:3B.@def)
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+rsn(200723349:3L.@entry.@ability, 600000001:3R)
+aoj(202603699:1B.@not, 104377057:26.@indef)
+gol:01(100324384:42.@def, 104362025:55.@def)
+obj(200723349:3L.@entry.@ability, 115690051:2E.@topic)
+mod(101463259:3B.@def, 109335240:36)
+obj:01(100324384:42.@def, 115669379:4M)
+aoj(300806991:0N, 105611062:0S.@pl)
+con(200723349:3L.@entry.@ability, 202603699:1B.@not)
+aoj(301001689:2Y, 101463259:3B.@def)
+aoj:01(301512275:5H, 113572436:5R.@entry)
+aoj(301001689:2Y, 101463259:3B.@def)
+aoj:01(301512275:5H, 113572436:5R.@entry)
+plc(100695448:09, 105611062:0S.@pl)
+obj(600000001:3R, :01)
+aoj(300134701:1L, 104377057:26.@indef)
+aoj:01(303161257:4A, 115669379:4M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8702]
+{org:en}
+Pure water has weak conductivity as a consequence of the very low level of dissociation of water molecules.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0C.@entry, 107935504:06.@topic)
+aoj(300361125:02, 107935504:06.@topic)
+mod(105093890:1V.@def, 100384802:24)
+mod(115669512:0L, 300441523:0G)
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+obj(100384802:24, 114682133:2Q)
+obj(200065370:0C.@entry, 115669512:0L)
+man(301206474:1R, 400031899:1M)
+man(200065370:0C.@entry, 600000321:0Y)
+aoj(301206474:1R, 105093890:1V.@def)
+aoj(301206474:1R, 105093890:1V.@def)
+obj(600000321:0Y, 105093890:1V.@def)
+mod(114682133:2Q, 107935504:2K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8703]
+{org:en}
+At normal temperature, dissociation is nearly absent and there are no free charges.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202603699:1T.@not.@entry, 300165171:1C)
+man(300165171:1C, 400535354:15)
+plc(300165171:1C, 105011790:0C)
+man(300165171:1C, 400535354:15)
+plc(300165171:1C, 105011790:0C)
+aoj(300916199:20, 100974762:25.@pl)
+aoj(202603699:1T.@not.@entry, 100974762:25.@pl)
+aoj(301593649:05, 105011790:0C)
+aoj(301593649:05, 105011790:0C)
+aoj(300165171:1C, 100384802:0P.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8704]
+{org:en}
+The concentration of dissolved matter has a major impact on conductivity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:14.@entry, 100375071:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301506258:0N, 100020827:0X)
+mod(107338552:1G.@indef, 301471002:1A)
+aoj(301506258:0N, 100020827:0X)
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+obj(107338552:1G.@indef, 115669512:1Q)
+obj(200065370:14.@entry, 107338552:1G.@indef)
+mod(100375071:06.@topic.@def, 100020827:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8705]
+{org:en}
+The higher the mineralization, the higher its specific conductivity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(300705498:18.@entry.@def, 300705498:09.@def)
+aoj(300705498:09.@def, 115689274:0K.@def)
+mod(115669512:1S, 600000016:1F)
+aoj(300705498:09.@def, 115689274:0K.@def)
+mod(115669512:1S, 600000016:1F)
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+man(300705498:09.@def, 400099341:1W)
+aoj(301099951:1J, 115669512:1S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8706]
+{org:en}
+Melted, pluvial, lake, river and ground waters have sequentially higher mineralization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:1D.@entry, 115689188:0Y)
+mod(115689188:0Y, :01)
+aoj(300705498:1V, 115689274:22)
+and:01(109328904:0J, 303155406:0A)
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+and:01(109411430:0P, 109328904:0J)
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+and:01(303155671:0Z.@entry, 109411430:0P)
+and:01(303155671:0Z.@entry, 109411430:0P)
+man(300705498:1V, 400099341:2M)
+and:01(303155406:0A, 301505991:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8707]
+{org:en}
+Analysis of spatial-temporal variability of specific conductivity creates a basis for the study of genetic structure of river waters and the origin of lakes and seas' water masses.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201640207:1W.@entry, 100634276:02.@topic)
+aoj:02(302734192:2T, 104931965:31)
+and:01(101042242:4Z.@entry.@pl, 109328904:49.@pl)
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+pur(105793554:26.@indef, :02:02)
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+obj(201640207:1W.@entry, 105793554:26.@indef)
+mod:02(107935504:3K.@pl, 109411430:3E)
+pos:01(101042242:4Z.@entry.@pl, 109426788:4J)
+mod:02(107935504:3K.@pl, 109411430:3E)
+pos:01(101042242:4Z.@entry.@pl, 109426788:4J)
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+aoj(302841066:0E, 104735233:0V)
+mod:02(104931965:31, 107935504:3K.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8708]
+{org:en}
+For measurements, a simplified relationship between specific conductivity and water mineralization is used.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(201158572:2W.@entry, 100996969:06.@pl)
+aoj(301099951:1I, 115689274:2E)
+mod(113780719:0X.@topic.@indef, 300750843:0M)
+aoj(301099951:1I, 115689274:2E)
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+aoj(600000024:1A, 113780719:0X.@topic.@indef)
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+mod(115689274:2E, :01)
+mod(115689274:2E, :01)
+obj(600000024:1A, 115689274:2E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8709]
+{org:en}
+Conductivity gauges are used to define mineralization differences of water bodies and their components by direct measurement of specific conductivity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:0Q.@entry, 103429288:0F.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300005473:30, 100996969:37)
+mod(104748836:1K.@pl, 115689274:15)
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+mod(103429288:0F.@topic.@pl, 115669512:02)
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+mod(104748836:1K.@pl, :01)
+obj(100996969:37, 115669512:3V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8710]
+{org:en}
+Water has a high dissolving capacity due to its dipole molecules.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:08.@entry, 107935504:02.@topic)
+obj(600000001:13, 114682133:1L.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:0E, 100720951:0U.@indef)
+obj(600000001:13, 114682133:1L.@pl)
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+mod(114682133:1L.@pl, 600000016:1A)
+mod(100720951:0U.@indef, 113468094:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8711]
+{org:en}
+It causes the destruction and dissolution of chemical compounds which are a part of basic and sedimentary rocks, and the saturation of surface and underground waters by chemical substances.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201645601:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj(600000035:6C, 107935504:4V.@pl)
+and:01(100215314:12.@entry.@def, 100217014:0M.@def)
+and:04(100402671:3T.@entry.@def, :03)
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+obj(201645601:05.@entry, :04:04)
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+obj:03(:01.@entry, 115690228:1L.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:55, 100019613:5E.@pl)
+and:02(302952109:2Y.@entry, 300026168:2O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8712]
+{org:en}
+The intensity of this process is proportional to dielectric constant.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300482673:0Z.@entry, 105036394:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(105036394:06.@topic.@def, 100029677:0O)
+obj(105036394:06.@topic.@def, 100029677:0O)
+aoj(303162519:1F, 105858936:1Q)
+obj(300482673:0Z.@entry, 105858936:1Q)
+mod(100029677:0O, 600000017:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8713]
+{org:en}
+This is abnormally high in water, in comparison with other fluids.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300705498:0L.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(114939445:1P.@pl, 600000031:1J)
+man(300705498:0L.@entry, 400227171:0A)
+mod(114939445:1P.@pl, 600000031:1J)
+man(300705498:0L.@entry, 400227171:0A)
+plc(300705498:0L.@entry, 107935504:0T)
+man(300705498:0L.@entry, 600000228:10)
+obj(600000228:10, 114939445:1P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8714]
+{org:en}
+The high dissolving capacity of water is the reason for chemical denudation within catchment areas.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105651680:1B.@entry.@def, 100720951:0M)
+mod(100720951:0M, 113468094:0B)
+aoj(302692624:1M, 100394803:1V)
+mod(100720951:0M, 113468094:0B)
+aoj(302692624:1M, 100394803:1V)
+aoj(600000006:26, 100394803:1V)
+mod(100720951:0M, 107935504:0Y)
+pur(105651680:1B.@entry.@def, 100394803:1V)
+aoj(300705498:06, 100720951:0M)
+aoj(300705498:06, 100720951:0M)
+obj(600000006:26, 115689952:2D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8715]
+{org:en}
+Water is a good conductor of sound waves.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103088707:0I.@entry.@indef, 107935504:02.@topic)
+aoj(300523364:0D, 103088707:0I.@entry.@indef)
+mod(103088707:0I.@entry.@indef, 107347224:11.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8716]
+{org:en}
+Sound and ultrasonic waves are practically not distorted in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202775095:1D.@entry.@not, 100346095:0N.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100346095:0N.@topic.@pl, :01)
+mod(100346095:0N.@topic.@pl, :01)
+man(202775095:1D.@entry.@not, 400053512:0X)
+plc(202775095:1D.@entry.@not, 107935504:1Q)
+and:01(303162872:0C.@entry, 104981139:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8717]
+{org:en}
+Acoustic speed increases with temperature.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:0H.@entry, 100330160:0B.@topic)
+aoj(302868489:02, 100330160:0B.@topic)
+aoj(302868489:02, 100330160:0B.@topic)
+obj(600000018:0R, 105011790:0W)
+man(200153263:0H.@entry, 600000018:0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8718]
+{org:en}
+In line with Willard and Wilson equations, it also increases with salinity and pressure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200153263:1H.@entry, 400535938:02)
+and:02(100113113:29.@entry, 115668809:1W)
+man(200153263:1H.@entry, 400047534:1C)
+and:01(500005910:0R.@entry, 500009697:0F)
+and:02(100113113:29.@entry, 115668809:1W)
+man(200153263:1H.@entry, 400047534:1C)
+and:01(500005910:0R.@entry, 500009697:0F)
+man(200153263:1H.@entry, 600000018:1R)
+mod(100185307:0Y.@pl, :01)
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+obj(400535938:02, 100185307:0Y.@pl)
+obj(400535938:02, 100185307:0Y.@pl)
+obj(600000018:1R, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8719]
+{org:en}
+This clearly distinguishes water from other fluids, for which acoustic speed decreases at the temperature rise.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200650353:0I.@entry, 600000022:05.@topic)
+pur(200151689:2E, 200650353:0I.@entry)
+man(200650353:0I.@entry, 400039058:0A)
+obj(100324384:37.@def, 105011790:2V)
+pur(200151689:2E, 200650353:0I.@entry)
+man(200650353:0I.@entry, 400039058:0A)
+obj(100324384:37.@def, 105011790:2V)
+obj(200650353:0I.@entry, 107935504:0W)
+scn(200151689:2E, 100324384:37.@def)
+src(200650353:0I.@entry, 114939445:1D.@pl)
+obj(200151689:2E, 100330160:28.@topic)
+obj(200151689:2E, 100330160:28.@topic)
+mod(114939445:1D.@pl, 600000031:17)
+aoj(302868489:1Z, 100330160:28.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8720]
+{org:en}
+Good acoustic properties of water have found a broad application.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200715239:15.@entry.@complete, 104012260:0G.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302868489:07, 104012260:0G.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104012260:0G.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0U)
+aoj(302868489:07, 104012260:0G.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104012260:0G.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0U)
+aoj(300286837:1D, 100036061:1J.@indef)
+obj(200715239:15.@entry.@complete, 100036061:1J.@indef)
+aoj(300523364:02, 104012260:0G.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8721]
+{org:en}
+Echo-sounders have been created to obtain data on bottom relief, and acoustic heterogeneity of a water mass is an indication of underwater objects.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105816790:38.@entry.@indef, 201640207:0Q.@complete)
+plc(108462320:18.@pl, 100354884:1N)
+aoj(302868489:1Z, 104751098:28.@topic)
+mod(100002684:3X.@pl, 303161918:3M)
+pur(201640207:0Q.@complete, 202238085:11)
+plc(108462320:18.@pl, 100354884:1N)
+aoj(302868489:1Z, 104751098:28.@topic)
+mod(100002684:3X.@pl, 303161918:3M)
+pur(201640207:0Q.@complete, 202238085:11)
+obj(105816790:38.@entry.@indef, 100002684:3X.@pl)
+obj(201640207:0Q.@complete, 115695129:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(105816790:38.@entry.@indef, 104751098:28.@topic)
+mod(100354884:1N, 300229978:1G)
+mod(101042242:2X.@indef, 107935504:2R)
+mod(100354884:1N, 300229978:1G)
+mod(101042242:2X.@indef, 107935504:2R)
+mod(104751098:28.@topic, 101042242:2X.@indef)
+obj(202238085:11, 108462320:18.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8722]
+{org:en}
+This can provide important information, for example to the fishery industry.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(200406963:0B.@entry.@ability, :1Y)
+obj(600000144:16, 100923444:1X.@def)
+aoj(600000144:16, :1Y)
+obj(600000144:16, 100923444:1X.@def)
+aoj(600000144:16, :1Y)
+obj(200406963:0B.@entry.@ability, 105091527:0T)
+agt(200406963:0B.@entry.@ability, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(100923444:1X.@def, 103350880:1P)
+mod(100923444:1X.@def, 103350880:1P)
+aoj(301275562:0J, 105091527:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8723]
+{org:en}
+The ability of water to reflect, absorb and disperse solar radiation are very important properties.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104012260:2I.@entry.@pl, 105200169:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(:01, 101252918:1P)
+mod(105200169:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0H)
+aoj(302799016:1J, 101252918:1P)
+obj(:01, 101252918:1P)
+mod(105200169:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0H)
+aoj(302799016:1J, 101252918:1P)
+man(301275562:28, 400031899:23)
+and:01(200395698:0Z, 200821580:0Q)
+aoj(301275562:28, 104012260:2I.@entry.@pl)
+and:01(201616608:1A.@entry, 200395698:0Z)
+and:01(201616608:1A.@entry, 200395698:0Z)
+pur(107935504:0H, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8724]
+{org:en}
+Reflectivity depends on the condition of the water surface and the height of the sun above the horizon.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0F.@entry, 115668904:02.@topic)
+obj:01(600000072:2F, 105127782:2P.@def)
+mod:01(105137165:1X.@entry.@def, 109450454:2B.@def)
+obj:01(600000072:2F, 105127782:2P.@def)
+mod:01(105137165:1X.@entry.@def, 109450454:2B.@def)
+and:01(105137165:1X.@entry.@def, 105798863:0U.@def)
+mod:01(104362025:1H.@def, 107935504:1B)
+obj(202663848:0F.@entry, :01:01)
+obj:01(105798863:0U.@def, 104362025:1H.@def)
+obj:01(105798863:0U.@def, 104362025:1H.@def)
+aoj:01(600000072:2F, 109450454:2B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8725]
+{org:en}
+A quantitative characteristic of water reflectivity is albedo.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(113820432:1L.@entry, 104731497:0H.@topic.@indef)
+mod(115668904:15, 107935504:0Z)
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+aoj(301914930:04, 104731497:0H.@topic.@indef)
+obj(104731497:0H.@topic.@indef, 115668904:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8726]
+{org:en}
+This is the part of the solar radiation, that is reflected from the water surface, as a proportion of total incoming radiation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103892891:0E.@entry.@def, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(101252918:3A, 301294051:31)
+src(200821580:1E, 104362025:23.@def)
+aoj(302799016:0Q, 101252918:0W.@def)
+mod(105076827:2H.@indef, 101252918:3A)
+mod(101252918:3A, 301294051:31)
+src(200821580:1E, 104362025:23.@def)
+aoj(302799016:0Q, 101252918:0W.@def)
+mod(105076827:2H.@indef, 101252918:3A)
+obj(200821580:1E, 101252918:0W.@def)
+obj(600000061:2C, 105076827:2H.@indef)
+mod(103892891:0E.@entry.@def, 101252918:0W.@def)
+mod(104362025:23.@def, 107935504:1X)
+mod(104362025:23.@def, 107935504:1X)
+man(200821580:1E, 600000061:2C)
+qua(101252918:3A, 303160907:2V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8727]
+{org:en}
+The greater the angle of solar rays, the less the albedo.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(400099868:1E.@entry.@def, 301278818:09.@def)
+aoj(302799016:0U, 101495701:10.@pl)
+man(301278818:09.@def, 400099341:1L)
+aoj(302799016:0U, 101495701:10.@pl)
+man(301278818:09.@def, 400099341:1L)
+aoj(301278818:09.@def, 109702673:0L.@def)
+qua(113820432:1N.@def, 400099868:1E.@entry.@def)
+mod(109702673:0L.@def, 101495701:10.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8728]
+{org:en}
+It also depends on wave height, turbidity and water coloration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0A.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+and:01(104703932:0Y, 105137165:0Q)
+mod(100161739:1I, :01)
+and:01(104703932:0Y, 105137165:0Q)
+mod(100161739:1I, :01)
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+obj(202663848:0A.@entry, 100161739:1I)
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+mod:01(105137165:0Q, 100346095:0L)
+and:01(107935504:1C.@entry, 104703932:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8729]
+{org:en}
+A turbidity increase from 0.03 up to 2.5 HTM1 is accompanied by an albedo rise from 23 to 35%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202025550:1F.@entry, 100363260:0E.@topic.@indef)
+qua(HTM1:17, "2.5":13)
+fmt:01("35":2K.@entry, "23":2E)
+obj(100324384:24.@indef, 113820432:1X)
+obj(100363260:0E.@topic.@indef, 104703932:04)
+qua(HTM1:17, "2.5":13)
+fmt:01("35":2K.@entry, "23":2E)
+obj(100324384:24.@indef, 113820432:1X)
+obj(100363260:0E.@topic.@indef, 104703932:04)
+man(100324384:24.@indef, "%":2M)
+src(100363260:0E.@topic.@indef, "0.03":0S)
+agt(202025550:1F.@entry, 100324384:24.@indef)
+aoj(600000086:0X, 100363260:0E.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(600000086:0X, 100363260:0E.@topic.@indef)
+qua("%":2M, :01:01)
+obj(600000086:0X, HTM1:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8730]
+{org:en}
+Other things being equal, the albedo of brown humic water is greater than that of clear water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(301278818:1R.@entry, 100002452:08.@pl)
+mod(100002452:08.@pl, 600000031:02)
+aoj(300428404:2C, 107935504:2I)
+man(301278818:1R.@entry, 400099341:3Z)
+aoj(302744247:1C, 107935504:1I)
+mod(100002452:08.@pl, 600000031:02)
+aoj(300428404:2C, 107935504:2I)
+man(301278818:1R.@entry, 400099341:3Z)
+aoj(302744247:1C, 107935504:1I)
+bas(301278818:1R.@entry, 600000030:24)
+aoj(300372111:16, 107935504:1I)
+aoj(301278818:1R.@entry, 113820432:0W.@topic.@def)
+mod(113820432:0W.@topic.@def, 107935504:1I)
+mod(113820432:0W.@topic.@def, 107935504:1I)
+mod(600000030:24, 107935504:2I)
+aoj(300889831:0L.@state, 100002452:08.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8731]
+{org:en}
+Penetration of solar radiation into the water body depends on many factors.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:1H.@entry, 100051525:02.@topic)
+aoj(302799016:0H, 101252918:0N)
+obj(100051525:02.@topic, 101252918:0N)
+aoj(302799016:0H, 101252918:0N)
+obj(100051525:02.@topic, 101252918:0N)
+qua(105858317:1X.@pl, 600000028:1S)
+obj(202663848:1H.@entry, 105858317:1X.@pl)
+mod(102861886:1C.@def, 107935504:16)
+mod(102861886:1C.@def, 107935504:16)
+gol(101252918:0N, 102861886:1C.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8732]
+{org:en}
+This process is extremely complicated and has local singularities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200065370:18.@entry, 302177584:0S)
+man(302177584:0S, 400535251:0I)
+mod(104763650:1I.@pl, 301106405:1C)
+man(302177584:0S, 400535251:0I)
+mod(104763650:1I.@pl, 301106405:1C)
+obj(200065370:18.@entry, 104763650:1I.@pl)
+aoj(200065370:18.@entry, 100029677:07.@topic)
+mod(100029677:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(100029677:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+aoj(302177584:0S, 100029677:07.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8733]
+{org:en}
+The attenuation of solar radiation depends on the combined influence of absorption and dispersion processes on light waves of various lengths.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:11.@entry, 105041712:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(105041712:06.@topic.@def, 101252918:0R)
+mod(100029677:2S.@pl, :01)
+aoj(301329830:1G, 100157081:1P.@def)
+mod(100346095:3B.@pl, 103665366:35)
+obj(105041712:06.@topic.@def, 101252918:0R)
+mod(100029677:2S.@pl, :01)
+aoj(301329830:1G, 100157081:1P.@def)
+mod(100346095:3B.@pl, 103665366:35)
+obj(100157081:1P.@def, 100029677:2S.@pl)
+obj(100346095:3B.@pl, 103656231:3S.@pl)
+obj(202663848:11.@entry, 100157081:1P.@def)
+aoj(302799016:0L, 101252918:0R)
+and:01(100368592:2H.@entry, 113423922:22)
+aoj(302799016:0L, 101252918:0R)
+and:01(100368592:2H.@entry, 113423922:22)
+plc(100029677:2S.@pl, 100346095:3B.@pl)
+aoj(303160904:3K, 103656231:3S.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8734]
+{org:en}
+The invisible light waves of the infrared part of the spectrum are the most readily absorbed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:5I.@entry.@def, 100346095:0M.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302517265:06, 100346095:0M.@topic.@def.@pl)
+man(115691570:26, 400536271:21)
+aoj(302517999:0Z, 103892891:18.@def)
+aoj(302517265:06, 100346095:0M.@topic.@def.@pl)
+man(115691570:26, 400536271:21)
+aoj(302517999:0Z, 103892891:18.@def)
+man(302009166:2E, 115691570:26)
+mod(103892891:18.@def, 105128219:1K.@def)
+aoj(302009166:2E, :5I.@entry.@def)
+mod(100346095:0M.@topic.@def.@pl, 103665366:0G)
+mod(100346095:0M.@topic.@def.@pl, 103665366:0G)
+obj(100346095:0M.@topic.@def.@pl, 103892891:18.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8735]
+{org:en}
+Their length exceeds 0.76 HTM1 m.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202669081:0F.@entry, 103656231:08.@topic)
+qua(HTM1:0T, "0.76":0S)
+qua(HTM1:0T, "0.76":0S)
+qua(106832464:0X, HTM1:0T)
+obj(202669081:0F.@entry, 106832464:0X)
+mod(103656231:08.@topic, 600000020:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8736]
+{org:en}
+These waves are responsible for transportation of the Sun's electromagnetic radiation to the absorption surface and its transformation into heat.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300324878:0I.@entry, 100346095:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100346095:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+gol:01(100315986:14, 104362025:38.@def)
+gol:01(100398704:3V.@entry, 105725527:4F)
+aoj:01(302926320:1W, 101252918:2C.@def)
+mod(100346095:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+gol:01(100315986:14, 104362025:38.@def)
+gol:01(100398704:3V.@entry, 105725527:4F)
+aoj:01(302926320:1W, 101252918:2C.@def)
+and:01(100398704:3V.@entry, 100315986:14)
+mod:01(101252918:2C.@def, 109450454:1Q)
+obj(300324878:0I.@entry, :01:01)
+obj:01(100315986:14, 101252918:2C.@def)
+obj:01(100315986:14, 101252918:2C.@def)
+mod:01(100398704:3V.@entry, 600000016:3R)
+mod:01(104362025:38.@def, 113423922:2X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8737]
+{org:en}
+Waves of the visible part of the spectrum are slightly absorbed and they are capable of penetrating to considerable depths.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300308015:27.@entry, 200395698:1L)
+obj(200395698:1L, 100346095:02.@topic.@pl)
+gol(200728954:2I.@progress, 105094725:3A.@pl)
+mod(103892891:0N.@def, 105128219:0Z.@def)
+obj(200395698:1L, 100346095:02.@topic.@pl)
+gol(200728954:2I.@progress, 105094725:3A.@pl)
+mod(103892891:0N.@def, 105128219:0Z.@def)
+obj(300308015:27.@entry, 200728954:2I.@progress)
+obj(100346095:02.@topic.@pl, 103892891:0N.@def)
+aoj(300308015:27.@entry, 600000020:1Y.@topic)
+man(200395698:1L, 115694422:1C)
+man(200395698:1L, 115694422:1C)
+aoj(300624026:2X, 105094725:3A.@pl)
+aoj(300184792:0F, 103892891:0N.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8738]
+{org:en}
+Light waves less than 0.40 HTM1 m are basically absorbed in the upper water layers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200395698:1E.@entry, 100346095:08.@topic.@pl)
+qua(100346095:08.@topic.@pl, 400099868:0E)
+mod(101463259:26.@def.@pl, 301206318:1U)
+qua(106832464:0Y, HTM1:0U)
+qua(100346095:08.@topic.@pl, 400099868:0E)
+mod(101463259:26.@def.@pl, 301206318:1U)
+qua(106832464:0Y, HTM1:0U)
+man(200395698:1E.@entry, 400003483:14)
+bas(400099868:0E, 106832464:0Y)
+gol(200395698:1E.@entry, 101463259:26.@def.@pl)
+mod(100346095:08.@topic.@pl, 103665366:02)
+mod(100346095:08.@topic.@pl, 103665366:02)
+mod(101463259:26.@def.@pl, 107935504:20)
+qua(HTM1:0U, "0.40":0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8739]
+{org:en}
+As they make up the ultra-violet part of the spectrum, absorption of the red end of the spectrum explains the color of water (in a range from dark blue to green color).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200939277:2R.@entry, 600000039:02)
+mod(100728065:27.@def, 105128219:2I.@def)
+obj:02(400121002:3O.@entry, 104053218:3P.@indef)
+mod(103892891:0Z.@def, 105128219:1B.@def)
+mod(104674968:34.@def, 107935504:3D)
+aoj(200040928:0A, 600000020:05)
+aoj:01(300375969:4D, 104674968:4J.@entry)
+mod(100728065:27.@def, 105128219:2I.@def)
+obj:02(400121002:3O.@entry, 104053218:3P.@indef)
+mod(103892891:0Z.@def, 105128219:1B.@def)
+mod(104674968:34.@def, 107935504:3D)
+aoj(200040928:0A, 600000020:05)
+aoj:01(300375969:4D, 104674968:4J.@entry)
+obj(200939277:2R.@entry, 104674968:34.@def)
+obj(600000039:02, 200040928:0A)
+fmt:01(104674968:4J.@entry, 104969703:40)
+agt(200939277:2R.@entry, 113423922:1L.@topic)
+aoj(300381097:23, 100728065:27.@def)
+cnt:02(104053218:3P.@indef, :01)
+aoj(300381097:23, 100728065:27.@def)
+cnt:02(104053218:3P.@indef, :01)
+mod(103892891:0Z.@def, 302518601:0M)
+aoj(:02.@parenthesis, 104674968:34.@def)
+obj(200040928:0A, 103892891:0Z.@def)
+obj(113423922:1L.@topic, 100728065:27.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8740]
+{org:en}
+With low coloration and turbidity the upper one-meter layer absorbs up to 78% of the solar radiation, and a five-meter layer absorbs up to 95.6%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201540232:3Q.@entry, 201540232:1X)
+aoj(302799016:2M, 101252918:2S.@def)
+qua(103753077:3E, "5":39)
+obj(600000019:05, :01:01)
+obj(600000047:3Y, "95.6%":44)
+mod(101463259:1R.@topic.@def, 103753077:1L)
+obj(600000047:25, 101252918:2S.@def)
+aoj(302799016:2M, 101252918:2S.@def)
+qua(103753077:3E, "5":39)
+obj(600000019:05, :01:01)
+obj(600000047:3Y, "95.6%":44)
+mod(101463259:1R.@topic.@def, 103753077:1L)
+obj(600000047:25, 101252918:2S.@def)
+man(201540232:3Q.@entry, 600000047:3Y)
+mod(101463259:1R.@topic.@def, 301206318:1B)
+man(201540232:1X, 600000047:25)
+and:01(104703932:0T.@entry, 100161739:0E)
+agt(201540232:3Q.@entry, 101463259:3K.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(600000019:05, 101463259:1R.@topic.@def)
+agt(201540232:1X, 101463259:1R.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000019:05, 101463259:1R.@topic.@def)
+agt(201540232:1X, 101463259:1R.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301206474:0A, :01)
+mod(101463259:3K.@topic.@indef, 103753077:3E)
+mod(103753077:1L, "1":1H)
+qua(101252918:2S.@def, "78%":2B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8741]
+{org:en}
+At high water turbidity the solar radiation is almost completely absorbed in the upper two-meter layer of lakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(201540232:1V.@entry, 104703932:0G)
+aoj(300705498:05, 104703932:0G)
+mod(101463259:2R.@def, 109328904:30.@pl)
+man(201540232:1V.@entry, 400157624:1K)
+mod(103753077:2L, "2":2H)
+aoj(300705498:05, 104703932:0G)
+mod(101463259:2R.@def, 109328904:30.@pl)
+man(201540232:1V.@entry, 400157624:1K)
+mod(103753077:2L, "2":2H)
+gol(201540232:1V.@entry, 101463259:2R.@def)
+mod(101463259:2R.@def, 103753077:2L)
+obj(201540232:1V.@entry, 101252918:10.@topic.@def)
+mod(104703932:0G, 107935504:0A)
+mod(101463259:2R.@def, 301206318:2B)
+mod(104703932:0G, 107935504:0A)
+mod(101463259:2R.@def, 301206318:2B)
+man(400157624:1K, 400073033:1D)
+aoj(302799016:0U, 101252918:10.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8742]
+{org:en}
+This partly explains temperature diminution with depth in summer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200939277:0E.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+obj(600000019:1A, 105094725:1F)
+aoj(600000019:1A, 107030549:0Z)
+obj(600000019:1A, 105094725:1F)
+aoj(600000019:1A, 107030549:0Z)
+man(200939277:0E.@entry, 400535393:07)
+obj(200939277:0E.@entry, 107030549:0Z)
+tim(107030549:00, 115145012:1O)
+tim(107030549:00, 115145012:1O)
+mod(107030549:0Z, 105011790:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8743]
+{org:en}
+In the upper one-meter layer of clear water 37% of the solar radiation is absorbed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200395698:24.@entry, 101463259:0P.@def)
+mod(103753077:0J, "1":0F)
+mod(101463259:0P.@def, 301206318:09)
+aoj(302799016:1L, 101252918:1R.@def.@topic)
+mod(103753077:0J, "1":0F)
+mod(101463259:0P.@def, 301206318:09)
+aoj(302799016:1L, 101252918:1R.@def.@topic)
+mod(101463259:0P.@def, 107935504:14.@topic)
+qua(101252918:1R.@def.@topic, "37%":1A)
+obj(200395698:24.@entry, 101252918:1R.@def.@topic)
+aoj(300428404:0Y, 107935504:14)
+aoj(300428404:0Y, 107935504:14)
+mod(101463259:0P.@def, 103753077:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8744]
+{org:en}
+Assuming constant albedo, a one-meter layer of ice absorbs 63% of the incoming solar energy, and two-meters absorbs 86%.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200395698:32.@entry, 200395698:1H)
+mod(104633197:2F.@def, 301294051:20)
+mod(103753077:2V.@topic.@pl, "2":2R)
+obj(200524682:02.@progress, 113820432:0K)
+obj(200395698:32.@entry, :34)
+mod(101463259:14.@topic.@indef, 103753077:0Y)
+obj(200395698:1H, 104633197:2F.@def)
+mod(104633197:2F.@def, 301294051:20)
+mod(103753077:2V.@topic.@pl, "2":2R)
+obj(200524682:02.@progress, 113820432:0K)
+obj(200395698:32.@entry, :34)
+mod(101463259:14.@topic.@indef, 103753077:0Y)
+obj(200395698:1H, 104633197:2F.@def)
+mod(:35, 103753077:2V.@topic.@pl)
+mod(101463259:14.@topic.@indef, 107614198:1D)
+agt(200395698:1H, 101463259:14.@topic.@indef)
+agt(200395698:32.@entry, :35)
+aoj(302799016:29, 104633197:2F.@def)
+con(200395698:1H, 200524682:02.@progress)
+aoj(302799016:29, 104633197:2F.@def)
+con(200395698:1H, 200524682:02.@progress)
+aoj(300583239:0B, 113820432:0K)
+qua(:34, "86%":33)
+mod(103753077:0Y, "1":0U)
+qua(104633197:2F.@def, "63%":1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8745]
+{org:en}
+Light dispersion depends on the length of light waves, turbidity, density and water clarity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0J.@entry, 100368592:08.@topic)
+and:01(104703932:1S, 103656231:11.@def)
+mod:01(104820258:2O.@entry, 107935504:2I)
+mod(100368592:08.@topic, 103665366:02)
+and:01(104703932:1S, 103656231:11.@def)
+mod:01(104820258:2O.@entry, 107935504:2I)
+mod(100368592:08.@topic, 103665366:02)
+and:01(104820258:2O.@entry, 104941453:23)
+mod:01(100346095:1H.@pl, 103665366:1B)
+obj(202663848:0J.@entry, :01:01)
+mod:01(103656231:11.@def, 100346095:1H.@pl)
+mod:01(103656231:11.@def, 100346095:1H.@pl)
+and:01(104941453:23, 104703932:1S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8746]
+{org:en}
+Light dispersion occurs in water molecules and mineral particles in the water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200723349:0J.@entry, 100368592:08.@topic)
+mod:01(114682133:0Z.@pl, 107935504:0T)
+plc:01(106326406:1L.@entry.@pl, 107935504:22.@def)
+mod:01(114682133:0Z.@pl, 107935504:0T)
+plc:01(106326406:1L.@entry.@pl, 107935504:22.@def)
+and:01(106326406:1L.@entry.@pl, 114682133:0Z.@pl)
+plc(200723349:0J.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(100368592:08.@topic, 103665366:02)
+mod(100368592:08.@topic, 103665366:02)
+mod:01(106326406:1L.@entry.@pl, 114662574:1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8747]
+{org:en}
+The dominance of one of the dispersion mechanisms depends on the ratio between particle sizes and wavelengths of the solar spectrum.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:1G.@entry, 111413800:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100098385:15.@def.@pl, 100368592:0U)
+and:01(105086269:2S.@entry.@pl, 105095691:2I.@pl)
+obj(600000024:21, :01)
+obj(111413800:06.@topic.@def, 600000027:0J)
+mod(100098385:15.@def.@pl, 100368592:0U)
+and:01(105086269:2S.@entry.@pl, 105095691:2I.@pl)
+obj(600000024:21, :01)
+obj(111413800:06.@topic.@def, 600000027:0J)
+aoj(600000024:21, 113819207:1V.@def)
+aoj(302799016:3B, 105128219:3H.@def)
+obj(202663848:1G.@entry, 113819207:1V.@def)
+mod:01(105095691:2I.@pl, 106326406:29)
+mod:01(105095691:2I.@pl, 106326406:29)
+mod(:01, 105128219:3H.@def)
+mod(600000027:0J, 100098385:15.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8748]
+{org:en}
+If the size of suspended particles is less than the wavelength, dispersion on suspended particles dominates.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(202539334:2S.@entry, 400099868:14)
+bas(400099868:14, 105086269:1I.@def)
+aoj(302351692:28, 106326406:2I.@pl)
+bas(400099868:14, 105086269:1I.@def)
+aoj(302351692:28, 106326406:2I.@pl)
+plc(100368592:1U.@topic, 106326406:2I.@pl)
+aoj(302351692:0H, 106326406:0R.@pl)
+agt(202539334:2S.@entry, 100368592:1U.@topic)
+mod(105095691:09.@topic.@def, 106326406:0R.@pl)
+mod(105095691:09.@topic.@def, 106326406:0R.@pl)
+aoj(400099868:14, 105095691:09.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8749]
+{org:en}
+The greater the wavelength, the less dispersion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(400099868:15.@entry.@def, 301278818:09.@def)
+man(301278818:09.@def, 400099341:1C)
+man(301278818:09.@def, 400099341:1C)
+aoj(301278818:09.@def, 105086269:0L.@def)
+qua(100368592:1E.@def, 400099868:15.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8750]
+{org:en}
+Biological factors
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301405904:02, 105858317:0D.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8751]
+{org:en}
+Water bodies are favorable living media for organisms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(106254475:10.@entry.@pl, 102861886:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(106254475:10.@entry.@pl, 300005839:0T)
+mod(106254475:10.@entry.@pl, 300005839:0T)
+aoj(300604978:0J, 106254475:10.@entry.@pl)
+pur(106254475:10.@entry.@pl, 100004475:1A.@pl)
+mod(102861886:08.@topic.@pl, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8752]
+{org:en}
+Biological and chemical water properties vary according to geographical position, type of water body (wetlands, swamps, underground and ground waters, rivers, lakes, etc.), and their size and water regime.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303160998:17.@entry, 104012260:0W.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 104012260:0W.@topic.@pl)
+mod:05(102861886:2Q, 107935504:2K)
+mod:05(115669360:5K.@entry, :04)
+mod:03(115689188:41, :02)
+and:05(115669360:5K.@entry, 104504486:2C)
+and:03(109411430:49.@pl, 115689188:41)
+mod:05(104504486:2C, 102861886:2Q)
+aoj(:01, 104012260:0W.@topic.@pl)
+mod:05(102861886:2Q, 107935504:2K)
+mod:05(115669360:5K.@entry, :04)
+mod:03(115689188:41, :02)
+and:05(115669360:5K.@entry, 104504486:2C)
+and:03(109411430:49.@pl, 115689188:41)
+mod:05(104504486:2C, 102861886:2Q)
+aoj:05(303161278:1P, 100083448:22)
+obj(600000046:1C, :05)
+and:01(302692624:0H.@entry, 301405904:02)
+and:03(109328904:4H.@pl, 109411430:49.@pl)
+and:05(104504486:2C, 100083448:22)
+and:03(109452395:36.@pl, 109477890:2W.@pl)
+man(303160998:17.@entry, 600000046:1C)
+mod(104012260:0W.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0Q)
+and:03(115689145:4O.@entry, 109328904:4H.@pl)
+and:04(107935504:5E.@entry, 105095691:55)
+mod(104012260:0W.@topic.@pl, 107935504:0Q)
+and:03(115689145:4O.@entry, 109328904:4H.@pl)
+and:04(107935504:5E.@entry, 105095691:55)
+and:02(303155671:3U.@entry, 303160997:3E)
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+and:03(115689188:41, 109452395:36.@pl)
+cnt:05(102861886:2Q, :03.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8753]
+{org:en}
+Living conditions of aquatic ecosystems also vary greatly.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200436879:1B.@entry, 105798863:09.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300124077:0N, 108368757:0V.@pl)
+obj(105798863:09.@topic.@pl, 108368757:0V.@pl)
+aoj(300124077:0N, 108368757:0V.@pl)
+obj(105798863:09.@topic.@pl, 108368757:0V.@pl)
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+man(200436879:1B.@entry, 400056539:1G)
+mod(105798863:09.@topic.@pl, 300005839:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8754]
+{org:en}
+Aquatic ecosystems have abiotic and biotic components, the latter comprising all the associated life of the water body.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0L.@entry, 108368757:0A.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303162424:2F, 100006269:2Q.@def)
+mod(600000200:1P.@def, 103081021:19.@pl)
+and:01(302983891:12.@entry, 303161539:0Q)
+mod(100006269:2Q.@def, 102861886:38.@def)
+aoj(303162424:2F, 100006269:2Q.@def)
+mod(600000200:1P.@def, 103081021:19.@pl)
+and:01(302983891:12.@entry, 303161539:0Q)
+mod(100006269:2Q.@def, 102861886:38.@def)
+aoj(:01, 103081021:19.@pl)
+obj(202774449:1W.@progress, 100006269:2Q.@def)
+obj(200065370:0L.@entry, 103081021:19.@pl)
+mod(102861886:38.@def, 107935504:32)
+aoj(202774449:1W.@progress, 600000200:1P.@def)
+mod(102861886:38.@def, 107935504:32)
+aoj(202774449:1W.@progress, 600000200:1P.@def)
+aoj(300124077:02, 108368757:0A.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100006269:2Q.@def, 300521584:27)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8755]
+{org:en}
+Their vital functions create the special (biological) properties of wetlands, rivers and lakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201640207:0O.@entry, 100720565:0E.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(109328904:2J.@entry.@pl, 109411430:28.@pl)
+aoj(301678729:0Z, 104012260:1K.@def.@pl)
+mod(100720565:0E.@topic.@pl, 300095094:08)
+and:01(109328904:2J.@entry.@pl, 109411430:28.@pl)
+aoj(301678729:0Z, 104012260:1K.@def.@pl)
+mod(100720565:0E.@topic.@pl, 300095094:08)
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+mod(100720565:0E.@topic.@pl, 600000020:02.@pl)
+obj(201640207:0O.@entry, 104012260:1K.@def.@pl)
+and:01(109411430:28.@pl, 109477890:1Y.@pl)
+and:01(109411430:28.@pl, 109477890:1Y.@pl)
+cnt(301678729:0Z, 301405904:18.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8756]
+{org:en}
+These properties are largely determined by magnitude and variability of streams, which define nutritional inflow for aquatic life.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0V.@entry, 104012260:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104012260:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+agt(200957378:2H, 107406765:22.@pl)
+mod(:01, 107406765:22.@pl)
+aoj(303002351:2O, 113499782:30)
+mod(104012260:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+agt(200957378:2H, 107406765:22.@pl)
+mod(:01, 107406765:22.@pl)
+aoj(303002351:2O, 113499782:30)
+man(200699815:0V.@entry, 400006105:0N)
+pur(113499782:30, 100006269:3J)
+aoj(200699815:0V.@entry, :01)
+obj(200957378:2H, 113499782:30)
+obj(200957378:2H, 113499782:30)
+and:01(104735233:1N.@entry, 105090441:19)
+aoj(300124077:3B, 100006269:3J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8757]
+{org:en}
+The nutrient availability determines the trophic status of water bodies, species diversity and productivity of aquatic life.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200699815:0S.@entry, 115668897:0F.@topic.@def)
+mod(115668897:0F.@topic.@def, 100021734:06)
+mod:01(113824500:2S.@entry, 100006269:3G)
+aoj(302945002:17, 113945919:1F.@def)
+mod:01(104735711:2B, 105844881:23)
+mod(115668897:0F.@topic.@def, 100021734:06)
+mod:01(113824500:2S.@entry, 100006269:3G)
+aoj(302945002:17, 113945919:1F.@def)
+mod:01(104735711:2B, 105844881:23)
+obj(113945919:1F.@def, :01:01)
+and:01(104735711:2B, 102861886:1V.@pl)
+obj(200699815:0S.@entry, 113945919:1F.@def)
+aoj:01(300124077:38, 100006269:3G)
+aoj:01(300124077:38, 100006269:3G)
+and:01(113824500:2S.@entry, 104735711:2B)
+mod:01(102861886:1V.@pl, 107935504:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8758]
+{org:en}
+Economic activity can influence the condition of ecosystems through changes of flow, nutrient input and hydraulic conditions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202536557:0O.@entry.@ability, 100407535:0B.@topic)
+mod(100407535:0B.@topic, 300840212:02)
+mod(100191142:1Y.@pl, :01)
+mod(108368757:1F.@pl, 600000045:1Q)
+and:01(103573154:2O.@pl, 100329227:29.@pl)
+mod(100407535:0B.@topic, 300840212:02)
+mod(100191142:1Y.@pl, :01)
+mod(108368757:1F.@pl, 600000045:1Q)
+and:01(103573154:2O.@pl, 100329227:29.@pl)
+obj(105798863:12.@def, 108368757:1F.@pl)
+mod:01(105798863:38.@entry.@pl, 303073751:2Y)
+obj(202536557:0O.@entry.@ability, 105798863:12.@def)
+and:01(105798863:38.@entry.@pl, 103573154:2O.@pl)
+and:01(105798863:38.@entry.@pl, 103573154:2O.@pl)
+obj(600000045:1Q, 100191142:1Y.@pl)
+mod:01(103573154:2O.@pl, 100021734:2F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8759]
+{org:en}
+There is a biological structure which transforms nutrient input into organic matter in water bodies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, 104931965:0O.@indef)
+mod(103573154:1O, 100021734:1F)
+gol(200381601:14, 100020827:27)
+mod(102861886:2N.@pl, 107935504:2H)
+mod(103573154:1O, 100021734:1F)
+gol(200381601:14, 100020827:27)
+mod(102861886:2N.@pl, 107935504:2H)
+aoj(301405904:0D, 104931965:0O.@indef)
+aoj(301093142:1Z, 100020827:27)
+agt(200381601:14, 104931965:0O.@indef)
+plc(100020827:27, 102861886:2N.@pl)
+plc(100020827:27, 102861886:2N.@pl)
+obj(200381601:14, 103573154:1O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8760]
+{org:en}
+It also supports its circulation in local and larger biogeochemical systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201720773:0A.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj(:01, 104377057:1Y.@pl)
+plc(100368302:0N, 104377057:1Y.@pl)
+man:01(300527870:1C.@entry, 400099341:2I)
+aoj(:01, 104377057:1Y.@pl)
+plc(100368302:0N, 104377057:1Y.@pl)
+man:01(300527870:1C.@entry, 400099341:2I)
+man(201720773:0A.@entry, 400047534:05)
+and:01(300527870:1C.@entry, 301106405:12)
+obj(201720773:0A.@entry, 100368302:0N)
+aoj(303161805:1J, 104377057:1Y.@pl)
+aoj(303161805:1J, 104377057:1Y.@pl)
+mod(100368302:0N, 600000016:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8761]
+{org:en}
+Aquatic biocenoses of water bodies subjected to anthropogenic impact are able to purify the water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774243:23.@entry, 115690357:0A.@topic.@pl)
+obj(201118292:11, 102861886:0U.@pl)
+mod(115690357:0A.@topic.@pl, 102861886:0U.@pl)
+aoj(303161088:1E, 107338552:1S)
+obj(201118292:11, 102861886:0U.@pl)
+mod(115690357:0A.@topic.@pl, 102861886:0U.@pl)
+aoj(303161088:1E, 107338552:1S)
+obj(200475183:2B, 107935504:2M.@def)
+gol(201118292:11, 107338552:1S)
+obj(202774243:23.@entry, 200475183:2B)
+mod(102861886:0U.@pl, 107935504:0O)
+mod(102861886:0U.@pl, 107935504:0O)
+aoj(300124077:02, 115690357:0A.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8762]
+{org:en}
+;;Species diversity of ponds and lakes depends on their geographical position, size and the seasonal variations of temperature, oxygen, and nutritients..Species diversity of ponds and lakes depends on their geographical position, size and the seasonal variations of temperature, oxygen, and nutrients..
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:13.@entry, 104735711:0A.@topic)
+mod(104735711:0A.@topic, :01)
+and:02(100021734:3W.@entry.@pl, 114648100:3K.@pl)
+obj:03(100194969:2T.@entry.@def.@pl, :02:02)
+mod:03(100083448:1X.@def.@pl, 600000020:1E.@pl)
+mod(104735711:0A.@topic, :01)
+and:02(100021734:3W.@entry.@pl, 114648100:3K.@pl)
+obj:03(100194969:2T.@entry.@def.@pl, :02:02)
+mod:03(100083448:1X.@def.@pl, 600000020:1E.@pl)
+and:03(100194969:2T.@entry.@def.@pl, 105095691:27.@def.@pl)
+and:01(109328904:0X.@entry.@pl, 109397391:0N.@pl)
+and:03(105095691:27.@def.@pl, 100083448:1X.@def.@pl)
+obj(202663848:13.@entry, :03:03)
+mod(104735711:0A.@topic, 105844881:02.@pl)
+and:02(114648100:3K.@pl, 105011790:37.@pl)
+mod(104735711:0A.@topic, 105844881:02.@pl)
+and:02(114648100:3K.@pl, 105011790:37.@pl)
+aoj:03(301494273:2K, 100194969:2T.@entry.@def.@pl)
+aoj:03(303161278:1K, 100083448:1X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8763]
+{org:en}
+The main zones within a lake are the littoral, pelagic and profundal.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 105611062:0B.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000006:0H, 109328904:0Q.@indef)
+aoj(600000006:0H, 105611062:0B.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000006:0H, 109328904:0Q.@indef)
+aoj(600000006:0H, 105611062:0B.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(303162297:1A, 302888659:10)
+and:01(303162316:1M.@entry, 303162297:1A)
+mod(105611062:0B.@topic.@pl, 301512527:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8764]
+{org:en}
+The littoral zone is the shallow nearshore part, where submerged and aquatic macrophytes grow, and there is a great diversity of benthos.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202603699:2Z.@entry, 103892891:19.@def)
+and:01(300124077:1Z.@entry, 302472252:1L)
+plc(200094460:2J, 103892891:19.@def)
+aoj(301278818:34, 104735711:3A.@indef)
+obj(200094460:2J, 115691102:27.@pl)
+and:01(300124077:1Z.@entry, 302472252:1L)
+plc(200094460:2J, 103892891:19.@def)
+aoj(301278818:34, 104735711:3A.@indef)
+obj(200094460:2J, 115691102:27.@pl)
+mod(104735711:3A.@indef, 100005787:3N)
+mod(103892891:19.@def, 115695720:0Z)
+aoj(202603699:2Z.@entry, 104735711:3A.@indef)
+aoj(302888659:06, 105611062:0F.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300691696:0R, 103892891:19.@def)
+aoj(302888659:06, 105611062:0F.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300691696:0R, 103892891:19.@def)
+aoj(103892891:19.@def, 105611062:0F.@topic.@def)
+aoj(:01, 115691102:27.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8765]
+{org:en}
+Suspended organisms (plankton) dominate in pelagic zone (the open water).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202539334:0X.@entry, 100004475:0C.@topic.@pl)
+cnt(100004475:0C.@topic.@pl, 101383638:0N.@parenthesis)
+aoj(303162297:19, 105611062:1H)
+cnt(100004475:0C.@topic.@pl, 101383638:0N.@parenthesis)
+aoj(303162297:19, 105611062:1H)
+cnt(105611062:1H, :01.@parenthesis)
+plc(202539334:0X.@entry, 105611062:1H)
+aoj(302351692:02, 100004475:0C.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302351692:02, 100004475:0C.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:01(300036254:1R, 107935504:1W.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8766]
+{org:en}
+The deep-water zone (profundal) is occupied by organisms capable of independent travel over significant distances (nekton).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202648639:11.@entry, 105611062:0H.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300691022:06, 105611062:0H.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300727564:1Y, 100295701:2A)
+obj(300308015:1N, 100295701:2A)
+aoj(300625055:2M, 105084201:2Y.@pl)
+aoj(300691022:06, 105611062:0H.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300727564:1Y, 100295701:2A)
+obj(300308015:1N, 100295701:2A)
+aoj(300625055:2M, 105084201:2Y.@pl)
+aoj(300308015:1N, 100004475:1D.@pl)
+cnt(105084201:2Y.@pl, 101384313:39.@parenthesis)
+aoj(202648639:11.@entry, 100004475:1D.@pl)
+obj(600000049:2H, 105084201:2Y.@pl)
+obj(600000049:2H, 105084201:2Y.@pl)
+aoj(600000049:2H, 100295701:2A)
+aoj(303162316:0N.@parenthesis, 105611062:0H.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8767]
+{org:en}
+Organisms belonging to the periphyton, live on the surface of macrophytes and stones in zones of low current velocity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202614387:15.@entry, 100004475:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105611062:2P.@pl, 115689301:3A)
+plc(:01.@entry, 105611062:2P.@pl)
+aoj(202719930:0C.@progress, 100004475:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105611062:2P.@pl, 115689301:3A)
+plc(:01.@entry, 105611062:2P.@pl)
+aoj(202719930:0C.@progress, 100004475:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104362025:1H.@def, :01.@entry)
+mod(115689301:3A, 111443532:32)
+plc(202614387:15.@entry, 104362025:1H.@def)
+aoj(301206474:2Y, 115689301:3A)
+aoj(301206474:2Y, 115689301:3A)
+and:01(104326084:2B.@entry.@pl, 115691102:1V.@pl)
+obj(202719930:0C.@progress, 115692301:0T.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8768]
+{org:en}
+The neuston and pleuston of lakes include organisms living at the water surface.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:10.@entry, :01)
+mod(:01, 109328904:0U.@pl)
+plc(100004475:18.@pl, 104362025:22.@def)
+mod(:01, 109328904:0U.@pl)
+plc(100004475:18.@pl, 104362025:22.@def)
+aoj(300005839:1I, 100004475:18.@pl)
+obj(200183879:10.@entry, 100004475:18.@pl)
+and:01(115692305:0I.@entry.@topic.@def, 115692269:06.@topic.@def)
+and:01(115692305:0I.@entry.@topic.@def, 115692269:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(104362025:22.@def, 107935504:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8769]
+{org:en}
+;;The life cycle of some species takes place at the surface film, which may of may not contain floating parts of plants.The life cycle of some species takes place at the surface film, which may or may not contain floating parts of plants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(202774213:13.@entry, 103338648:1O.@def)
+aoj(300077196:2N, 103892891:2W.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 103338648:1O.@def)
+mod(107341038:0B.@def, 100006269:06)
+obj(:01, 103892891:2W.@pl)
+aoj(300077196:2N, 103892891:2W.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 103338648:1O.@def)
+mod(107341038:0B.@def, 100006269:06)
+obj(:01, 103892891:2W.@pl)
+mod(107341038:0B.@def, 105844881:0P)
+or:01(202701210:2F.@entry.@may.@not, :4D.@may)
+obj(202774213:13.@entry, 107341038:0B.@def)
+mod(103338648:1O.@def, 104362025:1G)
+mod(103338648:1O.@def, 104362025:1G)
+qua(105844881:0P, 600000034:0K)
+mod(103892891:2W.@pl, 100017222:35.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8770]
+{org:en}
+Phytoplankton predominates in large lakes and phytobenthos, i.e. plants attached to the bottom, in small ones.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(303161882:0G.@entry, 115689159:1Q)
+obj(115689159:1Q, 100017222:1V.@pl)
+and:01(115694207:1C.@entry, 109328904:12.@pl)
+obj(301973311:22, 102878222:2I.@def)
+obj(115689159:1Q, 100017222:1V.@pl)
+and:01(115694207:1C.@entry, 109328904:12.@pl)
+obj(301973311:22, 102878222:2I.@def)
+plc(303161882:0G.@entry, :01:01)
+plc(301973311:22, 600000027:2Z)
+aoj(303161882:0G.@entry, 101383896:02.@topic)
+aoj(301973311:22, 100017222:1V.@pl)
+aoj(301973311:22, 100017222:1V.@pl)
+aoj:01(300527870:0W, 109328904:12.@pl)
+aoj(301391351:2T, 600000027:2Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8771]
+{org:en}
+The main characteristic of phytoplankton development is its biomass and production.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 104731497:0B.@topic)
+mod(100250259:17, 101383896:0T)
+mod(104731497:0B.@topic, 100250259:17)
+mod(100250259:17, 101383896:0T)
+mod(104731497:0B.@topic, 100250259:17)
+and:01(100522736:22.@entry, 105024691:1Q)
+mod(:01.@entry, 600000016:1M)
+mod(104731497:0B.@topic, 301512527:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8772]
+{org:en}
+Phytoplankton biomass in lakes of the world varies from 3 HTM1 up to 3 HTM2 HTM3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200436879:1A.@entry, 105024691:0G.@topic)
+qua(HTM3:26, HTM2:23)
+qua(HTM1:1Q, "3":1O)
+mod(105024691:0G.@topic, 101383896:02)
+qua(HTM3:26, HTM2:23)
+qua(HTM1:1Q, "3":1O)
+mod(105024691:0G.@topic, 101383896:02)
+src(200436879:1A.@entry, HTM1:1Q)
+plc(105024691:0G.@topic, 109328904:0R.@pl)
+man(200436879:1A.@entry, 600000047:1T)
+qua(HTM2:23, "3":21)
+qua(HTM2:23, "3":21)
+obj(600000047:1T, HTM3:26)
+mod(109328904:0R.@pl, 105670972:14.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8773]
+{org:en}
+The greatest amount and biomass of phytoplankton is observed in the surface layers of lakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200732552:1I.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj(301278818:06, :01)
+mod(101463259:26.@def.@pl, 104362025:1Y)
+aoj(301278818:06, :01)
+mod(101463259:26.@def.@pl, 104362025:1Y)
+mod(101463259:26.@def.@pl, 109328904:2G.@pl)
+man(301278818:06, 400536271:2K)
+plc(200732552:1I.@entry, 101463259:26.@def.@pl)
+and:01(105024691:0Q.@entry.@topic.@def, 100033615:0F.@topic.@def)
+and:01(105024691:0Q.@entry.@topic.@def, 100033615:0F.@topic.@def)
+mod(:01, 101383896:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8774]
+{org:en}
+The benthos is most diverse in the littoral zone of reservoirs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302067491:0M.@entry, 100005787:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(105611062:1A.@def, 104078574:1I.@pl)
+mod(105611062:1A.@def, 104078574:1I.@pl)
+man(302067491:0M.@entry, 400536271:0H)
+plc(302067491:0M.@entry, 105611062:1A.@def)
+aoj(302888659:11, 105611062:1A.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8775]
+{org:en}
+The amount of benthic organisms reduces towards the profundal.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200045817:0Y.@entry, 100033615:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(302661574:0G, 100004475:0O.@pl)
+aoj(303162316:1I, :1M.@def)
+aoj(302661574:0G, 100004475:0O.@pl)
+aoj(303162316:1I, :1M.@def)
+obj(600000080:16, :1M.@def)
+mod(200045817:0Y.@entry, 600000080:16)
+obj(100033615:06.@topic.@def, 100004475:0O.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8776]
+{org:en}
+Phytobenthos development is limited to a depth of about five meters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200235368:0U.@entry, 100250259:0F.@topic)
+mod(100250259:0F.@topic, 115694207:02)
+qua(103753077:1R.@pl, 400071165:1G)
+mod(100250259:0F.@topic, 115694207:02)
+qua(103753077:1R.@pl, 400071165:1G)
+mod(105094725:17.@indef, 103753077:1R.@pl)
+gol(200235368:0U.@entry, 105094725:17.@indef)
+bas(400071165:1G, "5":1M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8777]
+{org:en}
+Bacteriobenthos is most abundant in silty deposits at the bottom of lakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300013887:0Q.@entry, 115694804:02.@topic)
+mod(102878222:1O.@def, 109328904:1Y.@pl)
+plc(100372448:18.@pl, 102878222:1O.@def)
+mod(102878222:1O.@def, 109328904:1Y.@pl)
+plc(100372448:18.@pl, 102878222:1O.@def)
+man(300013887:0Q.@entry, 400536271:0L)
+plc(300013887:0Q.@entry, 100372448:18.@pl)
+aoj(300503780:12, 100372448:18.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8778]
+{org:en}
+Zoobenthos reaches its most advanced stage of development in the coastal zone of lakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200743344:0D.@entry, 115691641:02.@topic)
+aoj(300412171:0U, 100306900:13)
+obj(100306900:13, 100250259:1C)
+mod(105611062:23.@def, 300462909:1V)
+aoj(300412171:0U, 100306900:13)
+obj(100306900:13, 100250259:1C)
+mod(105611062:23.@def, 300462909:1V)
+gol(200743344:0D.@entry, 100306900:13)
+mod(105611062:23.@def, 109328904:2B.@pl)
+plc(200743344:0D.@entry, 105611062:23.@def)
+man(300412171:0U, 400536271:0P)
+man(300412171:0U, 400536271:0P)
+mod(100306900:13, 600000016:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8779]
+{org:en}
+Its diversity and production reduce with depth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200045817:0V.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(:01, 600000016:02)
+mod(:01, 600000016:02)
+obj(600000018:12, 105094725:17)
+man(200045817:0V.@entry, 600000018:12)
+and:01(100522736:0K.@entry.@topic, 104735711:06.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8780]
+{org:en}
+Seasonal variations of trophic conditions are possible in reservoirs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301821266:1C.@entry, 100194969:0B.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301494273:02, 100194969:0B.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301494273:02, 100194969:0B.@topic.@pl)
+obj(100194969:0B.@topic.@pl, 105798863:0X.@pl)
+plc(301821266:1C.@entry, 104078574:1O.@pl)
+aoj(302945002:0P, 105798863:0X.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8781]
+{org:en}
+Seasonal interchange promotes convective mixing (in autumn and spring) or steady stratification (winter and summer).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201080235:0N.@entry, 100040152:0B.@topic)
+and:02(115145012:3F.@entry, 115237782:34)
+tim:03(100919877:2L.@entry, :02:02.@parenthesis)
+and:01(104288272:1W.@entry, 115668575:1L)
+and:02(115145012:3F.@entry, 115237782:34)
+tim:03(100919877:2L.@entry, :02:02.@parenthesis)
+and:01(104288272:1W.@entry, 115668575:1L)
+or:03(100919877:2L.@entry, 115689918:1A)
+aoj:03(303161954:0Z, 115689918:1A)
+obj(201080235:0N.@entry, :03:03)
+tim:03(115689918:1A, :01:01.@parenthesis)
+tim:03(115689918:1A, :01:01.@parenthesis)
+aoj:03(300919445:2E, 100919877:2L.@entry)
+aoj(301494273:02, 100040152:0B.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8782]
+{org:en}
+Under stratification, warmer and oxygen saturated upper layers are isolated from colder and oxygen depleted bottom layers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300594267:1X.@entry, 600000003:02)
+aoj(200456357:16.@past, 114648100:0Z)
+mod(101463259:39.@pl, 300229978:32)
+agt(202774646:2T.@past, 114648100:2M)
+obj(600000003:02, 100919877:08)
+aoj(300445308:0O, 101463259:1M.@pl)
+aoj(200456357:16.@past, 114648100:0Z)
+mod(101463259:39.@pl, 300229978:32)
+agt(202774646:2T.@past, 114648100:2M)
+obj(600000003:02, 100919877:08)
+aoj(300445308:0O, 101463259:1M.@pl)
+src(300594267:1X.@entry, 101463259:39.@pl)
+man(300445308:0O, 400099341:3I)
+man(300096815:2B, 400099341:3Z)
+aoj(300594267:1X.@entry, 101463259:1M.@pl)
+mod(101463259:1M.@pl, 301206318:1G)
+aoj(300096815:2B, 101463259:39.@pl)
+mod(101463259:1M.@pl, 301206318:1G)
+aoj(300096815:2B, 101463259:39.@pl)
+obj(202774646:2T.@past, 101463259:39.@pl)
+obj(200456357:16.@past, 101463259:1M.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8783]
+{org:en}
+In this state vertical heterogeneity of trophic conditions is formed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200144850:1S.@entry, 104751098:0P.@topic)
+aoj(302945002:16, 105798863:1E.@pl)
+aoj(301204142:0G, 104751098:0P.@topic)
+aoj(302945002:16, 105798863:1E.@pl)
+aoj(301204142:0G, 104751098:0P.@topic)
+mod(104751098:0P.@topic, 105798863:1E.@pl)
+scn(200144850:1S.@entry, 100024720:0A)
+mod(100024720:0A, 600000017:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8784]
+{org:en}
+Anoxia is a limiting factor in living conditions for zoobenthos.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105858317:0N.@entry.@indef, 114043243:02.@topic)
+pur(105798863:14.@pl, 115691641:1J)
+pur(105798863:14.@pl, 115691641:1J)
+aoj(302004385:0E, 105858317:0N.@entry.@indef)
+scn(105858317:0N.@entry.@indef, 105798863:14.@pl)
+mod(105798863:14.@pl, 300005839:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8785]
+{org:en}
+Oxygen resources fall to its limiting level at the end of periods of steady stratification.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202775319:0J.@entry, 105154676:09.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100728065:1H.@def, 106843520:1O.@pl)
+mod(105093890:14, 600000016:0R)
+mod(105154676:09.@topic.@pl, 114648100:02)
+mod(100728065:1H.@def, 106843520:1O.@pl)
+mod(105093890:14, 600000016:0R)
+mod(105154676:09.@topic.@pl, 114648100:02)
+gol(202775319:0J.@entry, 105093890:14)
+aoj(300919445:1Z, 100919877:26)
+tim(202775319:0J.@entry, 100728065:1H.@def)
+mod(106843520:1O.@pl, 100919877:26)
+mod(106843520:1O.@pl, 100919877:26)
+aoj(302004385:0V, 105093890:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8786]
+{org:en}
+The supply of nutrients and oxygen is restored during the phase of intensive convective mixing.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202310482:14.@entry, 113563522:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(113563522:06.@topic.@def, :01:01)
+aoj(301512275:1X, 115689918:2I)
+obj(113563522:06.@topic.@def, :01:01)
+aoj(301512275:1X, 115689918:2I)
+obj(104676540:1O.@def, 115689918:2I)
+dur(202310482:14.@entry, 104676540:1O.@def)
+and:01(114648100:0U.@entry, 100021734:0G.@pl)
+and:01(114648100:0U.@entry, 100021734:0G.@pl)
+aoj(303161954:27, 115689918:2I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8787]
+{org:en}
+For reservoirs in temperate climate conditions such mixing occurs twice a year, when the water temperature is close to 4 HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200723349:1P.@entry, 600000033:2A)
+aoj(600000143:34, 105011790:2P.@topic.@def)
+mod(115689918:1I.@topic, 600001411:1D)
+man(200723349:1P.@entry, 400065294:1W)
+mod(105011790:2P.@topic.@def, 107935504:2J)
+mod(105798863:12.@pl, 114519366:0U)
+aoj(600000143:34, 105011790:2P.@topic.@def)
+mod(115689918:1I.@topic, 600001411:1D)
+man(200723349:1P.@entry, 400065294:1W)
+mod(105011790:2P.@topic.@def, 107935504:2J)
+mod(105798863:12.@pl, 114519366:0U)
+obj(200723349:1P.@entry, 115689918:1I.@topic)
+qua(HTM1:3F, "4":3D)
+mod(105798863:12.@pl, 302401590:0K)
+pur(200723349:1P.@entry, 104078574:06.@pl)
+obj(600000143:34, HTM1:3F)
+scn(104078574:06.@pl, 105798863:12.@pl)
+obj(600000143:34, HTM1:3F)
+scn(104078574:06.@pl, 105798863:12.@pl)
+per(400065294:1W, 115201505:24.@indef)
+obj(600000033:2A, 600000143:34)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8788]
+{org:en}
+In HTM1 subtropical climates this is possible only during the winter cooling of water bodies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(301821266:13.@entry, 114519366:0M.@pl)
+mod(113453160:1Z.@def, 115237782:1S)
+man(113453160:1Z.@def, 400535197:1C)
+mod(113453160:1Z.@def, 115237782:1S)
+man(113453160:1Z.@def, 400535197:1C)
+dur(301821266:13.@entry, 113453160:1Z.@def)
+aoj(302929216:0A, 114519366:0M.@pl)
+aoj(301821266:13.@entry, 600000022:0V.@topic)
+mod(102861886:2G.@pl, 107935504:2A)
+mod(102861886:2G.@pl, 107935504:2A)
+mod(113453160:1Z.@def, 102861886:2G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8789]
+{org:en}
+Lakes of the polar and equatorial climate zones are not exposed to convective mixing at all, as in the first case water temperature does not rise to 4 HTM1 , and in the second HTM2 , it does not fall to the temperature of maximum density.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200614444:1M.@entry.@not, 600000039:2N)
+gol:02(200155143:49.@emphasis.@not.@emphasis, HTM1:4J)
+and:02(200147815:5R.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 200155143:49.@emphasis.@not)
+mod(109328904:02.@topic.@pl, 105611062:18.@def.@pl)
+mod:02(104941453:6Q, 303161017:6I)
+man(115689918:28, 600000329:2F)
+mod:02(102974697:39.@def, "1":33.@ordinal)
+gol:02(200147815:5R.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 105011790:63.@def)
+and:01(302443623:0P.@entry, 300358820:0F)
+gol:02(200155143:49.@emphasis.@not.@emphasis, HTM1:4J)
+and:02(200147815:5R.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 200155143:49.@emphasis.@not)
+mod(109328904:02.@topic.@pl, 105611062:18.@def.@pl)
+mod:02(104941453:6Q, 303161017:6I)
+man(115689918:28, 600000329:2F)
+mod:02(102974697:39.@def, "1":33.@ordinal)
+gol:02(200147815:5R.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 105011790:63.@def)
+and:01(302443623:0P.@entry, 300358820:0F)
+obj:02(200155143:49.@emphasis.@not.@emphasis, 105011790:3O.@topic)
+gol(200614444:1M.@entry.@not, 115689918:28)
+mod:02(105011790:3O.@topic, 107935504:3I)
+obj:02(200147815:5R.@entry.@emphasis.@not., 600000016:5F.@topic)
+mod(105611062:18.@def.@pl, 114519366:10)
+scn:02(200155143:49.@emphasis.@not.@emphasis, 102974697:39.@def)
+obj(200614444:1M.@entry.@not, 109328904:02.@topic.@pl)
+qua:02(HTM1:4J, "4":4H)
+scn:02(200147815:5R.@entry.@emphasis.@not, :D5.@def)
+aoj(:01, 105611062:18.@def.@pl)
+qua:02(HTM1:4J, "4":4H)
+scn:02(200147815:5R.@entry.@emphasis.@not, :D5.@def)
+aoj(:01, 105611062:18.@def.@pl)
+mod:02(:D5.@def, "2":51.@ordinal)
+aoj(303161954:1X, 115689918:28)
+mod:02(105011790:63.@def, 104941453:6Q)
+obj(600000039:2N, :02.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8790]
+{org:en}
+Wind-induced mixing is of more importance to the aquatic life of these lakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000150:0W.@entry, 115689918:0F.@topic)
+aoj(300124077:1F, 100006269:1N.@def)
+aoj(600001383:0S, 105168261:0X)
+agt(200636441:07.@past, 100345641:02)
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+aoj(600001383:0S, 105168261:0X)
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+obj(200636441:07.@past, 115689918:0F.@topic)
+obj(600000150:0W.@entry, 105168261:0X)
+mod(109328904:21.@pl, 600000017:1V)
+mod(109328904:21.@pl, 600000017:1V)
+mod(100006269:1N.@def, 109328904:21.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8791]
+{org:en}
+Species diversity in each zone of a lake depends on the trophic conditions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:17.@entry, 104735711:0A.@topic)
+mod(105611062:0S, 109328904:12.@indef)
+plc(104735711:0A.@topic, 105611062:0S)
+mod(105611062:0S, 109328904:12.@indef)
+plc(104735711:0A.@topic, 105611062:0S)
+aoj(302945002:1M, 105798863:1U.@def.@pl)
+obj(202663848:17.@entry, 105798863:1U.@def.@pl)
+mod(105611062:0S, 600000848:0N)
+mod(105611062:0S, 600000848:0N)
+mod(104735711:0A.@topic, 105844881:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8792]
+{org:en}
+Some of them are autotrophic.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302652590:0J.@entry, 115689345:02.@topic)
+mod(115689345:02.@topic, 600000020:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8793]
+{org:en}
+They organisms consume dissolved substances or synthesize it.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+or(200644066:1E.@entry, 200600903:0I)
+aoj(301506258:0Q, 100019613:10.@pl)
+agt(200600903:0I, 100004475:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301506258:0Q, 100019613:10.@pl)
+agt(200600903:0I, 100004475:08.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200644066:1E.@entry, 600000016:1P)
+agt(200644066:1E.@entry, 100004475:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100004475:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+mod(100004475:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+obj(200600903:0I, 100019613:10.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8794]
+{org:en}
+Macrophytes and phytoplankton are autotrophic.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302652590:10.@entry, :01)
+and:01(101383896:0I.@entry.@topic, 115691102:02.@pl.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8795]
+{org:en}
+Organisms consuming organic substance are called heterotrophic.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200107231:18.@entry, 100019613:0U.@topic)
+aoj(301093142:0M, 100019613:0U.@topic)
+aoj(301093142:0M, 100019613:0U.@topic)
+aoj(400535343:0C, 100019613:0U.@topic)
+gol(200107231:18.@entry, 302652877:1F)
+obj(400535343:0C, 100004475:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8796]
+{org:en}
+They include fishes, Crustacea, aquatic mammals, mollusks, bacteria and fungi.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:07.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+and:01(101861778:16.@pl, 101974399:0N.@pl)
+and:01(115689384:1P.@pl, 115694073:1F.@pl)
+and:01(101861778:16.@pl, 101974399:0N.@pl)
+and:01(115689384:1P.@pl, 115694073:1F.@pl)
+and:01(112992868:22.@entry.@pl, 115689384:1P.@pl)
+and:01(101974399:0N.@pl, 102512053:0F.@pl)
+obj(200183879:07.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj:01(300124077:0Y, 101861778:16.@pl)
+aoj:01(300124077:0Y, 101861778:16.@pl)
+and:01(115694073:1F.@pl, 101861778:16.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8797]
+{org:en}
+According to the trophic conditions of aquatic life, all lakes are divided into oligotrophic, eutrophic, dystrophic and mesotrophic.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200642098:1X.@entry, 600000046:02)
+aoj(300124077:15, 100006269:1D)
+and:01(302716247:2O, 303161655:2A)
+and:01(303161751:3E.@entry, 303161966:2Z)
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+Average trophic conditions are found in mesotrophic lakes.
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+Such conditions are typical of the Arctic and high-mountain cold lakes.
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+{org:en}
+Conversely, ecosystems of eutrophic lakes have large amounts of nutrients and organic substances of natural or anthropogenic origin, with rapid phytoplankton development.
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+
+[S:8802]
+{org:en}
+They include many tropical lakes.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Dystrophic lakes are distinguished by low pH, very high concentration of humic acids, and oxygen deficit, which limits development of living organisms.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:8804]
+{org:en}
+Such conditions are observed most frequently in wetlands and some saline lakes.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8805]
+{org:en}
+With higher quantity of nutrients flowing into lakes, species diversity of aquatic life is reduced.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8806]
+{org:en}
+This means that the assimilation ability of the ecosystem has been exceeded.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8807]
+{org:en}
+Heterotrophic organisms cannot absorb all the allochthonous material.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:8808]
+{org:en}
+As a result, water bodies lose their self-purification capacity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:8809]
+{org:en}
+In natural conditions, this ability promotes improvement of the gas regime, the decay of organic substances, the oxidation of petroleum, phenol, formaldehyde, and methyl alcohol, water clarification, and decontamination from pathogenic microflora, and absorption of heavy metals and radioactive substances.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:8810]
+{org:en}
+Streams and rivers are characterized by significant species diversity.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+It depends on hydrological, hydraulic and morphological differences between the channels and their catchments.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:8812]
+{org:en}
+These differences determine the peculiarities of aquatic communities along rivers and streams.
+{/org}
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+The upper reaches of streams and lower reaches of rivers have the best defined ecological characteristics.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+They support different communities, with specific living conditions, and are typified by the life cycles of their typical representatives
+{/org}
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+obj(201720773:07, 107941729:0P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8815]
+{org:en}
+trout and carp respectively.
+{/org}
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+and:01(101439514:0C.@entry, 102537085:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Transfer from one set of biocenoses to another is accompanied by changes of physical and chemical characteristics of rivers and species composition.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Mountain and hill streams are characterized by relatively small depths and rather fast currents.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8818]
+{org:en}
+If fed by groundwater, water temperatures in streams in summer are usually lower than that of the ambient air or of rivers and lakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8819]
+{org:en}
+Turbulent flow regime provides streams with good oxygen saturation.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8820]
+{org:en}
+With coarse-grained channel deposits and crystalline rock exposures at the bottom of these streams, species diversity is limited.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8821]
+{org:en}
+Owing to shortage of nutrients and dissolved substances, only algae, mosses, small insects and crustacea survive.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(100019613:1E.@entry.@pl, 100021734:0Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8822]
+{org:en}
+The natural habitats of trout are usually situated in the upper parts of rivers and streams, where the water is quite cold and saturated with oxygen.
+{/org}
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+obj:02(303162808:3O.@entry, 114648100:45)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8823]
+{org:en}
+With greater depth and higher nutrient concentration, plankton is also present.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8824]
+{org:en}
+It either comes from lakes in the upper part of the catchment area, or may be of local origin.
+{/org}
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+man(200341917:0C, 400047534:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8825]
+{org:en}
+Most of it is zooplankton.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(101384164:0G.@entry, 600000078:02.@topic)
+pof(600000078:02.@topic, 600000016:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8826]
+{org:en}
+Suspended organisms are distributed uniformly with depth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8827]
+{org:en}
+Their concentration is highest in warm periods and reduces to a minimum during the flood and winter low-flow periods.
+{/org}
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+man:02(300705498:0P, 400536271:39)
+{/unl}
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+[S:8828]
+{org:en}
+Algae develop at the bottom of trout streams.
+{/org}
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+plc(200234057:08.@entry, 102878222:0N.@def)
+{/unl}
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+[S:8829]
+{org:en}
+Their benthos is specialized to consumption of the incoming organic matter.
+{/org}
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+aoj(301093142:1Q, 100020827:1Y.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8830]
+{org:en}
+Many insects live attached to the bottom.
+{/org}
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+man(202614387:0F.@entry, 600000581:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8831]
+{org:en}
+All these physical, chemical and biological conditions are favorable for development of trout and salmon and essentially differ from those in rivers where the typical fish is carp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+pur(300604978:1P, 100250259:23)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8832]
+{org:en}
+These rivers (or parts of rivers) are characterized by low velocity and silty/sandy channel deposits containing much organic matter (detritus).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8833]
+{org:en}
+Zooplankton, phytoplankton and bacterial plankton develop strongly.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:8834]
+{org:en}
+In large river mouths their densities are close to that of lakes.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+High nutrient concentration and changeable (often low) oxygen content favor development of benthic life.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Aquatic vegetation grows strongly on the margins of such rivers.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+The fish community is dominated by slow moving species.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+The aquatic life of swamps and wetlands has great specificity.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+Their distinguishing features are peat and deposits from decaying moss and other hydrophilic plants.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8840]
+{org:en}
+Their species diversity depends on the type of a swamp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105844881:08, 600000020:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8841]
+{org:en}
+That of peatlands tends to be highly specialized and limited in diversity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202439047:0K.@entry, 600000030:02.@topic)
+mod(600000030:02.@topic, 115691542:0A.@pl)
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+man:01(302277607:13, 400089267:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8842]
+{org:en}
+It is governed by the high concentration of humic acids and low oxygen content.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202442205:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj:01(301206474:1Q, 105809192:21.@entry)
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+mod:01(105809192:21.@entry, 114648100:1U)
+and:01(105809192:21.@entry, 114607521:1G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8843]
+{org:en}
+The same factors explain the poor zoobenthos of peaty swamps and wetlands.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200939277:0J.@entry, 105858317:0B.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:01(302775599:1E, 109452395:1K.@pl)
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+and:01(109477890:1V.@entry.@pl, 109452395:1K.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8844]
+{org:en}
+Animals with calcareous skeletons are practically absent here.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300165171:1G.@entry, 100015388:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302673969:0F, 105585383:0Q.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:0A, 100015388:02.@topic.@pl)
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+plc(300165171:1G.@entry, 400536275:1N)
+obj(600000019:0A, 105585383:0Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8845]
+{org:en}
+The development of aquatic life is followed by the growth of biomass.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(200150776:11.@entry, 100250259:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(100250259:06.@topic.@def, 100006269:0T)
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+aoj(300124077:0L, 100006269:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8846]
+{org:en}
+Primary production is organic matter formed by autotrophic aquatic life as a result of their vital functions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100020827:0W.@entry, 100522736:0A.@topic)
+mod(100522736:0A.@topic, 300699521:02)
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+aoj(600000171:22, 100006269:1X)
+mod(100720565:2T.@pl, 300095094:2N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8847]
+{org:en}
+Secondary production is characterized by the degree of organic matter transformation by heterotrophic aquatic life.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202697950:0Q.@entry, 100522736:0C.@topic)
+mod(100398704:20, 100020827:1T)
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+aoj(300124077:2W, 100006269:34)
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+obj(600000035:5N, 100006269:34)
+aoj(301093142:1L, 100398704:20)
+aoj(300793592:02, 100522736:0C.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8848]
+{org:en}
+It consists of gross and net production.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774237:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+and:01(301582461:0R.@entry, 300987974:0H)
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+mod(100522736:0V, :01)
+obj(202774237:05.@entry, 100522736:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8849]
+{org:en}
+Gross production is the amount of organic matter formed during photosynthesis.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100033615:0Q.@entry.@def, 100522736:08.@topic)
+mod(100522736:08.@topic, 300987974:02)
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+obj(100033615:0Q.@entry.@def, 100020827:18)
+dur(200144850:1F.@past, 113537429:1T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8850]
+{org:en}
+Net production is the difference between gross production and the production consumed during respiration by plants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104748836:0O.@entry.@def, 100522736:06.@topic)
+mod:01(100522736:1D.@def, 300987974:17)
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+agt(200600903:27, 100017222:32.@pl)
+and:01(100522736:1W.@entry.@def, 100522736:1D.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8851]
+{org:en}
+The productivity of aquatic ecosystems increases from polar to equatorial latitudes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:15.@entry, 113824500:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(113824500:06.@topic.@def, 108368757:0U.@pl)
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+aoj(300124077:0M, 108368757:0U.@pl)
+mod(:40, 300358820:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8852]
+{org:en}
+It is proportional to the amount of oxygen produced during photosynthesis.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300482948:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+obj(201621555:19, 114648100:12)
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+obj(300482948:08.@entry, 100033615:0S.@def)
+dur(201621555:19, 113537429:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8853]
+{org:en}
+While this value for Arctic and Antarctic lakes is 0.007 to 0.28 g of oxygen per square meter per day, it reaches 0.01 to 12.4 g in lakes of the equatorial zone.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200743344:30.@entry, 600000004:02)
+mod(109328904:18.@pl, :01)
+aoj(600000025:27, 114648100:20)
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+qua(106831819:3L, :03:03)
+obj(600000025:27, 113613294:2B)
+aoj(114648100:20, 104979425:0D.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8854]
+{org:en}
+Productivity does not depend on climatic conditions alone, however.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0O.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 113824500:02.@topic)
+aoj(300505853:1I, 105798863:17.@pl)
+aoj(300505853:1I, 105798863:17.@pl)
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+obj(202663848:0O.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 105798863:17.@pl)
+mod(105798863:17.@pl, 303055374:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8855]
+{org:en}
+It is strongly influenced by availability of nitrogen and phosphorus.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202536557:0H.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
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+agt(202536557:0H.@entry, 115668897:0V)
+and:01(114649197:1O.@entry, 114647235:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8856]
+{org:en}
+The greater the concentration of these nutrients in a water body, the higher the primary production.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(300705498:27.@entry.@def, 301278818:09.@def)
+man(301278818:09.@def, 400099341:2S)
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+aoj(301278818:09.@def, 100375071:0L.@def)
+mod(102861886:1T.@indef, 107935504:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8857]
+{org:en}
+Daily average production in the eutrophic lakes of the world is 0.6 to 8.0, in mesotrohpic lakes HTM1 0.25 to 1.0, and in oligotrophic lakes HTM2 0.05 to 0.3 g of carbon per square meter of water surface.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(:01.@entry, :04:04)
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+aoj:04(600000025:4S, 102961851:4L.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8858]
+{org:en}
+Rivers generally have lower primary production than eutrophic and mesotrophic lakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0J.@entry, 109411430:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100522736:12, 300699521:0U)
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+man(301206474:0O, 400099341:2C)
+aoj(301206474:0O, 100522736:12)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8859]
+{org:en}
+Secondary production is equal to the amount of organic matter stored in the heterotrophic aquatic community.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300889831:0Q.@entry, 100522736:0C.@topic)
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+aoj(302652877:26, 107941729:2S.@def)
+aoj(302652877:26, 107941729:2S.@def)
+aoj(301093142:1D, 100020827:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8860]
+{org:en}
+It is approximately 10 times less than primary production.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(400099868:0V.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
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+bas(400007015:08, "10":0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8861]
+{org:en}
+In lakes of the temperate zone zooplankton production varies from 2 to 30% of primary production.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200436879:1R.@entry, 109328904:08.@pl)
+mod(105611062:0V.@def, 302401590:0L)
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+fmt:01("30":2B.@entry, "2":26)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8862]
+{org:en}
+Zoobenthos production is 5 to 10 times less than zooplankton production.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(100522736:0D.@topic, 115691641:02)
+fmt:01("10":0W.@entry, "5":0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8863]
+{org:en}
+Fishes produce from 0.1 to 1% of all secondary production.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201621555:09.@entry, 102512053:02.@topic.@pl)
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+fmt:01("1":0T.@entry, "0.1":0M)
+aoj(300793592:13, 100522736:1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8864]
+{org:en}
+Fisheries take, on average, 5 to 10% of the total biomass of fish in lakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200523095:0C.@entry, 103350880:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105024691:1G.@def, 303160907:1A)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8865]
+{org:en}
+From the recreational, economic and drinking water point of view, use of biologically poor lakes is preferable to highly productive lakes, but fishery production reaches its maximum in eutrophic and its minimum in oligotrophic lakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200743344:4K.@entry.@contrast, 300733743:2U)
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+mod(100522736:49.@topic, 103350880:41)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8866]
+{org:en}
+The species diversity of aquatic life increases from polar to equatorial latitudes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:14.@entry, 104735711:0E.@topic.@def)
+mod(104735711:0E.@topic.@def, 105844881:06)
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+aoj(300124077:0R, 100006269:0Z)
+mod(104735711:0E.@topic.@def, 100006269:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8867]
+{org:en}
+The amount of aquatic life increases with size of the catchment area.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:0T.@entry, 100033615:06.@topic.@def)
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+obj(100033615:06.@topic.@def, 100006269:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8868]
+{org:en}
+Freshwater ecosystems are a component of the global system, taking part in the Earth's biochemical cycle.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103081021:0U.@entry.@indef, 108368757:0D.@topic.@pl)
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+obj(202774708:1X.@progress, 107341038:2T.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8869]
+{org:en}
+Peatlands occupy a special place in global cycling of elements.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202648639:0C.@entry, 115691542:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301568684:12, 200343771:19.@progress)
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+obj(200343771:19.@progress, 105868954:1K.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8870]
+{org:en}
+They cover about 2% of the Earth's surface and contain from 10 to 14% of the carbon in the pedosphere of the planet.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202701210:1D.@entry, 200048633:07)
+qua(104362025:11.@def, "%":0K)
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+obj(200048633:07, 104362025:11.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8871]
+{org:en}
+Biochemical processes in peatlands are extremely important for sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon cycling.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301275562:1F.@entry, 100029677:0E.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(114649197:2B, 114647235:21)
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+and:01(114647235:21, 114656219:1T)
+and:01(102961851:2Q.@entry, 114649197:2B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8872]
+{org:en}
+Drainage of waterlogged ground and its amelioration for agriculture produces a great amount of carbon dioxide, thus enhancing the greenhouse effect and global warming.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201621555:1Y.@entry, 115668933:02.@topic)
+mod:02(104809642:3Z.@def, 303070101:3O)
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+aoj:02(301568684:4A, 115696304:4H.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8873]
+{org:en}
+Increasing anthropogenic impact on the catchment area of water bodies, changes trophic status and can lead to eutrophication HTM1 increase of biological productivity as a result of increase of nutrient concentration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202774203:2W.@entry.@ability, 200109660:21)
+agt(200109660:21, 107338552:0R.@topic)
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+mod(100363260:3O, 113476590:34)
+mod(107338552:0R.@topic, 302534877:02)
+mod(100375071:5O, 100021734:5F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8874]
+{org:en}
+Often it results in major ecological modification of aquatic biocenoses, as evidenced by change of community structure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774178:0B.@entry, 400059547:02)
+obj(100191142:2J, 104931965:33)
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+obj(600000061:23, 202776420:26.@past)
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+mod(104931965:33, 107941729:2T)
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+obj(103778302:13, 115690357:1R.@pl)
+met(202776420:26.@past, 100191142:2J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8875]
+{org:en}
+A quantitative characteristic of this is the Shannon biodiversity index ( HTM1 ), the magnitude of which depends on the diversity in an ecosystem and the size of the population of each species in relation to the aggregate amount of all species present.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105567381:1W.@entry.@def, 104731497:0H.@topic.@indef)
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+mod:01(105095691:4C.@entry.@def, 101257969:4O.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8876]
+{org:en}
+There is an inverse relationship between the Shannon index and the productivity of lakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202603699:08.@entry, 600000010:0Z)
+mod:01(113824500:1X.@entry.@def, 109328904:2D.@pl)
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+obj(600000010:0Z, :01)
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+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, 113780719:0M.@indef)
+and:01(113824500:1X.@entry.@def, 500323654:1B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8877]
+{org:en}
+The greater the production the lower the Shannon index ( HTM1 ) HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(301206474:14.@entry.@def, 301278818:09.@def)
+man(301278818:09.@def, 400099341:1X)
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+man(301278818:09.@def, 400099341:1X)
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+aoj(301206474:14.@entry.@def, 500323654:1E.@def)
+aoj(301278818:09.@def, 100522736:0L.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8878]
+{org:en}
+Communities of oligotrophic lakes and reservoirs have high species diversity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:1F.@entry, 107941729:02.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(104078574:14.@entry.@pl, 109328904:0U.@pl)
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+aoj:01(303161655:0H, 109328904:0U.@pl)
+mod(107941729:02.@topic.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8879]
+{org:en}
+Conversely, limited numbers of species are present in eutrophic water bodies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(301731351:19.@entry, 400078050:02)
+aoj(300529191:0E, 105844881:0X.@topic)
+aoj(302716247:1K, 102861886:20.@pl)
+aoj(300529191:0E, 105844881:0X.@topic)
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+qua(105844881:0X.@topic, 400536069:0M)
+mod(102861886:20.@pl, 107935504:1U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8880]
+{org:en}
+It becomes evident that an abundance of organic "food" causes distress to aquatic ecosystems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200149583:05.@entry, 201645601:1V.@topic)
+aoj(300124077:2E, 108368757:2M.@pl)
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+aoj(201645601:1V.@topic, 105115040:0T.@indef)
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+mod(105115040:0T.@indef, 100021265:1K.@single_quote)
+to(100085829:22, 108368757:2M.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8881]
+{org:en}
+Anthropogenic impact on aquatic ecosystems is accompanied by loss or sharp reduction of many flora and fauna species.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202025550:1C.@entry, 107338552:0G.@topic)
+aoj(300124077:0Q, 108368757:0Y.@pl)
+qua(105844881:3H, 600000028:2P)
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+obj(107338552:0G.@topic, 108368757:0Y.@pl)
+aoj(300124077:0Q, 108368757:0Y.@pl)
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+obj(:01.@entry, 105844881:3H)
+and:02(107993279:37.@entry, 115669739:2X)
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+mod(105844881:3H, :02.@entry)
+aoj:01(300800826:22, 100192300:28.@entry)
+aoj(303161088:02, 107338552:0G.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8882]
+{org:en}
+Indicators of negative changes in aquatic habitats are diminution of the Shannon index and disappearance of species susceptible to contamination.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(107030549:1L.@entry, 103568117:02.@topic.@pl)
+ben(302360448:3A, 100276987:3P)
+and:01(100053609:2L.@entry.@def, 500323654:23.@def)
+aoj(300075515:0G, 100191142:0P.@pl)
+ben(302360448:3A, 100276987:3P)
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+aoj(300075515:0G, 100191142:0P.@pl)
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+mod(103568117:02.@topic.@pl, 100191142:0P.@pl)
+aoj(302360448:3A, 105844881:32)
+aoj(300124077:10, 108580583:18.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
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+{org:en}
+In such communities three to six species usually comprise more than 75% of total biomass of aquatic life.
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+{org:en}
+With greater acidity, the rate of organic production diminishes.
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+[S:8886]
+{org:en}
+The dependence of aquatic life on hydrological condition of water bodies, natural changes of life conditions and types of biomanipulation and intensity of anthropogenic load are only known approximately.
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+{org:en}
+This makes it difficult to arrange optimum economic development of small and large territories, regions of a country and the whole world economy.
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+On one hand, it is impossible to ignore the advantages bestowed by the use of natural resources, in particular water resources.
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+
+[S:8890]
+{org:en}
+It is difficult to imagine development of the economy of any country of the world without use of water, for power, biological raw materials, transport, recreation and other resources of rivers, lakes, seas, and oceans.
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+[S:8891]
+{org:en}
+Huge investments are required to create special facilities for storage, transportation, and purification of sewage flowing into water bodies.
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+They can almost be completely assimilated by the vital functions of aquatic biocenoses or become the cause of destruction of water bodies.
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+These alternatives characterize the significance of water bodies in the warning of ecological risks and economic damage in connection with recycling of wastes.
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+It is possible to reduce these risks and damage through understanding of the relationship between anthropogenic impact (type and intensity) and condition of rivers and lakes.
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+Any kind of economic activity in the catchment area, valley or river channel is accompanied by changes of flow and transportation of different kinds of matter.
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+Fluctuations of water runoff, concentration of dissolved, suspended matter and particles, biological substances, water temperature and flow velocity are inevitably reflected in water quantity and quality.
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+They characterize the whole abiotic conditions of aquatic ecosystems.
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+Related Chapters
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+
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+types of economical activity influencing on physical, chemical, biological characteristics of water bodies and on living conditions of water ecosystems.
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+flora and fauna of water bodies.
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+Clarity
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+the depth where visibility of subjects is lost.
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+{org:en}
+Carrying capacity of the stream
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+{org:en}
+Dipole
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+{org:en}
+Dissociation
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+[/S]
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+aoj(302692624:0F, 100147454:0O.@indef)
+gol(100147454:0O.@indef, 109315159:12.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8941]
+{org:en}
+Distrophic water bodies
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(102861886:0J.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0D)
+aoj(303163164:02, 107935504:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8942]
+{org:en}
+water bodies where living conditions of aquatic life are limited by high concentration of acids and oxygen deficit.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(300529191:1N, 102861886:08.@entry.@pl)
+mod(105798863:0S.@topic.@pl, 300005839:0L)
+mod(100375071:23, :01)
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+mod(105798863:0S.@topic.@pl, 300005839:0L)
+mod(100375071:23, :01)
+man(300529191:1N, 600000065:4L)
+mod:01(105114371:31.@entry, 114648100:2U)
+aoj(300529191:1N, 105798863:0S.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(105114371:31.@entry, 114607521:2K.@pl)
+mod(102861886:08.@entry.@pl, 107935504:02)
+aoj(300124077:16, 100006269:1E)
+aoj(300705498:1Y, 100375071:23)
+aoj(300124077:16, 100006269:1E)
+aoj(300705498:1Y, 100375071:23)
+obj(600000065:4L, 100375071:23)
+obj(105798863:0S.@topic.@pl, 100006269:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8943]
+{org:en}
+Duration of water cycle
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105051249:02.@entry, 107341038:0K)
+mod(107341038:0K, 107935504:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8944]
+{org:en}
+the period of time (hours, days, years) necessary for water renewal in water bodies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106843520:06.@entry.@def, 100028270:0G)
+pur(300343552:16, 101248852:1Q)
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+mod(102861886:27.@pl, 107935504:21)
+pur(300343552:16, 101248852:1Q)
+tim:01(115201505:0Z.@entry.@pl, 114484516:0T.@pl)
+mod(102861886:27.@pl, 107935504:21)
+cnt(100028270:0G, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod(101248852:1Q, 107935504:1K)
+aoj(300343552:16, 100028270:0G)
+plc(101248852:1Q, 102861886:27.@pl)
+plc(101248852:1Q, 102861886:27.@pl)
+tim:01(114484516:0T.@pl, 105131023:0M.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8945]
+{org:en}
+Evaporation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+113572436:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8946]
+{org:en}
+a process of water conversion from liquid to gaseous state.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100029677:04.@entry.@indef, 100094788:0L)
+obj(100094788:0L, 107935504:0F)
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+src(100094788:0L, 300432453:11)
+gol(100094788:0L, 100024720:1J)
+aoj(302262542:1B, 100024720:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8947]
+{org:en}
+Eutrophication
+{/org}
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+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8948]
+{org:en}
+the promotion of biological production due to increase of nutrients of natural and anthropogenic origin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100198451:06.@entry.@def, 100522736:0U)
+mod(100021734:1O.@pl, 104923743:2R)
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+mod(100021734:1O.@pl, 104923743:2R)
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+aoj(301405904:0J, 100522736:0U)
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+aoj(:01, 104923743:2R)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8949]
+{org:en}
+Eutrophic water bodies
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302716247:02, 102861886:0I.@entry.@pl)
+mod(102861886:0I.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8950]
+{org:en}
+water bodies characterizing by abundance of incoming nutrients in comparison with needs of aquatic life.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202697950:0F.@progress, 102861886:08.@entry.@pl)
+mod(100021734:1J.@pl, 301294051:1A)
+obj(105115040:0X, 100021734:1J.@pl)
+aoj(300124077:2L, 100006269:2T)
+mod(100021734:1J.@pl, 301294051:1A)
+obj(105115040:0X, 100021734:1J.@pl)
+aoj(300124077:2L, 100006269:2T)
+aoj(202697950:0F.@progress, 105115040:0X)
+mod(109367991:2C.@pl, 100006269:2T)
+mod(102861886:08.@entry.@pl, 107935504:02)
+obj(600000396:1T, 109367991:2C.@pl)
+obj(600000396:1T, 109367991:2C.@pl)
+aoj(600000396:1T, 100021734:1J.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8951]
+{org:en}
+Freezing
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115669251:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8952]
+{org:en}
+a process of water conversion from liquid to ice state.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100029677:04.@entry.@indef, 100094788:0L)
+obj(100094788:0L, 107935504:0F)
+obj(100094788:0L, 107935504:0F)
+src(100094788:0L, 300432453:11)
+gol(100094788:0L, 100024720:1F)
+mod(100024720:1F, 107614198:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8953]
+{org:en}
+Heterotrophic organisms
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302652877:02, 100004475:0G.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8954]
+{org:en}
+living beings consuming organic matter.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200600903:0G.@progress, 115668578:09.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:0Q, 100020827:0Y)
+aoj(301093142:0Q, 100020827:0Y)
+obj(200600903:0G.@progress, 100020827:0Y)
+aoj(107945818:02, 115668578:09.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8955]
+{org:en}
+Isotope
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+114619658:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8956]
+{org:en}
+a variety of a chemical element distinguished by a number of neutrons in its atomic nucleus.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104751305:04.@entry.@indef, 105868954:0Q.@indef)
+mod(109369520:1R.@pl, 600000054:1F)
+agt(200650353:0Y, 109369520:1R.@pl)
+mod(109369520:1R.@pl, 600000054:1F)
+agt(200650353:0Y, 109369520:1R.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:0H, 105868954:0Q.@indef)
+aoj(301392071:27, 105434927:2E)
+obj(200650353:0Y, 105868954:0Q.@indef)
+mod(105434927:2E, 600000016:23)
+mod(105434927:2E, 600000016:23)
+plc(109369520:1R.@pl, 105434927:2E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8957]
+{org:en}
+Hydrogen connection
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100145218:0B.@entry, 114640434:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8958]
+{org:en}
+the connection between adjacent molecules due to the donor-acceptor interactions between atoms of hydrogen and oxygen.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000024:0H, 100145218:06.@entry.@def)
+and:01(114648100:35.@entry, 114640434:2S)
+aoj(600000024:2B, 100039021:1Y.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300444984:0P, 114682133:0Y.@pl)
+obj(600000024:2B, 114585519:2J.@pl)
+and:01(114648100:35.@entry, 114640434:2S)
+aoj(600000024:2B, 100039021:1Y.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300444984:0P, 114682133:0Y.@pl)
+obj(600000024:2B, 114585519:2J.@pl)
+aoj(300137725:18, 114682133:0Y.@pl)
+mod(109759684:1P, 110025730:1J)
+obj(600000024:0H, 114682133:0Y.@pl)
+mod(100039021:1Y.@def.@pl, 109759684:1P)
+mod(100039021:1Y.@def.@pl, 109759684:1P)
+obj(300137725:18, 100039021:1Y.@def.@pl)
+mod(114585519:2J.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8959]
+{org:en}
+Hydrosphere
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+109307902:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8960]
+{org:en}
+water content in atmosphere, lithosphere and on the Earth's surface.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(105809192:08.@entry, :01:01)
+and:01(104362025:1X.@entry.@def, 109339810:0Y)
+and:01(104362025:1X.@entry.@def, 109339810:0Y)
+pos:01(104362025:1X.@entry.@def, 108562067:1P)
+mod(105809192:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+and:01(109339810:0Y, 108499057:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8961]
+{org:en}
+Humic waters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302744247:02, 107935504:08.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8962]
+{org:en}
+water with high organic matter content (humic acid).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000019:08, 107935504:02.@entry)
+cnt(105809192:0X, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod(105809192:0X, 100020827:0Q)
+cnt(105809192:0X, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod(105809192:0X, 100020827:0Q)
+aoj(300705498:0D, 105809192:0X)
+obj(600000019:08, 105809192:0X)
+aoj:01(302744247:16, 114607521:1C.@entry)
+aoj:01(302744247:16, 114607521:1C.@entry)
+aoj(301093142:0I, 100020827:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8963]
+{org:en}
+Macrocomponents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115691101:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8964]
+{org:en}
+cations and anions of chemical elements composing more than 90% of dissolved matter.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(:01.@entry, 114622893:0O.@pl)
+aoj(301506258:1X, 100020827:27)
+obj(201626138:16.@progress, 100020827:27)
+aoj(301506258:1X, 100020827:27)
+obj(201626138:16.@progress, 100020827:27)
+agt(201626138:16.@progress, 114622893:0O.@pl)
+bas(400099341:1G, "90":1Q)
+and:01(109197815:0E.@entry.@pl, 109238294:02.@pl)
+qua("%":1S, 400099341:1G)
+qua("%":1S, 400099341:1G)
+qua(100020827:27, "%":1S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8965]
+{org:en}
+Melting
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668736:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8966]
+{org:en}
+a process of water conversion from a solid to a liquid state.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100029677:04.@entry.@indef, 100094788:0L)
+aoj(300432453:1E, 100024720:1L.@indef)
+obj(100094788:0L, 107935504:0F)
+aoj(300432453:1E, 100024720:1L.@indef)
+obj(100094788:0L, 107935504:0F)
+src(100094788:0L, :24.@indef)
+gol(100094788:0L, 100024720:1L.@indef)
+aoj(300291181:13, :24.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8967]
+{org:en}
+Meniscus
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+103745712:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8968]
+{org:en}
+the shape of water surface in capillaries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100027807:06.@entry.@def, 104362025:0L)
+mod(104362025:0L, 107935504:0F)
+plc(104362025:0L, 102956069:0W.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8969]
+{org:en}
+Mesotrophic reservoirs
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161751:02, 104078574:0E.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8970]
+{org:en}
+water bodies with moderate trophic conditions of aquatic life.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000019:0F, 102861886:08.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(302945002:0T, 105798863:11.@pl)
+obj(105798863:11.@pl, 100006269:1N)
+aoj(302945002:0T, 105798863:11.@pl)
+obj(105798863:11.@pl, 100006269:1N)
+obj(600000019:0F, 105798863:11.@pl)
+mod(102861886:08.@entry.@pl, 107935504:02)
+aoj(300124077:1F, 100006269:1N)
+aoj(300124077:1F, 100006269:1N)
+aoj(301509367:0K, 105798863:11.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8971]
+{org:en}
+Microcomponents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103081021:07.@entry.@pl, 301393976:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8972]
+{org:en}
+;;chemical elements with concentration much less tan one milligram per liter (for example, heavy metals, copper, zinc, nickel, silver, lead).chemical elements with concentration much less than one milligram per liter (for example, heavy metals, copper, zinc, nickel, silver, lead).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(101256270:3S.@entry, 113371866:3K)
+aoj(600000025:1W, 113723061:1M)
+bas(400099868:18, 113723061:1M)
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+and:01(101256270:3S.@entry, 113371866:3K)
+aoj(600000025:1W, 113723061:1M)
+bas(400099868:18, 113723061:1M)
+and:01(114661977:36, 102282385:2Y)
+aoj(:02.@parenthesis, 114622893:02.@entry.@pl)
+qua(100375071:0P, 400099868:18)
+and:01(113390139:3C, 114661977:36)
+obj(600000025:1W, 113624190:20)
+obj(600000019:0K, 100375071:0P)
+and:01(113371866:3K, 113390139:3C)
+qua(113723061:1M, "1":1I)
+and:01(113371866:3K, 113390139:3C)
+qua(113723061:1M, "1":1I)
+man(400099868:18, 400053744:13)
+and:01(102282385:2Y, 107065149:2K.@pl)
+obj:02(600000144:27.@entry, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8973]
+{org:en}
+Mineralization
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689274:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8974]
+{org:en}
+an amount of dissolved mineral substances in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100033615:05.@entry.@indef, 100019613:0X.@pl)
+aoj(301506258:0F, 114662574:0P)
+aoj(301506258:0F, 114662574:0P)
+mod(100019613:0X.@pl, 114662574:0P)
+plc(100019613:0X.@pl, 107935504:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8975]
+{org:en}
+Mixing process
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100029677:09.@entry, 115689918:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8976]
+{org:en}
+an interaction of water masses, resulting in their natural and chemical modifications.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774178:0Y.@progress, 100039021:05.@topic.@indef.@entry)
+mod(100039021:05.@topic.@indef.@entry, 101042242:0Q.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 103778302:22.@pl)
+mod(100039021:05.@topic.@indef.@entry, 101042242:0Q.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 103778302:22.@pl)
+mod(103778302:22.@pl, 600000020:1B.@pl)
+obj(202774178:0Y.@progress, 103778302:22.@pl)
+mod(101042242:0Q.@pl, 107935504:0K)
+mod(101042242:0Q.@pl, 107935504:0K)
+and:01(302692624:1T.@entry, 301335708:1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8977]
+{org:en}
+Nekton
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+101384313:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8978]
+{org:en}
+living beings traveling large distances in the deep-water part of a lake.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201835496:0G.@progress, 115668578:09.@entry.@pl)
+mod(103892891:1O.@def, 109328904:1Y.@indef)
+obj(201835496:0G.@progress, 105084201:0W.@pl)
+mod(103892891:1O.@def, 109328904:1Y.@indef)
+obj(201835496:0G.@progress, 105084201:0W.@pl)
+plc(201835496:0G.@progress, 103892891:1O.@def)
+aoj(300005839:02, 115668578:09.@entry.@pl)
+mod(103892891:1O.@def, 301380926:1D)
+mod(103892891:1O.@def, 301380926:1D)
+aoj(300527870:0Q, 105084201:0W.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8979]
+{org:en}
+Neuston HTM1 and HTM2 pleuston
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115692305:0O.@entry, 115692269:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8980]
+{org:en}
+the living organisms inhabiting the water surface.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202654416:0N.@progress, 100004475:0D.@entry.@def.@pl)
+mod(104362025:18.@def, 107935504:12)
+mod(104362025:18.@def, 107935504:12)
+obj(202654416:0N.@progress, 104362025:18.@def)
+aoj(107945818:06, 100004475:0D.@entry.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8981]
+{org:en}
+Nutrients
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100021734:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8982]
+{org:en}
+the chemical elements (silicon, nitrogen, phosphorus and iron) closely connected with aquatic communities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300566099:21, 114622893:06.@entry.@def.@pl)
+obj(300566099:21, 107941729:2Q.@pl)
+and:01(114649197:18, 114647235:0Y)
+obj(300566099:21, 107941729:2Q.@pl)
+and:01(114649197:18, 114647235:0Y)
+and:01(103584829:1N.@entry, 114649197:18)
+aoj(300124077:2I, 107941729:2Q.@pl)
+cnt(114622893:06.@entry.@def.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+man(300566099:21, 400160440:1T)
+man(300566099:21, 400160440:1T)
+and:01(114647235:0Y, 114654541:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8983]
+{org:en}
+Oligotrophic water bodies
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(102861886:0L.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0F)
+aoj(303161655:02, 107935504:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8984]
+{org:en}
+water bodies with nutrition deficit for aquatic life.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
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+[/W]
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+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+suspended flora and fauna in the upper layer of deep-water part of a lake.
+{/org}
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+mod(101463259:15.@def, 103892891:1P)
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+mod(101463259:15.@def, 301206318:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8989]
+{org:en}
+Production
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+{unl}
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+100522736:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8990]
+{org:en}
+biomass change per unit of time.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105869857:0L, 100028270:0T)
+mod(105869857:0L, 100028270:0T)
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+obj(100191142:0A.@entry, 105024691:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8991]
+{org:en}
+Protium
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+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8992]
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+a hydrogen isotope without neutrons in its atoms.
+{/org}
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+aoj(600000060:0L, 114619658:0D.@entry.@indef)
+plc(109369520:0T.@pl, 114585519:19.@pl)
+plc(109369520:0T.@pl, 114585519:19.@pl)
+obj(600000060:0L, 109369520:0T.@pl)
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+mod(114585519:19.@pl, 600000016:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8993]
+{org:en}
+Proton
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+109400037:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8994]
+{org:en}
+the positive particle of an atom.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106326406:0F.@entry.@def, 114585519:0U.@indef)
+aoj(300358678:06, 106326406:0F.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8995]
+{org:en}
+Reflectivity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668904:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8996]
+{org:en}
+the ability of water to reflect solar radiation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105200169:06.@entry.@def, 107935504:0H)
+aoj(302799016:0Y, 101252918:14)
+aoj(302799016:0Y, 101252918:14)
+obj(200821580:0Q, 101252918:14)
+obj(105200169:06.@entry.@def, 200821580:0Q)
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+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Refraction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+111503287:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8998]
+{org:en}
+the ability of water to change the direction of the sun's rays at the air-water boundary.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105200169:06.@entry.@def, 107935504:0H)
+pos(101495701:1S.@def.@pl, 109450454:1I)
+obj(200109660:0Q, 106197215:11.@def)
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+obj(105200169:06.@entry.@def, 200109660:0Q)
+mod(108512259:2E.@def, 104727214:24)
+mod(108512259:2E.@def, 104727214:24)
+mod(106197215:11.@def, 101495701:1S.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:8999]
+{org:en}
+Self-purification
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115693088:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9000]
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+the change of allochthonous substances' volume under the vital functions of autotrophic living beings.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100191142:06.@entry.@def, 104990220:16)
+obj(100720565:1T.@def.@pl, 115668578:2P.@pl)
+mod(104990220:16, 100019613:0U)
+aoj(107945818:2I, 115668578:2P.@pl)
+obj(100720565:1T.@def.@pl, 115668578:2P.@pl)
+mod(104990220:16, 100019613:0U)
+aoj(107945818:2I, 115668578:2P.@pl)
+aoj(300180496:0G, 104990220:16)
+aoj(302652590:26, 115668578:2P.@pl)
+mod(104990220:16, 600000009:1D)
+mod(100720565:1T.@def.@pl, 300095094:1N)
+mod(100720565:1T.@def.@pl, 300095094:1N)
+obj(600000009:1D, 100720565:1T.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9001]
+{org:en}
+Solar spectrum
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302799016:02, 105128219:08.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9002]
+{org:en}
+the full range of light waves forming solar light.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104053218:0B.@entry.@def, 100346095:0Q.@pl)
+aoj(302799016:14, 103665366:1A)
+mod(100346095:0Q.@pl, 103665366:0K)
+aoj(302799016:14, 103665366:1A)
+mod(100346095:0Q.@pl, 103665366:0K)
+aoj(200144850:0W.@progress, 100346095:0Q.@pl)
+aoj(300106020:06, 104053218:0B.@entry.@def)
+obj(200144850:0W.@progress, 103665366:1A)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:9003]
+{org:en}
+Sublimation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+107297927:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9004]
+{org:en}
+the process of water conversion from ice to gaseous state.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100029677:06.@entry.@def, 100094788:0N)
+obj(100094788:0N, 107935504:0H)
+obj(100094788:0N, 107935504:0H)
+src(100094788:0N, 107614198:13)
+gol(100094788:0N, 100024720:1I)
+aoj(302262542:1A, 100024720:1I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9005]
+{org:en}
+Suction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+111517494:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9006]
+{org:en}
+a force governing moisture transition in capillaries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202442205:0A.@progress, 105035353:04.@indef.@entry)
+obj(106401328:0T, 114535431:0K)
+obj(106401328:0T, 114535431:0K)
+plc(106401328:0T, 102956069:17.@pl)
+obj(202442205:0A.@progress, 106401328:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9007]
+{org:en}
+Tritium
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+114611521:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9008]
+{org:en}
+a hydrogen isotope with an atom formed by one proton and 2 neutrons (mass number is equaled to 3).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200144850:0Y.@entry.@past, 114619658:0D.@topic.@indef)
+mod:01(103835412:24.@entry, 101042242:1Z)
+aoj(600000019:0L, 114619658:0D.@topic.@indef)
+qua:02(109369520:1P.@entry.@pl, "2":1N)
+cnt(:02, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(103835412:24.@entry, 101042242:1Z)
+aoj(600000019:0L, 114619658:0D.@topic.@indef)
+qua:02(109369520:1P.@entry.@pl, "2":1N)
+cnt(:02, :01.@parenthesis)
+and:02(109369520:1P.@entry.@pl, 109400037:1C.@pl)
+obj(600000019:0L, 114585519:0T.@indef)
+ins(200144850:0Y.@entry.@past, :02)
+gol:01(200417001:2C, "3":2N)
+mod(114619658:0D.@topic.@indef, 114640434:04)
+gol:01(200417001:2C, "3":2N)
+mod(114619658:0D.@topic.@indef, 114640434:04)
+qua:02(109400037:1C.@pl, "1":18)
+obj:01(200417001:2C, 103835412:24.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9009]
+{org:en}
+Trophic type of water bodies
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104504486:0A.@entry, 102861886:0O.@pl)
+mod(102861886:0O.@pl, 107935504:0I)
+aoj(302945002:02, 104504486:0A.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9010]
+{org:en}
+the characteristic of nutrition conditions of aquatic life.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104731497:06.@entry.@def, 105798863:0Y.@pl)
+aoj(300124077:1C, 100006269:1K)
+aoj(300124077:1C, 100006269:1K)
+mod(105798863:0Y.@pl, 106135915:0O)
+obj(105798863:0Y.@pl, 100006269:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9011]
+{org:en}
+Water conductivity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115669512:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9012]
+{org:en}
+the property of water to conduct electrical charges.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104012260:06.@entry.@def, 107935504:0I)
+aoj(302826701:0Z, 100974762:1A.@pl)
+aoj(302826701:0Z, 100974762:1A.@pl)
+obj(201732921:0R, 100974762:1A.@pl)
+pur(107935504:0I, 201732921:0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9013]
+{org:en}
+Water cycle
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107341038:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9014]
+{org:en}
+the closed cycle of water movement from the ocean towards the land and back.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107341038:0D.@entry.@def, 100279835:0S)
+obj(600000104:1G, 109334396:1S.@def)
+mod(100279835:0S, 107935504:0M)
+obj(600000104:1G, 109334396:1S.@def)
+mod(100279835:0S, 107935504:0M)
+frm(100279835:0S, 109376198:1A.@def)
+aoj(301653538:06, 107341038:0D.@entry.@def)
+aoj(600000104:1G, 109376198:1A.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9015]
+{org:en}
+Water ecosystem
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(108368757:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9016]
+{org:en}
+aquatic life and its living conditions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105798863:0U.@entry.@pl, 100006269:0A)
+aoj(300124077:02, 100006269:0A)
+aoj(300124077:02, 100006269:0A)
+aoj(107945818:0N, 105798863:0U.@entry.@pl)
+mod(105798863:0U.@entry.@pl, 600000016:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9017]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9018]
+{org:en}
+Allen J.D. Stream ecology.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106070929:0L.@entry, 107406765:0E)
+mod(107406765:0E, 500323341:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9019]
+{org:en}
+Structure and function of running waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:01.@entry, 107935504:10.@pl)
+mod(107935504:10.@pl, 300592754:0S)
+and:01(100720565:0G.@entry, 104931965:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9020]
+{org:en}
+London etc., 1995. 388 p.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115689145:09.@entry, 500008271:02)
+[W]
+"1995":0A.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9021]
+{org:en}
+This contains a lot of information about foundation of ecosystems in streams
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+obj(103387016:17, 108368757:1L.@pl)
+qua(105091527:0P, 600000269:0G)
+obj(103387016:17, 108368757:1L.@pl)
+qua(105091527:0P, 600000269:0G)
+aoj(600000013:11, 105091527:0P)
+obj(202701210:07.@entry, 105091527:0P)
+plc(108368757:1L.@pl, 107406765:1Z.@pl)
+plc(108368757:1L.@pl, 107406765:1Z.@pl)
+obj(600000013:11, 103387016:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9022]
+{org:en}
+Ecosystems of the World. Vol.23.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(108368757:02.@entry.@pl, 105670972:0K.@def)
+mod(115689976:0R.@entry, "23":0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9023]
+{org:en}
+Lakes and reservoirs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(104078574:0C.@entry.@pl, 109328904:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9024]
+{org:en}
+Amsterdam etc., 1984. 643p.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115689145:0C.@entry, 500004035:02)
+[W]
+"1984":0F.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9025]
+{org:en}
+This contains a lot of information about foundation of ecosystems in lakes and reservoirs
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+obj(103387016:17, 108368757:1L.@pl)
+qua(105091527:0P, 600000269:0G)
+obj(103387016:17, 108368757:1L.@pl)
+qua(105091527:0P, 600000269:0G)
+aoj(600000013:11, 105091527:0P)
+and:01(104078574:29.@entry.@pl, 109328904:1Z.@pl)
+obj(202701210:07.@entry, 105091527:0P)
+plc(108368757:1L.@pl, :01:01)
+plc(108368757:1L.@pl, :01:01)
+obj(600000013:11, 103387016:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9026]
+{org:en}
+Eizenberg D., Kauzman B.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323215:0F.@entry, 500323247:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9027]
+{org:en}
+Structure and properties of water (in Russian).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@parenthesis, :01.@entry)
+obj:02(600000051:13.@entry, 109728403:14)
+obj:02(600000051:13.@entry, 109728403:14)
+and:01(104012260:0G.@entry.@pl, 104931965:02.@pl)
+mod(:01.@entry, 107935504:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9028]
+{org:en}
+Leningrad. Gidrometisdat. 280 p.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323692:0D.@entry, 500323575:02)
+mod(106832788:0W.@entry, "280":0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9029]
+{org:en}
+This presents the theory of water molecule and water structure in various aggregative states
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200772967:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+and:01(104931965:1J.@entry, 114682133:10)
+mod(105952979:0K.@def, :01)
+aoj(303161352:24, 100024720:2G.@pl)
+and:01(104931965:1J.@entry, 114682133:10)
+mod(105952979:0K.@def, :01)
+aoj(303161352:24, 100024720:2G.@pl)
+obj(200772967:07.@entry, 105952979:0K.@def)
+aoj(303160904:1W, 100024720:2G.@pl)
+scn(200772967:07.@entry, 100024720:2G.@pl)
+mod:01(114682133:10, 107935504:0U)
+mod:01(114682133:10, 107935504:0U)
+mod:01(104931965:1J.@entry, 107935504:1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9030]
+{org:en}
+The Function of freshwater ecosystems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100720565:06.@entry.@def, 108368757:0T.@pl)
+mod(108368757:0T.@pl, 115689095:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9031]
+{org:en}
+London. 1980. 340 p.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500008271:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+"1980":09.@entry
+[/W]
+mod(106832788:0K.@entry, "340":0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9032]
+{org:en}
+This gives the general theory of freshwater ecosystems
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200108604:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+aoj(300487198:0H, 105952979:0P.@def)
+aoj(300487198:0H, 105952979:0P.@def)
+mod(105952979:0P.@def, 108368757:1A.@pl)
+obj(200108604:07.@entry, 105952979:0P.@def)
+mod(108368757:1A.@pl, 115689095:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9033]
+{org:en}
+Horne R.A (1972).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323450:02.@entry, "1972":0E.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9034]
+{org:en}
+The sea chemistry (structure of water and chemistry of hydrosphere) (in Russian).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:03.@parenthesis, 106084469:0A.@entry.@def)
+and:01(106084469:18.@entry, 107935504:0Y)
+obj:02(104931965:0L.@entry, :01:01)
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+mod:02(:01, 109307902:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9035]
+{org:en}
+Moscow.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500004288:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9036]
+{org:en}
+" Mir " Press. 340 p.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100627013:0K.@entry, 500324188:09.@single_quote)
+mod(106832788:0V.@entry, "340":0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9037]
+{org:en}
+This book gives entire information about natural and chemical properties of water bodies
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200108604:0C.@entry, 102870092:07.@topic)
+aoj(:01, 104012260:1S.@pl)
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+and:01(302692624:1J.@entry, 301335708:17)
+mod(104012260:1S.@pl, 102861886:2C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9038]
+{org:en}
+Mikhailov V.N., Dobrovolskiy A.D. (1991).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(:01.@entry, "1991":10.@parenthesis)
+and:01(500323169:02.@entry, 500323191:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9039]
+{org:en}
+General Hydrology
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300487198:02, 106119729:0A.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9040]
+{org:en}
+in Russian
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000051:0H.@entry, 109728403:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9041]
+{org:en}
+Moscow. Vysshaja shkola. 368 p.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500324346:0A.@entry, 500004288:02)
+mod(106832788:0V.@entry, "368":0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9042]
+{org:en}
+This is textbook for students of institutions and universities in Russia
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(106414372:0A.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+plc(:01, 500004285:1W)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9043]
+{org:en}
+Odrova T.V. (1979).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323482:02.@entry, "1979":0F.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9044]
+{org:en}
+Hydrophysics of land water objects (in Russian).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 115692813:07.@entry)
+mod(100002684:0T.@pl, 107935504:0N)
+mod(100002684:0T.@pl, 107935504:0N)
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+obj:01(600000051:14.@entry, 109728403:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9045]
+{org:en}
+Leningrad. Gidrometisdat. 311 p.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323692:0D.@entry, 500323575:02)
+mod(106832788:0W.@entry, "311":0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9046]
+{org:en}
+This is a textbook for students studying hydrophysical processes in reservoirs
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(106414372:0C.@entry.@indef, 600000022:02.@topic)
+aoj(303162002:17, 100029677:1L.@pl)
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+plc(100029677:1L.@pl, 104078574:1Y.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9047]
+{org:en}
+Pehovich A.I.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323195:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9048]
+{org:en}
+The foundation of water objects thermal and ice regime (in Russian).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(103387016:06.@entry.@def, :01:01)
+mod:01(111518645:11, 100002684:0T.@pl)
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+[W]
+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9049]
+{org:en}
+Leningrad. Energoatomisdat. 200 p.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500324067:0D.@entry, 500323575:02)
+mod(106832788:0Y.@entry, "200":0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9050]
+{org:en}
+This presents theoretical and applied aspects of the theory of heat processes in rivers and reservoirs
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200772967:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
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+and:01(300863049:0W.@entry, 300860611:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9051]
+{org:en}
+Tsytsarin G.V. (1988)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323304:02.@entry, "1988":0I.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9052]
+{org:en}
+Introduction to water chemistry (in Russian).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 100238022:02.@entry)
+obj:01(600000051:11.@entry, 109728403:12)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:9053]
+{org:en}
+M.: MGU Pub. H. 104 p.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324161:02.@entry.@colon
+[/W]
+[W]
+500324179:06.@entry
+[/W]
+qua(106832788:0N.@entry, "104":0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9054]
+{org:en}
+This work gives full information about chemical properties of water bodies
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200108604:0C.@entry, 100575741:07.@topic)
+aoj(302692624:15, 104012260:1E.@pl)
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+aoj(302692624:15, 104012260:1E.@pl)
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+mod(102861886:1Y.@pl, 107935504:1S)
+mod(104012260:1E.@pl, 102861886:1Y.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9055]
+{org:en}
+Vinnikov S.D., Proskurjakov B.V. (1988).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(:01.@entry, "1988":10.@parenthesis)
+and:01(500323469:02.@entry, 500323222:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9056]
+{org:en}
+Hydrophysics (in Russian).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 115692813:02.@entry)
+obj:01(600000051:0I.@entry, 109728403:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9057]
+{org:en}
+Leningrad. Gidrometisdat. 288 p.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323692:0D.@entry, 500323575:02)
+mod(106832788:0W.@entry, "288":0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9058]
+{org:en}
+This is a textbook for students studying hydrophysical processes in rivers, reservoirs, snow cover and aeration zone
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(106414372:0C.@entry.@indef, 600000022:02.@topic)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:9059]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9060]
+{org:en}
+Alekseevskiy Nikolay Ivanovich, HTM1 Russian, was born in 1950 in the North Caucuses region.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:9061]
+{org:en}
+His parents were agricultural workers.
+{/org}
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+mod(100006150:06.@topic.@pl, 600000021:02)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9062]
+{org:en}
+In 1968 he graduated from special courses of a teacher institute in Stavropol and began work in the school as a teacher of physical culture.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9063]
+{org:en}
+From 1969 to 1972 he was in the army.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(600000577:0Y.@entry.@past, 600000021:0K.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9064]
+{org:en}
+He graduated from the Moscow State University (MSU) in 1978 and in 1981 gained a Ph.D. on "Channel processes in the mouth of rivers with high sediment runoff" from the Department of Geography.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:9065]
+{org:en}
+In 1994 he defended his doctor's thesis on "Formation and movement of river sediment".
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9066]
+{org:en}
+Since 1981 he has been working in MSU as a scientist, assistant professor, and professor at the Faculty of Geography (Department of Hydrology).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tmf(200150096:0P.@complete.@progress.@entry, "1981":08)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:9067]
+{org:en}
+He is now Chief of the Department of Hydrology at the Faculty of Geography (MSU).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(110162991:0C.@entry, 600000021:02.@topic)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9068]
+{org:en}
+He has been a full professor since 1995.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(110480730:0L.@entry.@complete.@indef, 600000021:02.@topic)
+mod(110480730:0L.@entry.@complete.@indef, 300106020:0G)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9069]
+{org:en}
+His sphere of scientific interests is theory of channel processes, river sediment, physical, chemical and biological processes in water bodies, and problems of eco-hydrology and water quality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{org:en}
+RURAL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
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+RURAL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
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+M. Sundaravadivel
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+Graduate School of the Environment, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
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+S. Vigneswaran
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+Faculty of Engineering, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia
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+Keywords
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+Extraction devices, Rainwater harvesting, Rural water supply, Water intake structures, Water treatment, Water distribution system
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+Contents
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+[S:9085]
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+Introduction
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+[/S]
+
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+Need for Alternative Water Supply Systems
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+Water Sources
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+Rainwater-based Rural Water Supply Systems
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+Groundwater-based Water Supply Systems
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+Surface Water Supply Systems
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+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
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+Glossary
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9094]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
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+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+Biographical Sketches
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+Water supply for drinking and domestic uses is an essential basic requirement for households and communities.
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+Unlike in large urban settlements, for small communities in rural and outback areas conventional methods of water sourcing, extraction, and supply are not cost effective.
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+mod(113563522:1X, 107935504:1R)
+man(303161879:0Z, 400536271:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9103]
+{org:en}
+There is a wide range of low-cost groundwater extraction techniques available.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, 104053218:0I.@indef)
+mod(105665146:1N.@pl, 115669379:10)
+aoj(300183053:1Y, 105665146:1N.@pl)
+mod(105665146:1N.@pl, 115669379:10)
+aoj(300183053:1Y, 105665146:1N.@pl)
+aoj(300024241:0D, 104053218:0I.@indef)
+mod(104053218:0I.@indef, 105665146:1N.@pl)
+mod(105665146:1N.@pl, 100392950:1C)
+mod(105665146:1N.@pl, 100392950:1C)
+aoj(300935103:0R, 105665146:1N.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9104]
+{org:en}
+In areas where groundwater is not available in adequate quantities, the next best available option for water supply is from surface water sources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(600000577:3D.@entry, 102735688:05.@pl)
+plc(300183053:10.@not, 102735688:05.@pl)
+aoj(303161072:22, 105790944:2M.@topic.@def)
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+aoj(300051045:1D, 105108740:1M.@pl)
+man(300227507:27, 400536271:4X)
+plc(300183053:10.@not, 102735688:05.@pl)
+aoj(303161072:22, 105790944:2M.@topic.@def)
+mod(104263614:3W.@pl, 115689665:3I)
+aoj(300051045:1D, 105108740:1M.@pl)
+man(300227507:27, 400536271:4X)
+obj(600000577:3D.@entry, 104263614:3W.@pl)
+plc(300183053:10.@not, 105108740:1M.@pl)
+aoj(300183053:2C, 105790944:2M.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000577:3D.@entry, 105790944:2M.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300183053:10.@not, 115669379:0H.@topic)
+aoj(300227507:27, 105790944:2M.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300183053:10.@not, 115669379:0H.@topic)
+aoj(300227507:27, 105790944:2M.@topic.@def)
+pur(105790944:2M.@topic.@def, 113563522:33)
+mod(113563522:33, 107935504:2X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9105]
+{org:en}
+Often, surface water sources are more contaminated than groundwater, which necessitates treatment of water and hence increases the costs of water supply projects.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200493259:14.@entry, 400059547:02)
+mod:01(105910453:4B.@pl, 107935504:3Y)
+agt(:01, 115669379:1M)
+man(200493259:14.@entry, 400099341:0Z)
+obj:01(100658082:2I, 107935504:2V)
+obj:01(200153263:3B.@entry, 113275847:3P.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(105910453:4B.@pl, 107935504:3Y)
+agt(:01, 115669379:1M)
+man(200493259:14.@entry, 400099341:0Z)
+obj:01(100658082:2I, 107935504:2V)
+obj:01(200153263:3B.@entry, 113275847:3P.@def.@pl)
+obj(200493259:14.@entry, 104263614:0N.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(202627934:25, 100658082:2I)
+man:01(200153263:3B.@entry, 600000173:35)
+bas(200493259:14.@entry, 115669379:1M)
+mod:01(105910453:4B.@pl, 113563522:44)
+and:01(200153263:3B.@entry, 202627934:25)
+mod:01(105910453:4B.@pl, 113563522:44)
+and:01(200153263:3B.@entry, 202627934:25)
+mod(104263614:0N.@topic.@pl, 115689665:09)
+mod:01(113275847:3P.@def.@pl, 105910453:4B.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9106]
+{org:en}
+There are simple treatment methods available to provide minimal levels of treatment to produce safe water free of microbial contamination.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, 105660268:0T.@pl)
+aoj(303161231:30, 107935504:2U)
+pur(200406963:1E, 201621555:2H)
+mod(105660268:0T.@pl, 100658082:0J)
+aoj(303014485:38, 100276987:3I)
+aoj(301496021:1M, 105093890:1U.@pl)
+aoj(303161231:30, 107935504:2U)
+pur(200406963:1E, 201621555:2H)
+mod(105660268:0T.@pl, 100658082:0J)
+aoj(303014485:38, 100276987:3I)
+aoj(301496021:1M, 105093890:1U.@pl)
+aoj(301793812:0C, 105660268:0T.@pl)
+obj(303161231:30, 100276987:3I)
+mod(105093890:1U.@pl, 100658082:24)
+aoj(300183053:11, 105660268:0T.@pl)
+aoj(300066933:2P, 107935504:2U)
+obj(200406963:1E, 105093890:1U.@pl)
+aoj(300066933:2P, 107935504:2U)
+obj(200406963:1E, 105093890:1U.@pl)
+pur(300183053:11, 200406963:1E)
+obj(201621555:2H, 107935504:2U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9107]
+{org:en}
+Depending on the quality of raw water, a treatment method can be selected from a limited choice of low-cost treatment methods to achieve better water quality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774500:1V.@entry.@ability, 202663848:02.@progress)
+mod(104723816:48, 107935504:42)
+aoj(300529191:2B, 100161243:2J.@indef)
+aoj(300619433:0U, 107935504:0Y)
+src(202774500:1V.@entry.@ability, 100161243:2J.@indef)
+obj(202663848:02.@progress, 104723816:0J.@def)
+obj(202526085:3N, 104723816:48)
+mod(104723816:48, 107935504:42)
+aoj(300529191:2B, 100161243:2J.@indef)
+aoj(300619433:0U, 107935504:0Y)
+src(202774500:1V.@entry.@ability, 100161243:2J.@indef)
+obj(202663848:02.@progress, 104723816:0J.@def)
+obj(202526085:3N, 104723816:48)
+pur(202774500:1V.@entry.@ability, 202526085:3N)
+mod(105660268:1H.@topic.@indef, 100658082:17)
+mod(105660268:3C.@pl, 100658082:32)
+obj(202774500:1V.@entry.@ability, 105660268:1H.@topic.@indef)
+man(300067379:3V, 400099341:6L)
+aoj(300935103:2T, 105660268:3C.@pl)
+man(300067379:3V, 400099341:6L)
+aoj(300935103:2T, 105660268:3C.@pl)
+mod(100161243:2J.@indef, 105660268:3C.@pl)
+mod(104723816:0J.@def, 107935504:0Y)
+aoj(300067379:3V, 104723816:48)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9108]
+{org:en}
+Distribution of water from a central source to the community is also an important aspect of water supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104733118:2C.@entry.@indef, 101083077:02.@topic)
+to(101083077:02.@topic, 107941729:1H.@def)
+aoj(301275562:22, 104733118:2C.@entry.@indef)
+aoj(300329831:0V, 104263614:13.@indef)
+to(101083077:02.@topic, 107941729:1H.@def)
+aoj(301275562:22, 104733118:2C.@entry.@indef)
+aoj(300329831:0V, 104263614:13.@indef)
+man(104733118:2C.@entry.@indef, 400047534:1U)
+obj(101083077:02.@topic, 107935504:0I)
+mod(104733118:2C.@entry.@indef, 113563522:2S)
+frm(101083077:02.@topic, 104263614:13.@indef)
+frm(101083077:02.@topic, 104263614:13.@indef)
+mod(113563522:2S, 107935504:2M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9109]
+{org:en}
+For rural communities, distribution can be done through stand posts and yard tap connections via a branched network of pipes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(201619014:19.@entry.@ability, 107941729:0C.@pl)
+mod:01(103820474:32.@indef, 103944672:3D.@pl)
+mod:01(100145218:2B.@entry.@pl, 100125436:27)
+obj(600000026:1E, :01)
+mod:01(100318186:1S.@pl, 100960851:1M)
+mod:01(103820474:32.@indef, 103944672:3D.@pl)
+mod:01(100145218:2B.@entry.@pl, 100125436:27)
+obj(600000026:1E, :01)
+mod:01(100318186:1S.@pl, 100960851:1M)
+man(201619014:19.@entry.@ability, 600000026:1E)
+aoj(302050452:06, 107941729:0C.@pl)
+mod:01(100125436:27, 104610503:22)
+obj(201619014:19.@entry.@ability, 101083077:0P.@topic)
+aoj:01(300613866:2T, 103820474:32.@indef)
+aoj:01(600000164:2N, 100145218:2B.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(300613866:2T, 103820474:32.@indef)
+aoj:01(600000164:2N, 100145218:2B.@entry.@pl)
+and:01(100145218:2B.@entry.@pl, 100318186:1S.@pl)
+obj:01(600000164:2N, 103820474:32.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9110]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9111]
+{org:en}
+Water is an indispensable natural resource for the survival and well being of human kind.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(113332009:0S.@entry.@indef, 107935504:02.@topic)
+aoj(301258617:28, 105839024:2E)
+obj(:01, 105839024:2E)
+aoj(301258617:28, 105839024:2E)
+obj(:01, 105839024:2E)
+aoj(300849108:0E, 113332009:0S.@entry.@indef)
+pur(113332009:0S.@entry.@indef, :01:01)
+and:01(115690865:1U.@entry.@def, 101022178:1H.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9112]
+{org:en}
+It is also essential for production of food, energy that contributes to the economic and industrial development of a society.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300900616:0D.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj(202774798:1N, 104633197:1B)
+obj(100522736:0R, 100021265:15)
+aoj(:01, 100250259:2U.@def)
+aoj(202774798:1N, 104633197:1B)
+obj(100522736:0R, 100021265:15)
+aoj(:01, 100250259:2U.@def)
+man(300900616:0D.@entry, 400047534:08)
+obj(100250259:2U.@def, 107966140:3B.@indef)
+obj(300900616:0D.@entry, 100522736:0R)
+obj(202774798:1N, 100250259:2U.@def)
+obj(202774798:1N, 100250259:2U.@def)
+aoj(104633197:1B, 100021265:15)
+and:01(301188648:2J.@entry, 300840212:26)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9113]
+{org:en}
+Safe and reliable supply of water is therefore essential for individual welfare and for community development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300900616:1D.@entry, 113563522:0K.@topic)
+aoj:02(300493460:1R, 115669341:22)
+and:02(100250259:2S.@entry, 115669341:22)
+and:01(300724081:0B.@entry, 300066933:02)
+aoj:02(300493460:1R, 115669341:22)
+and:02(100250259:2S.@entry, 115669341:22)
+and:01(300724081:0B.@entry, 300066933:02)
+man(300900616:1D.@entry, 400043003:13)
+aoj(:01, 113563522:0K.@topic)
+obj(300900616:1D.@entry, :02:02)
+obj(113563522:0K.@topic, 107935504:0U)
+obj(113563522:0K.@topic, 107935504:0U)
+mod:02(100250259:2S.@entry, 107941729:2I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9114]
+{org:en}
+The first and foremost consequence of lack of safe water for community consumption is diseases.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(114070360:2G.@entry.@pl, 105170574:0P.@topic)
+obj(114449405:14, 107935504:1H)
+aoj(:01, 105170574:0P.@topic)
+obj(114449405:14, 107935504:1H)
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+mod(105170574:0P.@topic, 114449405:14)
+mod(100356367:21, 107941729:1R)
+pur(105170574:0P.@topic, 100356367:21)
+aoj(300066933:1C, 107935504:1H)
+aoj(300066933:1C, 107935504:1H)
+and:01(300198610:0G.@entry, 300228294:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9115]
+{org:en}
+Infectious diseases, affected by the availability or the lack of protected water supply systems, may take the following forms
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200523095:2U.@entry.@may, 114070360:0D.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(104377057:2H.@pl, 113563522:2A)
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+obj(200019448:0N, 114070360:0D.@topic.@pl)
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+mod:01(104377057:2H.@pl, 113563522:2A)
+met(200019448:0N, :01)
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+aoj:01(300737703:1U, 104377057:2H.@pl)
+mod(103384535:3D.@def.@pl, 300127815:33)
+obj:01(114449405:1N.@entry.@def, 104377057:2H.@pl)
+obj(200523095:2U.@entry.@may, 103384535:3D.@def.@pl)
+or:01(114449405:1N.@entry.@def, 115668897:13.@def)
+or:01(114449405:1N.@entry.@def, 115668897:13.@def)
+aoj(301302811:02, 114070360:0D.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(104377057:2H.@pl, 107935504:24)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9116]
+{org:en}
+Infections spread through water supplies (water-borne diseases such as typhoid, cholera, gastroenteritis).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201378556:0D.@entry.@past, 104811296:02.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(114129579:2A, 114144416:21)
+aoj:02(600000029:1T, 114070360:1K.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000026:0K, 113563522:0Y.@pl)
+obj:02(600000029:1T, :01)
+and:01(114129579:2A, 114144416:21)
+aoj:02(600000029:1T, 114070360:1K.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000026:0K, 113563522:0Y.@pl)
+obj:02(600000029:1T, :01)
+man(201378556:0D.@entry.@past, 600000026:0K)
+obj:02(202775589:1E, 107935504:18)
+obj(201378556:0D.@entry.@past, :02:02.@parenthesis)
+aoj:02(202775589:1E, 114070360:1K.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:02(202775589:1E, 114070360:1K.@entry.@pl)
+mod(113563522:0Y.@pl, 107935504:0S)
+and:01(114172005:2J.@entry, 114129579:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9117]
+{org:en}
+Infections transmitted through living carriers found in water bodies (water-based diseases such as schistosomiasis, which is through an aquatic snail that burrows through skin).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201435380:0D.@entry.@past, 104811296:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(302126140:26, 107935504:20)
+plc(200715239:1D, 102861886:1S.@pl)
+aoj:01(300124077:3U, 101944390:42.@indef)
+obj(200715239:1D, 101314145:14.@pl)
+obj:01(600000045:3J, 101944390:42.@indef)
+aoj:01(600000029:2L, 114070360:2C.@entry.@pl)
+obj:01(302126140:26, 107935504:20)
+plc(200715239:1D, 102861886:1S.@pl)
+aoj:01(300124077:3U, 101944390:42.@indef)
+obj(200715239:1D, 101314145:14.@pl)
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+aoj:01(600000029:2L, 114070360:2C.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000026:0P, 101314145:14.@pl)
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+man(201435380:0D.@entry.@past, 600000026:0P)
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+obj:01(600000029:2L, 114180565:2T)
+mod(102861886:1S.@pl, 107935504:1M)
+man:01(202042067:4D, 600000026:4L)
+mod(101314145:14.@pl, 300005839:0X)
+agt:01(202042067:4D, 101944390:42.@indef)
+aoj:01(302126140:26, 114070360:2C.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9118]
+{org:en}
+Infections spread by insects that depend on water (water-related diseases such as malaria, yellow fever spread through mosquitoes).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201378556:0D, 104811296:02.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(301971237:1N, 114070360:1V.@pl)
+and:01(115668866:2L.@entry, 114070360:1V.@pl)
+obj(202663848:10, 107935504:1A)
+obj:01(600000026:35, 102200198:3D.@pl)
+aoj:01(301971237:1N, 114070360:1V.@pl)
+and:01(115668866:2L.@entry, 114070360:1V.@pl)
+obj(202663848:10, 107935504:1A)
+obj:01(600000026:35, 102200198:3D.@pl)
+aoj(202663848:10, 102159955:0N.@pl)
+obj:01(600000029:24, 114077830:2C)
+man:01(201378556:2Y, 600000026:35)
+agt(201378556:0D, 102159955:0N.@pl)
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+obj:01(201378556:2Y, 115668866:2L.@entry)
+obj:01(301971237:1N, 107935504:1H)
+obj:01(201378556:2Y, 115668866:2L.@entry)
+cnt(107935504:1A, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj:01(600000029:24, 114070360:1V.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9119]
+{org:en}
+Infections due to the lack of sufficient water for personal hygiene (water-washed diseases such as scabies, trachoma).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300137725:0D, 104811296:02.@entry.@pl)
+agt:01(200036178:24.@past, 107935504:1Y)
+cnt(106051380:1P, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj(302335828:0V, 107935504:16)
+aoj:01(600000029:2K, 114070360:2B.@pl)
+agt:01(200036178:24.@past, 107935504:1Y)
+cnt(106051380:1P, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj(302335828:0V, 107935504:16)
+aoj:01(600000029:2K, 114070360:2B.@pl)
+obj(114449405:0O.@def, 107935504:16)
+and:01(114257377:31.@entry, 114070360:2B.@pl)
+obj(300137725:0D, 114449405:0O.@def)
+obj:01(600000029:2K, 114180327:2S)
+mod(106051380:1P, 301616157:1G)
+obj:01(600000029:2K, 114180327:2S)
+mod(106051380:1P, 301616157:1G)
+pur(107935504:16, 106051380:1P)
+obj:01(200036178:24.@past, 114070360:2B.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9120]
+{org:en}
+World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that as much as 80% of all diseases in the world is associated with water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200672433:0Y.@entry, 108302724:02)
+plc(:01.@topic, 105670972:2F.@def)
+gol(200713167:2O, 107935504:34)
+equ(115669126:0T.@parenthesis, 108302724:02)
+plc(:01.@topic, 105670972:2F.@def)
+gol(200713167:2O, 107935504:34)
+equ(115669126:0T.@parenthesis, 108302724:02)
+obj(200713167:2O, :01.@topic)
+bas(600000388:1D, "80%":1O)
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+Available evidences indicate that most of the health benefits from safe water are attainable at service levels of 30-40 liters per capita per day.
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+It has been established that this role is best fulfilled when every house in a given community is connected to the public water supply system.
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+But for most developing countries, this ideal is still unattainable due to financial and other constraints.
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+According to the Human Development Report of United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), as of 1996, more than 31% of the population in developing countries are yet to have access to safe water and more than three-fourths of this population lives in the rural areas.
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+Need for Alternative Water Supply Systems
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+Traditionally, the people in rural areas have obtained water from unprotected ponds or tanks, wells, cisterns and sometimes streams and rivers.
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+These water sources are frequented daily for collecting drinking and cooking water, washing clothes, bathing, livestock washing, etc.
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+Mostly, these waters are unsafe for consumption due to contamination by fecal matters as well as by their heavy use.
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+Consequently, the populations suffer from frequent epidemics.
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+To supply potable water to all such communities by an ideal comprehensive water supply system that supplies water with a quality matching international standards, is not feasible.
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+Water quality standards which have less bearing on health (such as hardness of water, or the presence of iron and manganese or chlorides normally included in any drinking water of quality standards) can possibly be relaxed unless this causes technical problems, and so long as the rural population finds the water acceptable.
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+This will help to minimize financial constraints in providing safe drinking water.
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+Considering the present situation of rural communities, where water from polluted sources is carried over long distances and used directly, any simple improvement in service and water quality could be expected to have a large beneficial impact on health.
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+
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+That is to say that what is needed is an effective short-term alternative to the ideal situation.
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+low-cost water treatment systems, wherever required
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+[/W]
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+When the surface run-off infiltrates into subsoil it forms groundwater.
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+A source of water supply can be identified at any of the above stages of water cycle, provided it can supply in sufficient quantities for most periods of the time in a year.
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+{org:en}
+Thus, water supply for rural communities can be organized with use of rainwater, groundwater, and, spring and surface water.
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+{org:en}
+Rainwater based Rural Water Supply Systems
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+Rainwater can be considered as a source of water supply in regions where the pattern of rainfall permits its harvesting.
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+Rainwater harvesting is possible in countries where rainfall is heavy, with long intervals with no rainfall.
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+It can be a suitable source in arid and semi-arid areas where people live in scattered settlements and no other sources are available.
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+Rainwater harvesting may serve well for household as well as community level supplies.
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+{org:en}
+It can also be used in conjunction with supply from other sources when their supplies are unpredictable in nature.
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+{org:en}
+Rainwater harvesting at household level is done by storage of rainwater through roof catchments and at community level by storage through ground catchments.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201619014:2X.@entry, 201619014:19)
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+man(201619014:19, 600000026:22)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9159]
+{org:en}
+Roof Catchment and Storage
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100811355:0L.@entry, 102983357:07)
+mod(102983357:07, 104105068:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9160]
+{org:en}
+Rainwater with reasonable qualities can be collected using rooftop areas that can be stored to provide individual households in rural areas with adequate water supplies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300493460:2X, 115669720:38.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9161]
+{org:en}
+By directing the rainfall on the roof areas to flow through simple collection gutter arrangements, water that would otherwise join surface run-off can be gainfully utilized.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+met(200161872:4M.@entry.@ability, 200749205:05.@progress)
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+man(200217427:1D, 600000026:1I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9162]
+{org:en}
+Roofs made of tiles, slates, corrugated iron/tin or asbestos sheets are more suitable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301020885:2S.@entry, 104105068:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod:02(104188179:28.@entry.@pl, 114725591:1Z)
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+or:02(104188179:28.@entry.@pl, :01:01)
+or:02(104234670:0N.@pl, 104435180:0G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9163]
+{org:en}
+Thatched and lead sheet roofs are not suitable because of health hazards.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301020885:1I.@entry.@not, 104105068:14.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(104188179:0Q.@entry, 303163807:05)
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+mod:01(104188179:0Q.@entry, 101256270:0L)
+mod(104105068:14.@topic.@pl, :01.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9164]
+{org:en}
+A typical roof catchment and storage arrangement is shown in Figure 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200923307:1I.@entry, 100939628:13.@topic.@indef)
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+plc(200923307:1I.@entry, 100556992:1R)
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+mod:01(102983357:0H, 104105068:0C)
+mod(100939628:13.@topic.@indef, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9165]
+{org:en}
+Figure 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "1":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9166]
+{org:en}
+Roof catchment and storage
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100811355:0L.@entry, 102983357:07)
+mod(102983357:07, 104105068:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9167]
+{org:en}
+The roof guttering should slope evenly towards a downpipe to avoid sagging and hence pooling of water that may become a breeding place for mosquitoes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202037090:0S.@entry.@should.@past, 115692789:0B.@topic.@def)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9168]
+{org:en}
+It may be helpful to arrange to divert the first flush of water from a roof collection, as it will wash with it the accumulated dust and impurities such as bird droppings, dead leaves, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(301195536:0C.@entry.@may, 600000039:2I)
+aoj:02(300036879:4U, 103652226:4Z.@pl)
+man(200036178:2T.@will, 600000068:46)
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+agt(200036178:2T.@will, 600000016:2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9169]
+{org:en}
+The roof and guttering should be cleaned regularly.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200177714:0Z.@entry.@should.@past, :01:01)
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+man(200177714:0Z.@entry.@should.@past, 400195024:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9170]
+{org:en}
+A wire mesh placed over the top of the downpipe would prevent it from becoming clogged with washed-off materials.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202450505:1K.@entry.@will.@past, 100140393:04.@topic.@indef)
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+obj(600000040:0L, 104453666:0U.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9171]
+{org:en}
+The amount of rainwater that can be harvested will depend on the area of the roof.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:1H.@entry.@will, 100033615:06.@topic.@def)
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+obj(200175804:12.@ability, 115689732:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9172]
+{org:en}
+The storage tank, however, has to be of sufficient capacity to take care of the longest dry season in a normal year.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(600000150:13.@obligation.@entry, 400027384:0K)
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+aoj(301593649:2Y, 115201505:35.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9173]
+{org:en}
+To take care of exceptionally dry years, another 50% surplus storage can be added.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(200182406:26.@entry.@ability, 202775553:0A)
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+aoj(300799953:0W, 115201505:10.@pl)
+mod("50%":1F, 600000066:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9174]
+{org:en}
+The minimum basic drinking and domestic water requirement of a family of six persons is 40 liters per day.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(113624190:2S.@entry.@pl, 115669633:1J.@topic)
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+obj(115669633:1J.@topic, 107970406:20.@indef)
+and:01(301036754:10.@entry, 303155687:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9175]
+{org:en}
+Thus, for an average dry season of 3 months, the water storage required will be 3 X 30 X 40 X 1.5 = 5400 L.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man("3 X 30 X 40 X 1.5 = 5400 L":2A.@will.@entry, 600000141:02)
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+mod(115239174:0N.@indef, 300486290:0F)
+mod(100811355:1L.@topic.@def, 107935504:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9176]
+{org:en}
+Ground Catchment and Storage
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(:01.@entry, 303155671:02)
+and:01(100811355:0N.@entry, 102983357:09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9177]
+{org:en}
+By appropriately preparing a piece of surface on ground, it can be used as a catchment for harvesting rainwater for small communities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201158572:1X.@entry.@ability, 201754271:0J.@progress)
+man(201754271:0J.@progress, 400139508:05)
+pur(200175804:2L.@progress, 107941729:3G.@pl)
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+pur(200175804:2L.@progress, 107941729:3G.@pl)
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+aoj(301391351:3A, 107941729:3G.@pl)
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+obj(201754271:0J.@progress, 103716327:0V.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9178]
+{org:en}
+Part of the rainfall will serve to wet the ground or get lost due to evaporation or infiltration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201077568:0S.@entry.@will, 103892891:02.@topic)
+obj:02(600000001:1S, :01)
+rsn:02(200120796:1J.@entry, 600000001:1S)
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+or:02(200120796:1J.@entry, 200072730:11)
+obj:02(200072730:11, 103462594:19.@def)
+obj(201077568:0S.@entry.@will, :02:02)
+or:01(100976698:2E.@entry, 113572436:1Z)
+or:01(100976698:2E.@entry, 113572436:1Z)
+gol:02(200120796:1J.@entry, 300535170:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9179]
+{org:en}
+A considerable reduction in such losses can be attained by making the catchment surface smooth and impervious using clay, tiles, asphalt or plastic sheets.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+Ground catchment involves land alterations for contouring, clearance of rocks and vegetation, simple soil compaction, preparation of surface (tiling, etc.) to reduce infiltration, construction of ditches along contours and construction of storage tanks.
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+Arrangements in a ground catchment for rainwater harvesting are shown in Figure 2.
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+[S:9182]
+{org:en}
+Figure 2.
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+[S:9183]
+{org:en}
+Ground catchment and storage
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+Storage facilities for ground catchment rainwater harvesting system can be either above-ground or below-ground.
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+Whichever the type of storage, it should be protected from contamination by providing an adequate enclosure that prevents entry of pollutants.
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+Dark storage conditions using a tight cover is required to prevent algal growth and mosquito breeding.
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+{org:en}
+There is a wide choice of materials of construction of storage tanks.
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+{org:en}
+Small storage containers can be built up of clay, wood or water-proofed bamboo frameworks.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+While large storage tanks can be constructed using stone or brick masonry works, ferro-cement or reinforced cement concrete works better.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Ground catchments for community water supply need proper management and maintenance.
+{/org}
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+[S:9191]
+{org:en}
+It may be necessary to provide fencing or hedging to protect against damage and contamination.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9192]
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+Trees and shrubs can be planted around catchment to limit the entry of wind blown materials and dust into the catchment area.
+{/org}
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+[S:9193]
+{org:en}
+Groundwater-based Water Supply Systems
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:9194]
+{org:en}
+Among the various sources of supply, groundwater is by far the most practicable choice.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Groundwater can be extracted either from perennial springs or from open wells/tube wells, as they normally yield safe drinking water in rural areas.
+{/org}
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+Exceptions are areas of fissured limestone where groundwater may be contaminated by intrusion of surface run-off.
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+In areas where groundwater is available at moderate depths, constructing a number of wells fitted with hand operated pumps is by far the cheapest means of providing a good water supply.
+{/org}
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+man(201583142:1X.@topic.@progress, 102735688:08.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9198]
+{org:en}
+Extraction Devices
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100171249:0D.@entry.@pl, 100392950:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9199]
+{org:en}
+Extraction of water from wells can be done with use of simple technologies that can be manually operated.
+{/org}
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+man(200341285:2X.@ability, 400124702:2O)
+obj(200341285:2X.@ability, 100949619:1Z.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9200]
+{org:en}
+Traditionally, there were number of water lifting devices that were being used in various parts of the world.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202603699:0N.@entry.@past, 400476807:02)
+obj(200178502:18.@progress, 107935504:12)
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+plc(201158572:24.@progress.@past, 103892891:2K.@pl)
+agt(200178502:18.@progress, 100171249:1G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9201]
+{org:en}
+These include, rope and bucket devices, counterpoise lifts and the Archimedes screws.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:08.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:02(303163112:1F, 100116376:1S.@pl)
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+mod:02(100171249:13.@pl.@def, :01.@entry)
+and:02(100116376:1S.@pl.@def, 100171249:13.@pl.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9202]
+{org:en}
+With simple modifications, these traditional methods can be made more efficient in operation and at the same time protecting the source from contamination.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200012267:1Q.@entry.@ability, 600000018:02)
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+src:01(201128193:3B.@entry.@progress, 100276987:42)
+mod(105660268:1B.@topic.@pl, 600000017:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9203]
+{org:en}
+Some of the modified versions of these simple water-lifting technologies are
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:4M.@entry, 101267901:0N.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200178502:1I.@progress, 107935504:1C)
+mod(101267901:0N.@topic.@def.@pl, 301540365:0E)
+obj(200178502:1I.@progress, 107935504:1C)
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+qua(101267901:0N.@topic.@def.@pl, 600000034:02)
+aoj(301793812:15, 107935504:1C)
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+mod(107935504:1C, 600000017:0Z)
+mod(107935504:1C, 600000017:0Z)
+mod(100949619:1Q.@pl, 200178502:1I.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9204]
+{org:en}
+sanitary rope and bucket system
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104377057:0R.@entry, 302112976:02)
+and:01(102909870:0K.@entry, 103106110:0B)
+mod(104377057:0R.@entry, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9205]
+{org:en}
+bucket pumps
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104021798:09.@entry.@pl, 102909870:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9206]
+{org:en}
+chain pumps
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104021798:08.@entry.@pl, 102999410:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9207]
+{org:en}
+hand pumps.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104021798:07.@entry.@pl, 101208460:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9208]
+{org:en}
+Sanitary Rope and Bucket System
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104377057:0R.@entry, 302112976:02)
+and:01(102909870:0K.@entry, 103106110:0B)
+mod(104377057:0R.@entry, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9209]
+{org:en}
+The sanitary rope and bucket systems are designed for open dug wells and are simple to maintain.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(301793812:27.@entry, 200698572:17)
+mod(104572344:1T.@pl, 300036254:1K)
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+pur(200698572:17, 104572344:1T.@pl)
+and:01(102909870:0O.@entry, 103106110:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9210]
+{org:en}
+The design was developed by WHO and is shown in Figure 3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200923307:15.@entry, 200234057:0H.@past)
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+obj(200234057:0H.@past, 100928077:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9211]
+{org:en}
+This simple arrangement apart from providing good service also protects the well from pollution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201128193:1T.@entry, 100939628:0E.@topic)
+mod(100939628:0E.@topic, 600000017:02)
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+aoj(400119578:0Q, 100939628:0E.@topic)
+aoj(300523364:1B, 100098625:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9212]
+{org:en}
+It contains a wooden roller fixed to the side walls of the well around which the rope winds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+mod(104546855:1C.@def.@pl, 104572344:1P.@def)
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+aoj(301141595:0G, 100129435:0N.@indef)
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+ben(300347707:0U, 104546855:1C.@def.@pl)
+obj(201522052:2G, 103106110:2B.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9213]
+{org:en}
+One end of the rope is permanently fixed with the roller and the bucket tied to the other end.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200406243:11.@entry, 100728065:06.@topic)
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+mod:01(100728065:2K.@def, 600000053:2E)
+obj:01(200141632:22.@past, 102909870:1V.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9214]
+{org:en}
+The top end of the bucket is attached with a weight to enable it to tilt when it touches the water surface in the well.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(201290255:0V.@entry, 100728065:0A.@topic.@def)
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+gol(200512877:1L, 201122906:1Y)
+gol(200590642:2B, 104362025:2T.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9215]
+{org:en}
+;;As the roller is rotated, the bucket with water raises up to the stop hook level where it is tilted due to the hook and water is emptied on to a trough and flows out through a small pipe fitted to the trough to aid collection (Figure 3).As the roller is rotated, the bucket with water rises up to the stop hook level where it is tilted due to the hook and water is emptied on to a trough and flows out through a small pipe fitted to the trough to aid collection (Figure 3).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200155143:1E.@entry, 600000039:02)
+aoj(301391351:4V, 103944672:51.@indef)
+obj(200448680:3N, :01)
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+obj(600000001:2U, 200448680:3N)
+obj(600000019:13, 107935504:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9216]
+{org:en}
+Figure 3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "3":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9217]
+{org:en}
+Sanitary rope and bucket system
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104377057:0R.@entry, 302112976:02)
+and:01(102909870:0K.@entry, 103106110:0B)
+mod(104377057:0R.@entry, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9218]
+{org:en}
+The arrangements are simple and can be changed to fit the local conditions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200109660:15.@entry.@ability, 301793812:0N)
+aoj(301793812:0N, 100939628:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+aoj(301793812:0N, 100939628:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+obj(200109660:15.@entry.@ability, 100939628:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301106405:1O, 105798863:1U.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9219]
+{org:en}
+The cover for the well should be removable to facilitate cleaning and maintenance of the well and the rope and bucket mechanism.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301526582:0Z.@entry.@should.@past, 100988893:06.@topic.@def)
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+obj(:01, :03:03)
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+mod:03(100098385:3J.@entry.@def, :02.@entry)
+and:01(100765791:20.@entry, 100251013:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9220]
+{org:en}
+Bucket Pumps
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104021798:09.@entry.@pl, 102909870:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9221]
+{org:en}
+The schematic arrangement of a bucket pump to extract water from open well is shown in Figure 4.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200923307:28.@entry, 100939628:0G.@topic.@def)
+pur(104021798:14.@indef, 200638723:1C)
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+obj(200638723:1C, 107935504:1K)
+mod(100556992:2H.@def, "4":2O)
+src(200638723:1C, 104572344:20)
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+mod(104021798:14.@indef, 102909870:0X)
+aoj(303162082:06, 100939628:0G.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300036254:1V, 104572344:20)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9222]
+{org:en}
+In this arrangement, small buckets are attached to an endless chain.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(201290255:15.@entry, 100939628:0A)
+mod(100939628:0A, 600000017:05)
+aoj(303162541:1K, 102999410:1S.@indef)
+mod(100939628:0A, 600000017:05)
+aoj(303162541:1K, 102999410:1S.@indef)
+gol(201290255:15.@entry, 102999410:1S.@indef)
+obj(201290255:15.@entry, 102909870:0T.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301391351:0N, 102909870:0T.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9223]
+{org:en}
+The chain is rotated on sprockets using a handle.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200245913:0F.@entry, 102999410:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(201158572:10.@progress, 103485997:18.@indef)
+obj(201158572:10.@progress, 103485997:18.@indef)
+agt(201158572:10.@progress, 104289690:0Q.@pl)
+gol(200245913:0F.@entry, 104289690:0Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9224]
+{org:en}
+As the buckets move down and dip into water, they get filled.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200120796:1G.@entry, 600000039:02)
+and:01(200286483:0V.@entry, 200124442:0H)
+obj(600000039:02, :01:01)
+and:01(200286483:0V.@entry, 200124442:0H)
+obj(600000039:02, :01:01)
+gol(200120796:1G.@entry, 200261533:1K.@state)
+man:01(200124442:0H, 600000183:0M)
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+gol:01(200286483:0V.@entry, 107935504:14)
+gol:01(200286483:0V.@entry, 107935504:14)
+obj(:01, 102909870:09.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9225]
+{org:en}
+Further rotation brings to the top and to run around the sprocket, as they empty into a collection trough attached with a pipe.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:01.@entry, 600000039:1U)
+gol(200448680:22, 104488427:2Q.@indef)
+agt:01(200022099:0J, 100342028:0A.@topic)
+plc:01(200332672:15.@entry, 600000090:19)
+obj(201290255:2X, 103944672:3D.@indef)
+obj(600000039:1U, 200448680:22)
+gol(200448680:22, 104488427:2Q.@indef)
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+plc:01(200332672:15.@entry, 600000090:19)
+obj(201290255:2X, 103944672:3D.@indef)
+obj(600000039:1U, 200448680:22)
+obj:01(200332672:15.@entry, 100342028:0A.@topic)
+mod(104488427:2Q.@indef, 101014066:2F)
+aoj:01(300443988:02, 100342028:0A.@topic)
+and:01(200332672:15.@entry, 200022099:0J)
+agt(201290255:2X, 104488427:2Q.@indef)
+obj:01(200022099:0J, 104453666:0X.@def)
+agt(201290255:2X, 104488427:2Q.@indef)
+obj:01(200022099:0J, 104453666:0X.@def)
+obj:01(600000090:19, 104289690:1K.@def)
+obj(200448680:22, 600000020:1X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9226]
+{org:en}
+Depending on the local conditions and availability of materials, the buckets can be replaced with earthenware jars or wooden or metal boxes and the sprockets with bicycle wheels to run the endless chain.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200162688:2E.@entry.@ability, 202663848:02.@progress)
+aoj:03(303163182:2S, 103593526:34.@pl)
+obj(600000018:2N, :03)
+obj(202663848:02.@progress, :04:04)
+man(200162688:2E.@entry.@ability, 600000018:4G)
+obj(200332672:53, 102999410:5J.@def)
+aoj:02(:01, 100135148:3S.@pl)
+aoj:03(303163182:2S, 103593526:34.@pl)
+obj(600000018:2N, :03)
+obj(202663848:02.@progress, :04:04)
+man(200162688:2E.@entry.@ability, 600000018:4G)
+obj(200332672:53, 102999410:5J.@def)
+aoj:02(:01, 100135148:3S.@pl)
+aoj:04(301106405:0J, 105798863:0P.@def.@pl)
+pur(200162688:2E.@entry.@ability, 200332672:53)
+mod(104313503:4T.@pl, 102834778:4L)
+and:02(104289690:46.@entry.@def.@pl, 100135148:3S.@pl.@def)
+mod:04(115668897:14.@entry, 103729951:1K.@pl)
+obj(200162688:2E.@entry.@ability, 102909870:1Z.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000018:4G, 104313503:4T.@pl)
+or:03(:02.@entry, 103593526:34.@pl.@def)
+obj(600000018:4G, 104313503:4T.@pl)
+or:03(:02.@entry, 103593526:34.@pl.@def)
+and:04(115668897:14.@entry, 105798863:0P.@def.@pl)
+man(200162688:2E.@entry.@ability, 600000018:2N)
+aoj(300596211:5B, 102999410:5J.@def)
+or:01(303162029:3M.@entry, 301141595:3C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9227]
+{org:en}
+Figure 4.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "4":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9228]
+{org:en}
+Bucket pump
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104021798:09.@entry, 102909870:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9229]
+{org:en}
+Chain Pumps
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104021798:08.@entry.@pl, 102999410:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9230]
+{org:en}
+Chain pumps operate similar to bucket pumps.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200341285:0E.@entry, 104021798:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104021798:14.@pl, 102909870:0X)
+mod(104021798:14.@pl, 102909870:0X)
+obj(303161264:0M, 104021798:14.@pl)
+gol(200341285:0E.@entry, 303161264:0M)
+mod(104021798:08.@topic.@pl, 102999410:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9231]
+{org:en}
+The difference is that rubber discs instead of buckets are attached to the endless chain that runs over the sprocket at the top (Figure 5).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 104748836:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj:02(600000209:12, 115691720:0W.@pl.@topic)
+aoj:02(303162541:25, 102999410:2D.@def)
+gol:02(201290255:1P.@entry, 102999410:2D.@def)
+obj:02(600000040:2T, 104289690:32.@def)
+aoj:02(600000209:12, 115691720:0W.@pl.@topic)
+aoj:02(303162541:25, 102999410:2D.@def)
+gol:02(201290255:1P.@entry, 102999410:2D.@def)
+obj:02(600000040:2T, 104289690:32.@def)
+gol:02(201290255:1P.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj:02(600000209:12, 102909870:1D.@pl)
+man:02(200332672:2O, 600000040:2T)
+obj:02(201290255:1P.@entry, 115691720:0W.@pl.@topic)
+aoj:02(301129021:0P, 115691720:0W.@pl.@topic)
+plc:02(200332672:2O, 104453666:3I.@def)
+aoj:02(301129021:0P, 115691720:0W.@pl.@topic)
+plc:02(200332672:2O, 104453666:3I.@def)
+obj:02(200332672:2O, 102999410:2D.@def)
+mod:01(100556992:3N.@entry, "5":3U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9232]
+{org:en}
+During its upward motion, the chain travels through a pipe immersed below the minimum water level of the well.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(201835496:12.@entry, 107163593:0K)
+mod(107163593:0K, 600000016:09)
+man(303158591:1P, 600000091:1Y)
+obj(600000026:1A, 103944672:1K.@indef)
+mod(105093890:2L.@def, 303161105:28)
+mod(107163593:0K, 600000016:09)
+man(303158591:1P, 600000091:1Y)
+obj(600000026:1A, 103944672:1K.@indef)
+mod(105093890:2L.@def, 303161105:28)
+man(201835496:12.@entry, 600000026:1A)
+mod(105093890:2L.@def, 104572344:2Y.@def)
+agt(201835496:12.@entry, 102999410:0W.@topic.@def)
+mod(107163593:0K, 302491836:0D)
+bas(600000091:1Y, 105093890:2L.@def)
+mod(107163593:0K, 302491836:0D)
+bas(600000091:1Y, 105093890:2L.@def)
+aoj(303158591:1P, 103944672:1K.@indef)
+mod(105093890:2L.@def, 107935504:2G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9233]
+{org:en}
+;;As the chain is pulled upward, the rubber discs mechanically support water along the pipe to lift water up to the spout, from where it is drawn out thorough a small pipe arrangement.As the chain is pulled upward, the rubber discs mechanically support water along the pipe to lift water up to the spout, from where it is drawn out through a small pipe arrangement.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201720773:1R.@entry, 600000039:02)
+obj(200071803:0I, 102999410:09.@def)
+src(200097029:3W, 104287153:38.@def)
+aoj(600000135:25, 107935504:1Z)
+aoj(301391351:4H, 100939628:4S.@indef)
+obj(201720773:1R.@entry, 107935504:1Z)
+man(200097029:3W, 600000212:42)
+obj(200178502:2N, 107935504:2S)
+obj(200071803:0I, 102999410:09.@def)
+src(200097029:3W, 104287153:38.@def)
+aoj(600000135:25, 107935504:1Z)
+aoj(301391351:4H, 100939628:4S.@indef)
+obj(201720773:1R.@entry, 107935504:1Z)
+man(200097029:3W, 600000212:42)
+obj(200178502:2N, 107935504:2S)
+obj(600000039:02, 200071803:0I)
+pur(201720773:1R.@entry, 200178502:2N)
+man(200097029:3W, 600000026:46)
+man(200178502:2N, 600000047:2Y)
+aoj(301129021:11, 115691720:18.@topic.@def.@pl)
+agt(201720773:1R.@entry, 115691720:18.@topic.@def.@pl)
+man(200071803:0I, 400535871:0P)
+obj(200097029:3W, 600000016:3Q.@topic)
+obj(600000135:25, 103944672:2F.@def)
+man(200071803:0I, 400535871:0P)
+obj(200097029:3W, 600000016:3Q.@topic)
+obj(600000135:25, 103944672:2F.@def)
+mod(100939628:4S.@indef, 103944672:4N)
+man(201720773:1R.@entry, 400113904:1E)
+obj(600000026:46, 100939628:4S.@indef)
+obj(600000047:2Y, 104287153:38.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9234]
+{org:en}
+Figure 5.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "5":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9235]
+{org:en}
+Chain pump
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104021798:08.@entry, 102999410:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9236]
+{org:en}
+Figure 6.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "6":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9237]
+{org:en}
+Operation of a hand pump
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100409211:02.@entry, 104021798:0M.@indef)
+mod(104021798:0M.@indef, 101208460:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9238]
+{org:en}
+Hand Pumps
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104021798:07.@entry.@pl, 101208460:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9239]
+{org:en}
+Hand pumps are the most commonly used extraction devices to lift water from shallow wells as well as tube wells in rural areas.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100171249:1F.@entry.@pl, 104021798:07.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000014:2K, 115691935:2V.@pl)
+man(400516615:0Q, 400536271:0L)
+mod(100171249:1F.@entry.@pl, 100392950:14)
+aoj(600000014:2K, 104572344:2E.@pl)
+obj(600000014:2K, 115691935:2V.@pl)
+man(400516615:0Q, 400536271:0L)
+mod(100171249:1F.@entry.@pl, 100392950:14)
+aoj(600000014:2K, 104572344:2E.@pl)
+aoj(302494923:0Z, 100171249:1F.@entry.@pl)
+mod(104021798:07.@topic.@pl, 101208460:02)
+obj(200178502:1Q, 107935504:1V)
+pur(100171249:1F.@entry.@pl, 200178502:1Q)
+plc(115691935:2V.@pl, 115669267:39.@pl)
+src(200178502:1Q, 104572344:2E.@pl)
+plc(115691935:2V.@pl, 115669267:39.@pl)
+src(200178502:1Q, 104572344:2E.@pl)
+man(302494923:0Z, 400516615:0Q)
+aoj(300691696:26, 104572344:2E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9240]
+{org:en}
+They may be of either reciprocating, positive displacement or plunger pump type.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000431:04.@may.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+or:01(100209446:1I, 201875820:0R.@progress)
+mod(104021798:2E, :01.@entry)
+or:01(100209446:1I, 201875820:0R.@progress)
+mod(104021798:2E, :01.@entry)
+mod(104504486:2J, 104021798:2E)
+obj(600000431:04.@may.@entry, 104504486:2J)
+aoj:01(300358678:19, 100209446:1I)
+aoj:01(300358678:19, 100209446:1I)
+or:01(103970156:22.@entry, 100209446:1I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9241]
+{org:en}
+The hand pumps operate the same way as with drinking soda water through a straw or filling a syringe.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200341285:0H.@entry, 104021798:0B.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj:01(200261533:2G.@entry.@progress, 104376876:2Q.@indef)
+obj(600000018:15, 107935504:1O)
+aoj(300355611:0T, 100172710:0Y)
+mod(107935504:1O, 115668972:1J)
+obj:01(200261533:2G.@entry.@progress, 104376876:2Q.@indef)
+obj(600000018:15, 107935504:1O)
+aoj(300355611:0T, 100172710:0Y)
+mod(107935504:1O, 115668972:1J)
+man(200341285:0H.@entry, 100172710:0Y)
+mod(104021798:0B.@topic.@def.@pl, 101208460:06)
+mod(107935504:1O, 303155687:1A)
+man(200341285:0H.@entry, 600000008:12)
+obj:01(600000045:1X.@progress, 104334232:27.@indef)
+aoj(:01, 107935504:1O)
+obj:01(600000045:1X.@progress, 104334232:27.@indef)
+aoj(:01, 107935504:1O)
+obj(600000008:12, 600000018:15)
+or:01(200261533:2G.@entry.@progress, 600000045:1X.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9242]
+{org:en}
+The general principle of operation of hand pumps (Figure 6) is as follows
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000323:1T.@entry, 105872477:0E.@topic.@def)
+mod(104021798:19.@pl, 101208460:14)
+obj(100409211:0R, 104021798:19.@pl)
+mod(104021798:19.@pl, 101208460:14)
+obj(100409211:0R, 104021798:19.@pl)
+aoj(300487198:06, 105872477:0E.@topic.@def)
+mod(105872477:0E.@topic.@def, 100409211:0R)
+mod:01(100556992:1G.@entry, "6":1N)
+mod:01(100556992:1G.@entry, "6":1N)
+cnt(104021798:19.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9243]
+{org:en}
+As shown in A, the pump after priming is raised by pressing the operating handle downwards.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200158503:17.@entry, 600000008:02)
+aoj(303150985:1U, 103485997:24.@def)
+man(201390616:1H.@progress, 600000810:2B)
+obj(600000008:02, 200923307:05)
+aoj(303150985:1U, 103485997:24.@def)
+man(201390616:1H.@progress, 600000810:2B)
+obj(600000008:02, 200923307:05)
+man(200158503:17.@entry, 201390616:1H.@progress)
+obj(600000112:0Q, 101144046:0W)
+obj(200158503:17.@entry, 104021798:0L.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000112:0Q, 104021798:0L.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000112:0Q, 104021798:0L.@topic.@def)
+obj(201390616:1H.@progress, 103485997:24.@def)
+plc(200923307:05, "A":0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9244]
+{org:en}
+The water seal above the plunger prevents air from passing through and creates a partial vacuum in the pump cylinder.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201640207:21.@entry, 202450505:0Z)
+bas(600000072:0H, 103970156:0R.@def)
+mod(103156279:32.@def, 104021798:2X)
+obj(201640207:21.@entry, 108653474:2J.@indef)
+obj(202450505:0Z, 104727214:18)
+bas(600000072:0H, 103970156:0R.@def)
+mod(103156279:32.@def, 104021798:2X)
+obj(201640207:21.@entry, 108653474:2J.@indef)
+obj(202450505:0Z, 104727214:18)
+plc(201640207:21.@entry, 103156279:32.@def)
+src(202450505:0Z, 202053190:1H.@progress)
+agt(201640207:21.@entry, 115693221:06.@topic.@def)
+agt(202450505:0Z, 115693221:06.@topic.@def)
+agt(202450505:0Z, 115693221:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300524693:2B, 108653474:2J.@indef)
+aoj(600000072:0H, 115693221:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9245]
+{org:en}
+The atmospheric pressure on the water in the well is greater than the pressure inside the cylinder thereby opening the check valve, and with the force of the air, water in the pipe moves upwards following the plunger.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200124442:53.@entry, 301278818:1J)
+obj(111429458:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0Y.@def)
+obj(600000281:30, 301278818:1J)
+gol(200150776:5H.@progress, 103970156:5V.@def)
+obj(600000187:29, 103156279:2K.@def)
+man(200124442:53.@entry, 200150776:5H.@progress)
+man(200539936:31.@progress, 600000281:30)
+mod(105035353:43.@def, 104727214:4G.@def)
+obj(111429458:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0Y.@def)
+obj(600000281:30, 301278818:1J)
+gol(200150776:5H.@progress, 103970156:5V.@def)
+obj(600000187:29, 103156279:2K.@def)
+man(200124442:53.@entry, 200150776:5H.@progress)
+man(200539936:31.@progress, 600000281:30)
+mod(105035353:43.@def, 104727214:4G.@def)
+plc(111429458:06.@topic.@def, 104572344:1B.@def)
+agt(200124442:53.@entry, 107935504:4L.@topic)
+man(301278818:1J, 400099341:66)
+obj(600000018:3U, 105035353:43.@def)
+mod(101904461:3J.@def, 100141806:3D)
+man(200124442:53.@entry, 600000018:3U)
+bas(301278818:1J, 100113113:20.@def)
+plc(107935504:4L.@topic, 103944672:4Y.@def)
+bas(301278818:1J, 100113113:20.@def)
+plc(107935504:4L.@topic, 103944672:4Y.@def)
+obj(200539936:31.@progress, 101904461:3J.@def)
+man(200124442:53.@entry, 115696260:59)
+aoj(600000187:29, 100113113:20.@def)
+aoj(301278818:1J, 111429458:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9246]
+{org:en}
+The space in the cylinder below the plunger is filled with air from the pipe.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200261533:1D.@entry, 106389553:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000131:0S, 103156279:0J.@def)
+frm(104727214:1P, 103944672:22.@def)
+aoj(600000131:0S, 103156279:0J.@def)
+frm(104727214:1P, 103944672:22.@def)
+obj(600000018:1K, 104727214:1P)
+man(200261533:1D.@entry, 600000018:1K)
+bas(600000131:0S, 103970156:12.@def)
+bas(600000131:0S, 103970156:12.@def)
+plc(106389553:06.@topic.@def, 103156279:0J.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9247]
+{org:en}
+The plunger stops at the top of the cylinder and the check valve closes under its own weight, thus trapping the air in the cylinder.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200352137:1V.@entry, 201859221:0E)
+mod(101904461:1P.@topic.@def, 100141806:1J)
+mod(104571088:2G, 600000016:28)
+man(200352137:1V.@entry, 600000003:22)
+mod(104453666:0R.@def, 103156279:12.@def)
+plc(201207149:2T.@progress, 103156279:3H.@def)
+mod(101904461:1P.@topic.@def, 100141806:1J)
+mod(104571088:2G, 600000016:28)
+man(200352137:1V.@entry, 600000003:22)
+mod(104453666:0R.@def, 103156279:12.@def)
+plc(201207149:2T.@progress, 103156279:3H.@def)
+obj(400121135:2O, 200352137:1V.@entry)
+plc(201859221:0E, 104453666:0R.@def)
+man(201207149:2T.@progress, 400121135:2O)
+obj(200352137:1V.@entry, 101904461:1P.@topic.@def)
+obj(201859221:0E, 103970156:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(104571088:2G, 600000254:2C)
+obj(201859221:0E, 103970156:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(104571088:2G, 600000254:2C)
+obj(600000003:22, 104571088:2G)
+obj(201207149:2T.@progress, 104727214:36.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9248]
+{org:en}
+On the next downward movement of the plunger, the air trapped between the plunger and the check valve is compressed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201387786:2Z.@entry, 100279835:0N.@def)
+and:01(101904461:2Q.@entry.@def, 103970156:24.@def)
+man(201207149:1K.@past, 600000010:1S)
+aoj(303161072:09, 100279835:0N.@def)
+and:01(101904461:2Q.@entry.@def, 103970156:24.@def)
+man(201207149:1K.@past, 600000010:1S)
+aoj(303161072:09, 100279835:0N.@def)
+obj(201207149:1K.@past, 104727214:1G.@topic.@def)
+obj(100279835:0N.@def, 103970156:13.@def)
+obj(201387786:2Z.@entry, 104727214:1G.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(101904461:2Q.@entry.@def, 100141806:2K)
+mod:01(101904461:2Q.@entry.@def, 100141806:2K)
+obj(600000010:1S, :01)
+aoj(302492981:0E, 100279835:0N.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9249]
+{org:en}
+When the pressure of this air exceeds the atmospheric pressure above the plunger and the weight of the plunger valve and that of the priming water, the air lifts open the plunger valve and escapes through the priming water as shown at B.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200530017:5B.@entry, 200539936:4K)
+and:01(600000030:3F.@entry, 104571088:2J.@def)
+obj(200539936:4K, 101904461:51.@def)
+aoj(303162767:5V, 107935504:63.@def)
+mod(100113113:0B.@def, 104727214:0S)
+man(202669081:0W, 600000073:1T)
+man(200530017:5B.@entry, 600000026:5J)
+mod:01(104571088:2J.@def, 101904461:35.@def)
+obj(600000033:02, 202669081:0W)
+man(200539936:4K, 600000033:02)
+and:01(600000030:3F.@entry, 104571088:2J.@def)
+obj(200539936:4K, 101904461:51.@def)
+aoj(303162767:5V, 107935504:63.@def)
+mod(100113113:0B.@def, 104727214:0S)
+man(202669081:0W, 600000073:1T)
+man(200530017:5B.@entry, 600000026:5J)
+mod:01(104571088:2J.@def, 101904461:35.@def)
+obj(600000033:02, 202669081:0W)
+man(200539936:4K, 600000033:02)
+and:02(:01.@entry, 103970156:23.@def)
+man(200530017:5B.@entry, 600000008:69)
+aoj:01(303162767:3R, 107935504:3Z.@def)
+mod(100116376:4E.@topic.@def.@pl, 104727214:4A)
+plc(200923307:6C, 105400978:6L)
+obj(600000073:1T, :02)
+obj(200530017:5B.@entry, 100116376:4E.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(600000030:3F.@entry, 107935504:3Z.@def)
+mod(101904461:51.@def, 103970156:4T)
+obj(600000008:69, 200923307:6C)
+mod:01(600000030:3F.@entry, 107935504:3Z.@def)
+mod(101904461:51.@def, 103970156:4T)
+obj(600000008:69, 200923307:6C)
+mod(104727214:0S, 600000017:0N)
+obj(202669081:0W, 111429458:18.@def)
+obj(600000026:5J, 107935504:63.@def)
+mod:01(101904461:35.@def, 103970156:2X)
+aoj(202669081:0W, 100113113:0B.@def)
+agt(200539936:4K, 100116376:4E.@topic.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9250]
+{org:en}
+The next upward movement of the plunger, more air is drawn out of the pipe and the water rises further/higher, eventually flowing into the cylinder under the plunger as shown at C.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200155143:2Q.@entry, 200097029:1Q)
+mod(100279835:0L.@topic.@def, 302491836:0E)
+obj(600000009:4D, 103970156:4N.@def)
+man:01(600000261:34.@entry, 400099341:6X)
+obj(600000096:1W, 103944672:27.@def)
+man(200155143:2Q.@entry, :01)
+obj(200097029:1Q, 100279835:0L.@topic.@def)
+man(200217427:3N.@progress, 400535301:3C)
+mod(100279835:0L.@topic.@def, 302491836:0E)
+obj(600000009:4D, 103970156:4N.@def)
+man:01(600000261:34.@entry, 400099341:6X)
+obj(600000096:1W, 103944672:27.@def)
+man(200155143:2Q.@entry, :01)
+obj(200097029:1Q, 100279835:0L.@topic.@def)
+man(200217427:3N.@progress, 400535301:3C)
+aoj(303161072:09, 100279835:0L.@topic.@def)
+man(200155143:2Q.@entry, 200217427:3N.@progress)
+plc(200923307:4Y, 106831391:57)
+gol(200217427:3N.@progress, 103156279:44.@def)
+obj(100279835:0L.@topic.@def, 103970156:11.@def)
+obj(200155143:2Q.@entry, 107935504:2K.@topic.@def)
+qua(104727214:1J, 400099341:1E)
+obj(600000008:4V, 200923307:4Y)
+man(200217427:3N.@progress, 600000008:4V)
+qua(104727214:1J, 400099341:1E)
+obj(600000008:4V, 200923307:4Y)
+man(200217427:3N.@progress, 600000008:4V)
+mod(100279835:0L.@topic.@def, 104727214:1J)
+or:01(600000261:34.@entry, 600000168:2W)
+man(200097029:1Q, 600000096:1W)
+mod(103156279:44.@def, 600000009:4D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9251]
+{org:en}
+With cylinder and pipe full of water as at C, the check valve closes by gravity, trapping water in the cylinder.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200352137:1S.@entry, 600000018:02)
+aoj(303162579:0P, :01)
+plc(201207149:2B.@progress, 103156279:2X.@def)
+met(200352137:1S.@entry, 201207149:2B.@progress)
+obj(600000008:13, 106831391:19)
+aoj(303162579:0P, :01)
+plc(201207149:2B.@progress, 103156279:2X.@def)
+met(200352137:1S.@entry, 201207149:2B.@progress)
+obj(600000008:13, 106831391:19)
+obj(200352137:1S.@entry, 101904461:1M.@topic.@def)
+obj(303162579:0P, 107935504:0X)
+mod(101904461:1M.@topic.@def, 100141806:1G)
+man(200352137:1S.@entry, 600000008:13)
+and:01(103944672:0K.@entry, 103156279:07)
+obj(201207149:2B.@progress, 107935504:2K)
+and:01(103944672:0K.@entry, 103156279:07)
+obj(201207149:2B.@progress, 107935504:2K)
+ins(200352137:1S.@entry, 107512147:22)
+obj(600000018:02, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9252]
+{org:en}
+On the next downward movement, the plunger reaches the bottom of the cylinder and the plunger valve closes, thus trapping water above the plunger as shown at D and E.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200352137:2U.@entry, 200743344:19)
+and:01(106831605:4M.@entry, 106831498:4G)
+man(201207149:37.@progress, 600000073:3M)
+mod(102878222:1L.@def, 103156279:1Z.@def)
+man(201207149:37.@progress, 400121135:32)
+obj(200743344:19, 103970156:11.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000008:44, 200923307:47)
+and:01(106831605:4M.@entry, 106831498:4G)
+man(201207149:37.@progress, 600000073:3M)
+mod(102878222:1L.@def, 103156279:1Z.@def)
+man(201207149:37.@progress, 400121135:32)
+obj(200743344:19, 103970156:11.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000008:44, 200923307:47)
+aoj(302492981:0E, 100279835:0N.@def)
+obj(400121135:32, 200352137:2U.@entry)
+man(200743344:19, 600000658:02)
+obj(600000073:3M, 103970156:3W.@def)
+aoj(303161072:09, 100279835:0N.@def)
+obj(200352137:2U.@entry, 101904461:2O.@topic.@def)
+mod(101904461:2O.@topic.@def, 103970156:2G)
+obj(201207149:37.@progress, 107935504:3G)
+mod(101904461:2O.@topic.@def, 103970156:2G)
+obj(201207149:37.@progress, 107935504:3G)
+obj(600000658:02, 100279835:0N.@def)
+man(201207149:37.@progress, 600000008:44)
+gol(200743344:19, 102878222:1L.@def)
+plc(200923307:47, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9253]
+{org:en}
+The next upward movement of the plunger lifts out the water as shown at F and at the same time more water forces into the cylinder through the check valve.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200747418:30.@entry, 202775701:16)
+obj(202775701:16, 107935504:1K.@def)
+obj(600000026:3P, 101904461:47.@def)
+mod(100279835:0I.@topic.@def, 302491836:0B)
+man(200747418:30.@entry, 600000026:3P)
+obj(100279835:0I.@topic.@def, 103970156:0Y.@def)
+agt(202775701:16, 100279835:0I.@topic.@def)
+obj(202775701:16, 107935504:1K.@def)
+obj(600000026:3P, 101904461:47.@def)
+mod(100279835:0I.@topic.@def, 302491836:0B)
+man(200747418:30.@entry, 600000026:3P)
+obj(100279835:0I.@topic.@def, 103970156:0Y.@def)
+agt(202775701:16, 100279835:0I.@topic.@def)
+obj(200747418:30.@entry, 107935504:2U.@topic)
+plc(200923307:1T, 106831712:22)
+qua(107935504:2U.@topic, 400099341:2P)
+man(200747418:30.@entry, 400535235:28)
+obj(600000008:1Q, 200923307:1T)
+mod(101904461:47.@def, 100141806:41)
+obj(600000008:1Q, 200923307:1T)
+mod(101904461:47.@def, 100141806:41)
+gol(200747418:30.@entry, 103156279:3G.@def)
+aoj(303161072:06, 100279835:0I.@topic.@def)
+man(202775701:16, 600000008:1Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9254]
+{org:en}
+Thereafter, for each successive movement, step F is repeated.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200957679:1I.@entry, 400152776:02)
+aoj(303161908:0N, 100279835:0Y)
+mod(106831712:1D.@topic, 100285557:18)
+aoj(303161908:0N, 100279835:0Y)
+mod(106831712:1D.@topic, 100285557:18)
+obj(200957679:1I.@entry, 106831712:1D.@topic)
+pur(200957679:1I.@entry, 100279835:0Y)
+mod(100279835:0Y, 600000848:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9255]
+{org:en}
+Some of the commonly used hand pumps are
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:1Z.@entry, 104021798:0X.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104021798:0X.@topic.@pl, 101208460:0S)
+mod(104021798:0X.@topic.@pl, 101208460:0S)
+obj(201158572:0N.@past, 104021798:0X.@topic.@pl)
+qua(104021798:0X.@topic.@pl, 600000034:02)
+man(201158572:0N.@past, 400516615:0E.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9256]
+{org:en}
+shallow well lift pump
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300691696:02, 104021798:0K.@entry)
+mod(100116376:0F, 104572344:0A)
+mod(104021798:0K.@entry, 100116376:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9257]
+{org:en}
+deep well lift pump
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300149120:02, 104021798:0H.@entry)
+mod(100116376:0C, 104572344:07)
+mod(104021798:0H.@entry, 100116376:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9258]
+{org:en}
+reciprocating force pumps
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201875820:02.@entry.@progress, 104021798:0M.@pl)
+mod(104021798:0M.@pl, 105035353:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9259]
+{org:en}
+diaphragm pumps.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104021798:0C.@entry.@pl, 103189083:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9260]
+{org:en}
+Shallow well lift pumps.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300691696:02, 104021798:0K.@entry.@pl)
+mod(100116376:0F, 104572344:0A)
+mod(104021798:0K.@entry.@pl, 100116376:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9261]
+{org:en}
+They are the simplest of all hand pumps operating on the above described principle (Figure 7a).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:56.@entry.@def, 600000020:02.@topic)
+cnt(105872477:23.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
+qua(104021798:10.@pl, 600000011:0R)
+man(301793812:0F, 400536271:2P)
+mod(105872477:23.@def, 300125993:1N)
+cnt(105872477:23.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
+qua(104021798:10.@pl, 600000011:0R)
+man(301793812:0F, 400536271:2P)
+mod(105872477:23.@def, 300125993:1N)
+aoj(301793812:0F, :56.@entry.@def)
+obj(200083809:16.@progress, 105872477:23.@def)
+mod(:56.@entry.@def, 104021798:10.@pl)
+mod:01(100556992:2E.@entry, "7a":2L)
+mod(104021798:10.@pl, 101208460:0V)
+mod:01(100556992:2E.@entry, "7a":2L)
+mod(104021798:10.@pl, 101208460:0V)
+agt(200083809:16.@progress, 104021798:10.@pl)
+mod(105872477:23.@def, 301715287:1T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9262]
+{org:en}
+Because of their reliance on atmospheric pressure to push water up the suction pipe, use of shallow well pumps is limited to conditions where the water table is not more than 6.7 m from the plunger.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200235368:38.@entry, 600000012:02)
+mod(104021798:2Z.@pl, 104572344:2U)
+man(103970156:5C.@def, 106832464:51)
+man(200765977:1J, 400535884:1M)
+plc(109476123:44.@def, 105798863:3J.@pl)
+mod(105697976:0J, 600000020:0D.@pl)
+obj(100947128:2F.@topic, 104021798:2Z.@pl)
+mod(104021798:2Z.@pl, 104572344:2U)
+man(103970156:5C.@def, 106832464:51)
+man(200765977:1J, 400535884:1M)
+plc(109476123:44.@def, 105798863:3J.@pl)
+mod(105697976:0J, 600000020:0D.@pl)
+obj(100947128:2F.@topic, 104021798:2Z.@pl)
+mod(103944672:29.@def, 111517494:21)
+gol(200235368:38.@entry, 105798863:3J.@pl)
+obj(105697976:0J, 111429458:0V)
+bas(400099341:4N.@not, "6.7":4X)
+obj(200765977:1J, 107935504:1O)
+obj(200235368:38.@entry, 100947128:2F.@topic)
+obj(600000012:02, 105697976:0J)
+qua(106832464:51, 400099341:4N.@not)
+obj(600000012:02, 105697976:0J)
+qua(106832464:51, 400099341:4N.@not)
+obj(400535884:1M, 103944672:29.@def)
+frm(109476123:44.@def, 103970156:5C.@def)
+pur(111429458:0V, 200765977:1J)
+aoj(300691696:2M, 104021798:2Z.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9263]
+{org:en}
+Figure 7a.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "7a":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9264]
+{org:en}
+Shallow well lift pump
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300691696:02, 104021798:0K.@entry)
+mod(100116376:0F, 104572344:0A)
+mod(104021798:0K.@entry, 100116376:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9265]
+{org:en}
+Figure 7b.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "7b":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9266]
+{org:en}
+Deep well lift pump
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300149120:02, 104021798:0H.@entry)
+mod(100116376:0C, 104572344:07)
+mod(104021798:0H.@entry, 100116376:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9267]
+{org:en}
+Deep well lift pumps.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300149120:02, 104021798:0H.@entry.@pl)
+mod(100116376:0C, 104572344:07)
+mod(104021798:0H.@entry.@pl, 100116376:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9268]
+{org:en}
+Deep well lift pumps operate in the same manner as that of shallow well pumps.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200341285:0N.@entry, 600000008:1E)
+mod(104021798:22.@pl, 104572344:1X)
+mod(100116376:0C, 104572344:07)
+aoj(300355611:12, 104910135:17)
+mod(600000030:1H, 104021798:22.@pl)
+mod(104021798:22.@pl, 104572344:1X)
+mod(100116376:0C, 104572344:07)
+aoj(300355611:12, 104910135:17)
+mod(600000030:1H, 104021798:22.@pl)
+plc(200341285:0N.@entry, 104910135:17)
+obj(600000008:1E, 600000030:1H)
+obj(200341285:0N.@entry, 104021798:0H.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300149120:02, 104572344:07)
+aoj(300149120:02, 104572344:07)
+mod(104021798:0H.@topic.@pl, 100116376:0C)
+aoj(300691696:1P, 104021798:22.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9269]
+{org:en}
+As the name indicates, they are more useful to lift water when the water table is deeper than 6.7 m from ground level.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(302495922:13.@entry, 600000008:02)
+qua(106832464:2S, "6.7":2O)
+tim(300149120:2C, 107935504:1I)
+man(302495922:13.@entry, 400099341:0Y)
+aoj(200923793:0E, 101139636:09.@def)
+bas(300149120:2C, 106832464:2S)
+qua(106832464:2S, "6.7":2O)
+tim(300149120:2C, 107935504:1I)
+man(302495922:13.@entry, 400099341:0Y)
+aoj(200923793:0E, 101139636:09.@def)
+bas(300149120:2C, 106832464:2S)
+obj(302495922:13.@entry, 200178502:1D)
+obj(600000008:02, 200923793:0E)
+plf(300149120:2C, 105093890:36)
+aoj(302495922:13.@entry, 600000020:0P.@topic)
+mod(105093890:36, 303155671:2Z)
+aoj(300149120:2C, 109476123:1X.@topic.@def)
+mod(105093890:36, 303155671:2Z)
+aoj(300149120:2C, 109476123:1X.@topic.@def)
+tim(200178502:1D, 107935504:1I)
+man(300149120:2C, 400099341:3K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9270]
+{org:en}
+The main difference of these hand pumps from that of shallow well pumps is the HTM1 location HTM2 of the suction cylinder (Figure 7b).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100027167:2E.@entry.@def, 104748836:0B.@topic)
+aoj(300691696:1J, 104572344:1R)
+mod(104748836:0B.@topic, 301512527:06)
+frm(104748836:0B.@topic, 600000030:1B)
+mod(600000030:1B, 104021798:1W.@pl)
+aoj(300691696:1J, 104572344:1R)
+mod(104748836:0B.@topic, 301512527:06)
+frm(104748836:0B.@topic, 600000030:1B)
+mod(600000030:1B, 104021798:1W.@pl)
+mod(103156279:37.@def, 111517494:2Z)
+mod(104021798:10.@pl, 101208460:0V)
+mod(100027167:2E.@entry.@def, 103156279:37.@def)
+mod(104021798:10.@pl, 600000017:0P.@pl)
+mod(104021798:10.@pl, 600000017:0P.@pl)
+mod(104748836:0B.@topic, 104021798:10.@pl)
+mod(104021798:1W.@pl, 104572344:1R)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9271]
+{org:en}
+The cylinder is submerged in the water to avoid pressure losses due to priming.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201339294:0I.@entry, 103156279:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100067526:1N.@pl, 100113113:1E)
+rsn(200811375:18, 600000001:1U)
+mod(100067526:1N.@pl, 100113113:1E)
+rsn(200811375:18, 600000001:1U)
+plc(201339294:0I.@entry, 107935504:0Z.@def)
+pur(201339294:0I.@entry, 200811375:18)
+obj(600000001:1U, 101144046:21)
+obj(600000001:1U, 101144046:21)
+obj(200811375:18, 100067526:1N.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9272]
+{org:en}
+The selection of deep or shallow well pumps depends on the water level in the well below the surface and not the total depth of the well or tube wells.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:1A.@entry, 108399818:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(:01, 104021798:14.@pl)
+and:03(105094725:3D.@entry.@not.@def, 104362025:2N.@def.@not)
+obj(202663848:1A.@entry, 104561010:1P.@def)
+or:02(115691935:3Y.@entry.@pl, 104572344:3Q.@def.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 104021798:14.@pl)
+and:03(105094725:3D.@entry.@not.@def, 104362025:2N.@def.@not)
+obj(202663848:1A.@entry, 104561010:1P.@def)
+or:02(115691935:3Y.@entry.@pl, 104572344:3Q.@def.@pl)
+plc(202663848:1A.@entry, 104572344:28.@def)
+or:01(300691696:0R.@entry, 300149120:0J)
+qua:03(105094725:3D.@entry.@not.@def, 303160907:37)
+man(202663848:1A.@entry, 600000091:2D)
+mod(104021798:14.@pl, 104572344:0Z)
+mod:03(105094725:3D.@entry.@not.@def, :02)
+mod(104021798:14.@pl, 104572344:0Z)
+mod:03(105094725:3D.@entry.@not.@def, :02)
+bas(600000091:2D, :03)
+obj(108399818:06.@topic.@def, 104021798:14.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9273]
+{org:en}
+Reciprocating force pumps.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201875820:02.@entry.@progress, 104021798:0M.@pl)
+mod(104021798:0M.@pl, 105035353:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9274]
+{org:en}
+The force pumps are nothing but lift pumps (shallow or deep) that discharge water under pressure, by closing the top end of the pump.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(400535960:0M.@entry, 104021798:0C.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200352137:2V.@progress, 100728065:3B.@def)
+or:01(300149120:1L.@entry, 300691696:1A)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 104021798:13.@pl)
+mod(104021798:0C.@topic.@def.@pl, 105035353:06)
+mod(107935504:26, 600000009:2C)
+obj(200352137:2V.@progress, 100728065:3B.@def)
+or:01(300149120:1L.@entry, 300691696:1A)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 104021798:13.@pl)
+mod(104021798:0C.@topic.@def.@pl, 105035353:06)
+mod(107935504:26, 600000009:2C)
+agt(201097743:1W, 104021798:13.@pl)
+mod(100728065:3B.@def, 302439949:37)
+obj(201097743:1W, 107935504:26)
+obj(400535960:0M.@entry, 104021798:13.@pl)
+mod(100728065:3B.@def, 104021798:3M.@def)
+man(201097743:1W, 200352137:2V.@progress)
+mod(100728065:3B.@def, 104021798:3M.@def)
+man(201097743:1W, 200352137:2V.@progress)
+mod(104021798:13.@pl, 100116376:0Y)
+obj(600000009:2C, 100113113:2I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9275]
+{org:en}
+They are useful to pump water into reservoir HTM1 and HTM2 pressure tanks.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302495922:0B.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+obj:01(200788057:0O, 107935504:0T)
+obj:01(202776565:1S.@entry, 104388743:21.@pl)
+obj:01(200788057:0O, 107935504:0T)
+obj:01(202776565:1S.@entry, 104388743:21.@pl)
+and:01(202776565:1S.@entry, 200788057:0O)
+obj(302495922:0B.@entry, :01:01.@entry)
+gol:01(200788057:0O, 104078574:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9276]
+{org:en}
+They can be either the shallow well type where the plunger is located above the water surface or the deep well type where it is located below the water surface (Figures 8a,b).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+mod:01("a":55.@entry, 105400978:57)
+obj:02(202286204:3W, 600000016:3Q)
+aoj:02(300691696:0S, 104572344:10)
+mod:02(104504486:3F.@entry.@def.@ability, 104572344:3A)
+plc:02(202286204:1V, 104504486:15.@def)
+cnt:02(115693223:4E.@def, :03.@parenthesis)
+mod:01("a":55.@entry, 105400978:57)
+obj:02(202286204:3W, 600000016:3Q)
+aoj:02(300691696:0S, 104572344:10)
+mod:02(104504486:3F.@entry.@def.@ability, 104572344:3A)
+plc:02(202286204:1V, 104504486:15.@def)
+cnt:02(115693223:4E.@def, :03.@parenthesis)
+bas:02(600000073:23, 115693223:2D.@def)
+plc:02(202286204:3W, 104504486:3F.@entry.@def)
+man:02(104504486:15.@def.@ability, 400047534:0E)
+obj:02(600000091:44, 115693223:4E.@def)
+man:02(202286204:1V, 600000073:23)
+or:02(104504486:3F.@entry.@def.@ability, 104504486:15.@def.@ability)
+mod:03(:01, "8":51)
+man:02(202286204:3W, 600000091:44)
+mod:03(:01, "8":51)
+man:02(202286204:3W, 600000091:44)
+obj:02(202286204:1V, 103970156:1K.@def.@topic)
+aoj:02(300149120:35, 104572344:3A)
+mod:02(104504486:15.@def.@ability, 104572344:10)
+mod:03(100556992:4T.@pl.@entry, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9277]
+{org:en}
+The force pumps usually have an air chamber to even out the discharge flow.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0Q.@entry, 104021798:0C.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(202776419:1D, 100329227:20.@def)
+pur(103003730:12.@indef, 202776419:1D)
+obj(202776419:1D, 100329227:20.@def)
+pur(103003730:12.@indef, 202776419:1D)
+man(200065370:0Q.@entry, 400535718:0I)
+mod(104021798:0C.@topic.@def.@pl, 105035353:06)
+obj(200065370:0Q.@entry, 103003730:12.@indef)
+mod(100329227:20.@def, 100123234:1Q)
+mod(100329227:20.@def, 100123234:1Q)
+mod(103003730:12.@indef, 104727214:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9278]
+{org:en}
+On the upward stroke of the plunger, the air in the air chamber is compressed and is expanded during the downward stroke to maintain a flow at the discharge while the plunger goes down.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200257269:2M.@entry, 201387786:24)
+man(200359916:54, 100458286:59)
+dur(201017643:3P, 600000004:4M)
+obj(600000658:05, 100144632:0J.@def)
+pur(100144632:3F.@def, 201017643:3P)
+plc(104727214:1E.@topic.@def, 103003730:1T.@def)
+obj(600000004:4M, 200359916:54)
+man(200359916:54, 100458286:59)
+dur(201017643:3P, 600000004:4M)
+obj(600000658:05, 100144632:0J.@def)
+pur(100144632:3F.@def, 201017643:3P)
+plc(104727214:1E.@topic.@def, 103003730:1T.@def)
+obj(600000004:4M, 200359916:54)
+dur(200257269:2M.@entry, 100144632:3F.@def)
+obj(201387786:24, 104727214:1E.@topic.@def)
+plc(100329227:40.@indef, 100123234:4C.@def)
+mod(100144632:0J.@def, 302491836:0C)
+obj(200257269:2M.@entry, 104727214:1E.@topic.@def)
+man(201387786:24, 600000658:05)
+obj(201017643:3P, 100329227:40.@indef)
+man(201387786:24, 600000658:05)
+obj(201017643:3P, 100329227:40.@indef)
+obj(100144632:0J.@def, 103970156:0X.@def)
+aoj(302492981:36, 100144632:3F.@def)
+mod(103003730:1T.@def, 104727214:1P)
+obj(200359916:54, 103970156:4W.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9279]
+{org:en}
+The trap tube serves to trap air in the air chamber, preventing it from leaking out around the plunger rod.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201077568:0G.@entry, 104493505:0B.@topic.@def)
+mod(101162928:2V.@def, 103970156:2N)
+mod(103003730:1A.@def, 104727214:16)
+plc(201207149:0Q, 103003730:1A.@def)
+man(200258109:20.@progress, 600000212:28)
+mod(101162928:2V.@def, 103970156:2N)
+mod(103003730:1A.@def, 104727214:16)
+plc(201207149:0Q, 103003730:1A.@def)
+man(200258109:20.@progress, 600000212:28)
+man(201207149:0Q, 202450505:1J.@progress)
+plc(200258109:20.@progress, 600000090:2C)
+pur(201077568:0G.@entry, 201207149:0Q)
+mod(104493505:0B.@topic.@def, 104474466:06)
+src(202450505:1J.@progress, 200258109:20.@progress)
+mod(104493505:0B.@topic.@def, 104474466:06)
+src(202450505:1J.@progress, 200258109:20.@progress)
+obj(201207149:0Q, 104727214:0V)
+obj(600000090:2C, 101162928:2V.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9280]
+{org:en}
+Figure 8a.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "8a":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9281]
+{org:en}
+Shallow well pressure pump
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104021798:0O.@entry, 100113113:0F)
+aoj(300691696:02, 104572344:0A)
+mod(100113113:0F, 104572344:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9282]
+{org:en}
+Figure 8b.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "8b":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9283]
+{org:en}
+Deep well pressure pump
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104021798:0L.@entry, 100113113:0C)
+aoj(300149120:02, 104572344:07)
+mod(100113113:0C, 104572344:07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9284]
+{org:en}
+Diaphragm pumps.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104021798:0C.@entry.@pl, 103189083:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9285]
+{org:en}
+In a diaphragm pump, an elastic membrane (diaphragm) is lifted to draw water through the inlet valve.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200178502:1M.@entry, 104021798:0H.@indef)
+obj(600000026:27, 101904461:2P.@def)
+man(200097029:1W, 600000026:27)
+aoj(300843146:0Q, 103743761:0Y.@topic.@indef)
+obj(600000026:27, 101904461:2P.@def)
+man(200097029:1W, 600000026:27)
+aoj(300843146:0Q, 103743761:0Y.@topic.@indef)
+pur(200178502:1M.@entry, 200097029:1W)
+cnt(103743761:0Y.@topic.@indef, 103189083:18.@parenthesis)
+obj(200178502:1M.@entry, 103743761:0Y.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(303162244:2J, 101904461:2P.@def)
+aoj(303162244:2J, 101904461:2P.@def)
+obj(200097029:1W, 107935504:21)
+mod(104021798:0H.@indef, 103189083:07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9286]
+{org:en}
+When the diaphragm is depressed, liquid is forced out through the outlet valve.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200747418:19.@entry, 600000033:02)
+mod(101904461:22.@def, 103748162:1V)
+man(200747418:19.@entry, 600000212:1F)
+mod(101904461:22.@def, 103748162:1V)
+man(200747418:19.@entry, 600000212:1F)
+man(200747418:19.@entry, 600000026:1J)
+aoj(301212867:0O, 103189083:0B.@topic.@def)
+obj(200747418:19.@entry, 107119643:0Z.@topic)
+obj(600000033:02, 301212867:0O)
+obj(600000033:02, 301212867:0O)
+obj(600000026:1J, 101904461:22.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9287]
+{org:en}
+The pedal pump and the Petro pump are some variations of this principle which have high potential for rural water supply systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100194969:19.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod(104377057:3F.@pl, 113563522:38)
+obj(200065370:28, 114482620:2I)
+aoj(200065370:28, 105872477:1S.@pl)
+mod:01(104021798:0C.@def.@topic., 103903424:06)
+aoj(302050452:2W, 104377057:3F.@pl)
+mod(104377057:3F.@pl, 113563522:38)
+obj(200065370:28, 114482620:2I)
+aoj(200065370:28, 105872477:1S.@pl)
+mod:01(104021798:0C.@def.@topic., 103903424:06)
+aoj(302050452:2W, 104377057:3F.@pl)
+qua(100194969:19.@entry.@pl, 600000034:14)
+aoj:01(303162054:0P, 104021798:0V.@entry.@def)
+aoj(300705498:2D, 114482620:2I)
+obj(100194969:19.@entry.@pl, 105872477:1S.@pl)
+and:01(104021798:0V.@entry.@def.@topic, 104021798:0C.@def.@topic)
+pur(114482620:2I, 104377057:3F.@pl)
+and:01(104021798:0V.@entry.@def.@topic, 104021798:0C.@def.@topic)
+pur(114482620:2I, 104377057:3F.@pl)
+mod(105872477:1S.@pl, 600000017:1N)
+mod(104377057:3F.@pl, 107935504:32)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9288]
+{org:en}
+Figure 9.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "9":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9289]
+{org:en}
+Pedal pump
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104021798:08.@entry, 103903424:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9290]
+{org:en}
+Pedal pumps.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104021798:08.@entry.@pl, 103903424:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9291]
+{org:en}
+These are also known by the name 'Hydro-Pompe Vergnet' and it operates in a novel mode.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200341285:1S.@entry, 200594337:0H)
+aoj(200594337:0H, 101139636:0U.@def)
+aoj(301642245:26, 106023675:2C.@indef)
+aoj(200594337:0H, 101139636:0U.@def)
+aoj(301642245:26, 106023675:2C.@indef)
+man(200341285:1S.@entry, 106023675:2C.@indef)
+cnt(101139636:0U.@def, 500324104:10.@single_quote)
+obj(200341285:1S.@entry, 600000016:1P.@topic)
+man(200594337:0H, 400047534:0C)
+man(200594337:0H, 400047534:0C)
+obj(200594337:0H, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9292]
+{org:en}
+As shown in Figure 9, this pump is operated by a foot pedal, at ground level that alternately stretches and contracts a flexible diaphragmatic hose located inside a rigid cylinder immersed in the well.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200341285:11.@entry, 600000008:02)
+mod(105093890:21, 303155671:1U)
+aoj:01(300844719:3E, 103539875:41.@indef)
+obj:01(200027268:2O, 103903424:1K.@entry.@indef)
+aoj:01(301023706:4N, 103156279:4T.@indef)
+mod(104021798:0T.@topic, 600000017:0O)
+mod(100556992:0E, "9":0L)
+obj:01(600000267:4E, 103156279:4T.@indef)
+obj:01(200087736:32, 103539875:41.@indef)
+mod(105093890:21, 303155671:1U)
+aoj:01(300844719:3E, 103539875:41.@indef)
+obj:01(200027268:2O, 103903424:1K.@entry.@indef)
+aoj:01(301023706:4N, 103156279:4T.@indef)
+mod(104021798:0T.@topic, 600000017:0O)
+mod(100556992:0E, "9":0L)
+obj:01(600000267:4E, 103156279:4T.@indef)
+obj:01(200087736:32, 103539875:41.@indef)
+plc(:01, 105093890:21)
+agt(200341285:11.@entry, :01)
+plc(200923307:05.@state, 100556992:0E)
+man:01(202286204:46, 600000267:4E)
+and:01(200087736:32, 200027268:2O)
+man:01(200027268:2O, 400137562:2C)
+obj(200341285:11.@entry, 104021798:0T.@topic)
+obj(600000008:02, 200923307:05.@state)
+aoj:01(303160658:3N, 103539875:41.@indef)
+agt:01(200087736:32, 103903424:1K.@entry.@indef)
+obj(600000008:02, 200923307:05.@state)
+aoj:01(303160658:3N, 103539875:41.@indef)
+agt:01(200087736:32, 103903424:1K.@entry.@indef)
+plc:01(303158591:52, 104572344:5I.@def)
+mod:01(103903424:1K.@entry.@indef, 100284665:1F)
+aoj:01(303158591:52, 103156279:4T.@indef)
+obj:01(202286204:46, 103539875:41.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9293]
+{org:en}
+The operation of this pump is as follows
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000323:0W.@entry, 100409211:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(104021798:0O, 600000017:0J)
+obj(100409211:06.@topic.@def, 104021798:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9294]
+{org:en}
+The rigid cylinder surrounding the diaphragm is primed and the foot pedal is pressed down into the cylinder forcing water in the cylinder into the diaphragmatic hose thereby expanding its volume.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201390616:27.@entry, 200408624:1E)
+aoj(303160658:45, 103539875:4J.@def)
+man(200257269:4W.@progress, 600000281:4V)
+aoj(201467370:0L.@progress, 103156279:0C.@topic.@def)
+gol(201390616:27.@entry, 103156279:2T.@def)
+mod(103903424:1Y.@topic.@def, 100284665:1T)
+gol(200747418:32.@progress, 103539875:4J.@def)
+aoj(303160658:45, 103539875:4J.@def)
+man(200257269:4W.@progress, 600000281:4V)
+aoj(201467370:0L.@progress, 103156279:0C.@topic.@def)
+gol(201390616:27.@entry, 103156279:2T.@def)
+mod(103903424:1Y.@topic.@def, 100284665:1T)
+gol(200747418:32.@progress, 103539875:4J.@def)
+obj(600000281:4V, 201390616:27.@entry)
+mod(104990220:5A, 600000016:56)
+obj(200747418:32.@progress, 107935504:3A)
+obj(201467370:0L.@progress, 103189083:11.@def)
+obj(201390616:27.@entry, 103903424:1Y.@topic.@def)
+obj(200257269:4W.@progress, 104990220:5A)
+agt(200747418:32.@progress, 103156279:2T.@def)
+obj(200257269:4W.@progress, 104990220:5A)
+agt(200747418:32.@progress, 103156279:2T.@def)
+aoj(301023706:06, 103156279:0C.@topic.@def)
+man(201390616:27.@entry, 600000183:2F)
+obj(200408624:1E, 103156279:0C.@topic.@def)
+plc(107935504:3A, 103156279:3N.@def)
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+[S:9299]
+{org:en}
+As the operator presses the pedal again, the cycle is repeated.
+{/org}
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+{/org}
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+Petro pumps.
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+Petro pumps were developed in Sweden.
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+
+[S:9304]
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+In these pumps, the cylinder consists of an elastic rubber hose, reinforced by two layers of spirally wound brass coated steel and equipped with a stainless steel check valve (Figure 10).
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+
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+As the handle is pushed down, the pipe string is lifted, stretching the reinforced rubber hose thereby decreasing its volume.
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+
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+On the return stroke, the rubber hose expands to regain its original volume.
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+The suction valve is opened at this stage allowing the entry of fresh water.
+{/org}
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+The obvious advantage is that there is practically no mechanical friction during pumping reducing mechanical failures due to wear and tear.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+The use of the drop pipe as a pump rod results in considerable savings in piping costs.
+{/org}
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+mod(101162928:11.@topic.@indef, 104021798:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9313]
+{org:en}
+Figure 10.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "10":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9314]
+{org:en}
+Petro pump
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303162054:02, 104021798:08.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9315]
+{org:en}
+Surface Water Supply Systems
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104377057:0N.@entry.@pl, 113563522:0G)
+mod(107935504:0A, 302471091:02)
+obj(113563522:0G, 107935504:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9316]
+{org:en}
+There are instances when groundwater cannot be used as a source of water in rural communities due to one or more of the following reasons
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(202603699:08.@entry, 600000033:0M)
+obj(600000001:2O, 105651680:3V.@def.@pl)
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+aoj(302050452:26, 107941729:2C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9317]
+{org:en}
+groundwater is not available in sufficient quantity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300183053:0L.@entry.@not, 115669379:02.@topic)
+aoj(302335828:0Y, 105108740:19)
+scn(300183053:0L.@entry.@not, 105108740:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9318]
+{org:en}
+groundwater is only available at great depths
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(300183053:0M.@entry, 105094725:15.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9319]
+{org:en}
+quality of the groundwater is not acceptable for direct consumption due to high mineral or organic matter content or color.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300017782:10.@entry.@not, 104723816:02.@topic)
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+obj(600000001:1Y, :02)
+or:01(301680559:2A, 300705498:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9320]
+{org:en}
+In such cases, surface water, either from springs, streams/rivers, lakes or ponds needs to be used as the source of water supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201189113:2C.@entry, 201158572:2O)
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+obj:01(600000025:1O, 109411430:1P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9321]
+{org:en}
+Surface water invariably originates from rainfall and is a mixture of surface runoff and groundwater.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100380083:1P.@entry.@indef, 201628449:0R)
+src(201628449:0R, 115689316:17)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9322]
+{org:en}
+Surface waters commonly have low mineral contents and hardness, high turbidity and bacterial count since they are more often than not exposed to serious pollution due to domestic and industrial wastes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj:02(301680559:0Z, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9323]
+{org:en}
+A rural water supply system based on surface water sources will have the following components
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(302050452:04, 104377057:0N.@topic.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9324]
+{org:en}
+An appropriate water intake system.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104377057:0U.@entry.@indef, 103576617:0N)
+aoj(300134701:05, 107935504:0H)
+obj(103576617:0N, 107935504:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9325]
+{org:en}
+A simple water treatment system.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104377057:0Q.@entry.@indef, 100658082:0G)
+aoj(301793812:04, 100658082:0G)
+obj(100658082:0G, 107935504:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9326]
+{org:en}
+Water Intake Systems
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104377057:0F.@entry.@pl, 103576617:08)
+obj(103576617:08, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9327]
+{org:en}
+A water intake is a structure placed in a surface water source to extract water from surface water source for further use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104931965:0M.@entry.@indef, 103576617:0A.@topic.@indef)
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+aoj(300443988:36, 100947128:3E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9328]
+{org:en}
+They are normally located at locations where best quality of water is available.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202286204:0K.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
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+aoj(300523364:1B, 104723816:1G.@topic)
+aoj(300183053:1Z, 104723816:1G.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9329]
+{org:en}
+The water intake structures allows to withdraw water from a surface source at more than one level to cope with the variations in the depth of water or from the deepest point.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(202774409:2Y, 100194969:3C.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9330]
+{org:en}
+They may also act as pretreatment systems in some cases.
+{/org}
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+mod(104377057:10.@pl, 115690272:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9331]
+{org:en}
+When placed near the water surface, the intake system may draw floating debris, algae and aquatic plants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200097029:1O.@entry.@may, 200659776:07.@past)
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+mod(104362025:0T.@def, 107935504:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9332]
+{org:en}
+When it is placed too close to the bottom, it may draw turbid water containing suspended matters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200097029:1G.@entry.@may, 600000033:02)
+man(200659776:0D, 400535384:0K)
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+man(200659776:0D, 303161323:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9333]
+{org:en}
+It is ideal that the intake point is about 0.3 to 0.45 m below the water level.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300012689:08.@entry, 600000131:1N)
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+obj(600000131:1N, 104561010:1X.@def)
+bas(400071165:13, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9334]
+{org:en}
+Intake systems for extracting water from small streams will often need a small barrage to provide sufficient depth of water above intake pipe.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+bas(600000072:3P, 103944672:42)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9335]
+{org:en}
+Some of the simple water intake structures for a rural water supply system are
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:5X.@entry, 104931965:0Y.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+aoj(302050452:1F, 104377057:1Y.@indef)
+mod(104931965:0Y.@topic.@def.@pl, 103576617:0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9336]
+{org:en}
+fixed level intake
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103576617:0E.@entry, 105093890:08)
+aoj(300347707:02, 105093890:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9337]
+{org:en}
+floating level intake
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103576617:0H.@entry, 105093890:0B)
+aoj(300077196:02, 105093890:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9338]
+{org:en}
+infiltration gallery.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103411544:0F.@entry, 100976698:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9339]
+{org:en}
+Figure 11a.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "11a":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9340]
+{org:en}
+Fixed level intake
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103576617:0E.@entry, 105093890:08)
+aoj(300347707:02, 105093890:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9341]
+{org:en}
+Figure 11b.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "11b":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9342]
+{org:en}
+Floating level intake
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103576617:0H.@entry, 105093890:0B)
+aoj(300077196:02, 105093890:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9343]
+{org:en}
+Figure 11c.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "11c":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9344]
+{org:en}
+Infiltration gallery
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103411544:0F.@entry, 100976698:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9345]
+{org:en}
+Fixed Level Intake
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103576617:0E.@entry, 105093890:08)
+aoj(300347707:02, 105093890:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9346]
+{org:en}
+This is the simplest of water intake systems as shown in Figure 11a.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:2V.@entry.@def, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(104377057:13.@pl, 103576617:0W)
+aoj(301793812:0E, :2V.@entry.@def)
+plc(200923307:1E.@past, 100556992:1N)
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+aoj(301793812:0E, :2V.@entry.@def)
+plc(200923307:1E.@past, 100556992:1N)
+mod(:2V.@entry.@def, 104377057:13.@pl)
+obj(600000008:1B, 200923307:1E.@past)
+man(:2V.@entry.@def, 600000008:1B)
+obj(103576617:0W, 107935504:0Q)
+obj(103576617:0W, 107935504:0Q)
+man(301793812:0E, 400536271:1Y)
+mod(100556992:1N, "11a":1U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9347]
+{org:en}
+The location of the intake point is selected and the bed of the water body closely around this point is prepared by spreading a thick layer (0.45 to 0.6 m) of gravel.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201754271:2Y.@entry, 202774500:12)
+mod(102818832:1J.@topic.@def, 102861886:20.@def)
+qua(101463259:3S.@indef, :02:02.@parenthesis)
+obj(202774500:12, 100027167:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(201378556:3A.@progress, 101463259:3S.@indef)
+obj(600000077:2D, 103974215:2P)
+fmt:01("0.6":47.@entry, "0.45":46)
+mod(102818832:1J.@topic.@def, 102861886:20.@def)
+qua(101463259:3S.@indef, :02:02.@parenthesis)
+obj(202774500:12, 100027167:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(201378556:3A.@progress, 101463259:3S.@indef)
+obj(600000077:2D, 103974215:2P)
+fmt:01("0.6":47.@entry, "0.45":46)
+man(201754271:2Y.@entry, 201378556:3A.@progress)
+man(600000077:2D, 400160440:25)
+qua:02(106832464:4B.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(103974215:0T.@def, 103576617:0M)
+obj(201754271:2Y.@entry, 102818832:1J.@topic.@def)
+mod(102861886:20.@def, 107935504:1U)
+aoj(300015480:3M, 101463259:3S.@indef)
+mod(102861886:20.@def, 107935504:1U)
+aoj(300015480:3M, 101463259:3S.@indef)
+mod(100027167:06.@topic.@def, 103974215:0T.@def)
+mod(101463259:3S.@indef, 114698884:4H)
+mod(103974215:2P, 600000017:2K)
+aoj(600000077:2D, 102818832:1J.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9348]
+{org:en}
+The intake pipe with its mouth covered with a screen is placed through this bed protruding just above this bed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200659776:1M.@entry, 103944672:0D.@topic.@def)
+mod(103944672:0D.@topic.@def, 103576617:06)
+man(202776574:2A.@progress, 600000073:2Q)
+obj(600000018:15, 104151581:1C.@indef)
+obj(202776574:2A.@progress, 102818832:26)
+mod(103794392:0R, 600000016:0N)
+mod(102818832:31, 600000017:2W)
+mod(103944672:0D.@topic.@def, 103576617:06)
+man(202776574:2A.@progress, 600000073:2Q)
+obj(600000018:15, 104151581:1C.@indef)
+obj(202776574:2A.@progress, 102818832:26)
+mod(103794392:0R, 600000016:0N)
+mod(102818832:31, 600000017:2W)
+obj(600000026:1T, 102818832:26)
+obj(200048633:0X, 103794392:0R)
+bas(600000073:2Q, 102818832:31)
+man(200659776:1M.@entry, 600000026:1T)
+obj(600000019:0I, 103794392:0R)
+man(600000073:2Q, 600000138:2L)
+obj(600000019:0I, 103794392:0R)
+man(600000073:2Q, 600000138:2L)
+mod(102818832:26, 600000017:21)
+man(200048633:0X, 600000018:15)
+aoj(600000019:0I, 103944672:0D.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9349]
+{org:en}
+A wooden crib is placed around the bed and the pipe, in the case of rivers or streams, to protect the intake system from occasional floods or high velocity flows during rain.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200659776:0J.@entry, 100492083:0B.@topic.@indef)
+src(201128193:2M, :03:03)
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+mod:03(100329227:4G.@entry.@pl, 115689301:47)
+plc(200659776:0J.@entry, 600000090:0Q)
+or:03(100329227:4G.@entry.@pl, 100329819:3S.@pl)
+or:02(107406765:2A.@entry.@pl, 109411430:20.@pl)
+src(201128193:2M, :03:03)
+and:01(103944672:1D.@entry.@def, 102818832:11.@def)
+mod:03(100329227:4G.@entry.@pl, 115689301:47)
+plc(200659776:0J.@entry, 600000090:0Q)
+or:03(100329227:4G.@entry.@pl, 100329819:3S.@pl)
+or:02(107406765:2A.@entry.@pl, 109411430:20.@pl)
+man(200659776:0J.@entry, 600000134:1J)
+mod(104377057:35.@def, 103576617:2Y)
+plc(:7Q, :02:02)
+mod(100492083:0B.@topic.@indef, 301141595:04)
+pur(200659776:0J.@entry, 201128193:2M)
+obj(201128193:2M, 104377057:35.@def)
+obj(600000134:1J, :7Q)
+obj(201128193:2M, 104377057:35.@def)
+obj(600000134:1J, :7Q)
+aoj:03(301067415:3H, 100329819:3S.@pl)
+obj(600000090:0Q, :01)
+aoj:03(300705498:42, 100329227:4G.@entry.@pl)
+dur(201128193:2M, 105045208:4T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9350]
+{org:en}
+Floating Level intake
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103576617:0H.@entry, 105093890:0B)
+aoj(300077196:02, 105093890:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9351]
+{org:en}
+The floating level intake consists of a flexible pipe attached to a rigid conduit by means of a flexible joint (Figure 11b).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774237:0S.@entry, 103576617:0L.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300077196:06, 105093890:0F)
+gol(201290255:1K, 103089014:24.@indef)
+aoj(300844719:16, 103944672:1F.@indef)
+aoj(300844719:2Q, 103600806:2Z.@indef)
+aoj(300077196:06, 105093890:0F)
+gol(201290255:1K, 103089014:24.@indef)
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+aoj(300844719:2Q, 103600806:2Z.@indef)
+obj(201290255:1K, 103944672:1F.@indef)
+obj(600000172:2C, 103600806:2Z.@indef)
+obj(202774237:0S.@entry, 103944672:1F.@indef)
+aoj(301023706:1Y, 103089014:24.@indef)
+aoj(301023706:1Y, 103089014:24.@indef)
+man(201290255:1K, 600000172:2C)
+mod(103576617:0L.@topic.@def, 105093890:0F)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9352]
+{org:en}
+The other end of the flexible pipe has perforations to let the water into the pipe and is attached to a light-weight plastic or rubber ball that keeps the flexible pipe floating.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201290255:2K.@entry, 200065370:11)
+aoj(200065370:11, 100728065:0C.@topic.@def)
+or:01(301129021:3M.@entry, 302364954:3B)
+obj(400535945:1Z, 103944672:28.@def)
+agt(201065877:43, 100107400:3T.@indef)
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+obj(200566181:4R.@progress, 103944672:4M.@def)
+aoj(200065370:11, 100728065:0C.@topic.@def)
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+obj(400535945:1Z, 103944672:28.@def)
+agt(201065877:43, 100107400:3T.@indef)
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+obj(200566181:4R.@progress, 103944672:4M.@def)
+aoj(300844719:0N, 103944672:0W.@def)
+gol(201290255:2K.@entry, 100107400:3T.@indef)
+pur(100944633:15.@pl, 200496673:1L)
+obj(201065877:43, 103944672:4M.@def)
+mod(100728065:0C.@topic.@def, 600000053:06)
+obj(201290255:2K.@entry, 100728065:0C.@topic.@def)
+obj(200065370:11, 100944633:15.@pl)
+or:01(302364954:3B, 303163440:2Y)
+obj(200065370:11, 100944633:15.@pl)
+or:01(302364954:3B, 303163440:2Y)
+mod(100728065:0C.@topic.@def, 103944672:0W.@def)
+mod(100107400:3T.@indef, :01)
+aoj(400535945:1Z, 107935504:1T.@def)
+aoj(300844719:4D, 103944672:4M.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9353]
+{org:en}
+In place of balls, well-sealed empty oil drums can also be used as a float.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201158572:1R.@entry.@ability, 600000635:02)
+aoj(301697318:0S, 102594552:19.@topic.@pl)
+man(201158572:1R.@entry.@ability, 600000023:1W)
+man(301697318:0S, 400011093:0N)
+aoj(301697318:0S, 102594552:19.@topic.@pl)
+man(201158572:1R.@entry.@ability, 600000023:1W)
+man(301697318:0S, 400011093:0N)
+man(201158572:1R.@entry.@ability, 400047534:1J)
+mod(102594552:19.@topic.@pl, 103843092:15)
+obj(201158572:1R.@entry.@ability, 102594552:19.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301086545:0Z, 102594552:19.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301086545:0Z, 102594552:19.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000023:1W, 103364340:21.@indef)
+obj(600000635:02, 100107400:0G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9354]
+{org:en}
+The floating mechanism is fixed on a suitable frame to prevent it from dislocation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200406243:0S.@entry, 100098385:0F.@topic.@def)
+obj(202450505:1L, 600000016:1T)
+pur(100462116:1C.@indef, 202450505:1L)
+obj(202450505:1L, 600000016:1T)
+pur(100462116:1C.@indef, 202450505:1L)
+aoj(301020885:13, 100462116:1C.@indef)
+gol(200406243:0S.@entry, 100462116:1C.@indef)
+aoj(300077196:06, 100098385:0F.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300077196:06, 100098385:0F.@topic.@def)
+src(202450505:1L, 100553362:21)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9355]
+{org:en}
+Such an arrangement is suitable for sources where the water level fluctuates widely during different seasons.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161286:0P.@entry, 100939628:0A.@topic.@indef)
+man(200270699:1W, 400495663:27)
+obj(200270699:1W, 104561010:1K.@def)
+man(200270699:1W, 400495663:27)
+obj(200270699:1W, 104561010:1K.@def)
+plc(200270699:1W, 104263614:12.@pl)
+mod(100939628:0A.@topic.@indef, 600001411:02)
+obj(303161286:0P.@entry, 104263614:12.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:2L, 115236475:2V.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:2L, 115236475:2V.@pl)
+dur(200270699:1W, 115236475:2V.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9356]
+{org:en}
+Infiltration Galleries
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103411544:0F.@entry.@pl, 100976698:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9357]
+{org:en}
+Infiltration galleries are open-jointed pipes running just beneath the bed of river, stream or lake and encased by a layer of fine sand and gravel (Figure 11c).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103944672:16.@entry.@pl, 103411544:0F.@topic.@pl)
+and(201486312:35.@past, 200332672:1F.@progress)
+obj(400536032:1S, 102818832:24.@def)
+man(200332672:1F.@progress, 400536032:1S)
+mod(101463259:3I.@indef, :02)
+or:01(107406765:2I, 109411430:2B)
+and(201486312:35.@past, 200332672:1F.@progress)
+obj(400536032:1S, 102818832:24.@def)
+man(200332672:1F.@progress, 400536032:1S)
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+aoj(303163549:0T, 103944672:16.@entry.@pl)
+agt(201486312:35.@past, 101463259:3I.@indef)
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+obj(201486312:35.@past, 103944672:16.@entry.@pl)
+mod(102818832:24.@def, :01)
+man(400536032:1S, 600000138:1N)
+and:02(114698884:45.@entry, 115693734:3R)
+mod(103411544:0F.@topic.@pl, 100976698:02)
+[W]
+:03.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9358]
+{org:en}
+The gravel and fine sand medium act as a filtration unit as the water trickles through them towards the open joints of the collection pipes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202671613:0Y.@entry, 600000102:1N)
+obj(600000026:29, 600000020:2H)
+and:01(115693734:0H.@entry, 114698884:06)
+mod(105869857:1I.@indef, 100191980:17)
+aoj(300036254:2Y, 103600806:33.@def.@pl)
+mod(202070874:20, 600000080:2M)
+obj(600000026:29, 600000020:2H)
+and:01(115693734:0H.@entry, 114698884:06)
+mod(105869857:1I.@indef, 100191980:17)
+aoj(300036254:2Y, 103600806:33.@def.@pl)
+mod(202070874:20, 600000080:2M)
+obj(202671613:0Y.@entry, 105869857:1I.@indef)
+mod(103600806:33.@def.@pl, 103944672:3S.@def.@pl)
+obj(202070874:20, 107935504:1U.@def)
+agt(202671613:0Y.@entry, 106254475:0R.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000080:2M, 103600806:33.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000102:1N, 202070874:20)
+obj(600000080:2M, 103600806:33.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000102:1N, 202070874:20)
+mod(106254475:0R.@topic.@def, :01)
+mod(103944672:3S.@def.@pl, 101014066:3H)
+man(202070874:20, 600000026:29)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9359]
+{org:en}
+The collection pipes slope towards a collection well from where water can be pumped out for further treatment or distribution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202037090:0N.@entry, 103944672:0H.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(103944672:0H.@topic.@def.@pl, 101014066:06)
+obj(200788057:27.@ability, 107935504:1U.@topic)
+mod(104572344:1E.@indef, 101014066:13)
+aoj(300443988:2M, :01)
+mod(103944672:0H.@topic.@def.@pl, 101014066:06)
+obj(200788057:27.@ability, 107935504:1U.@topic)
+mod(104572344:1E.@indef, 101014066:13)
+aoj(300443988:2M, :01)
+obj(600000104:0T, 104572344:1E.@indef)
+man(200788057:27.@ability, 600000212:2E)
+mod(202037090:0N.@entry, 600000104:0T)
+pur(200788057:27.@ability, :01:01)
+pur(200788057:27.@ability, :01:01)
+src(200788057:27.@ability, 104572344:1E.@indef)
+or:01(101083077:37.@entry, 100658082:2U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9360]
+{org:en}
+Water Treatment Systems
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104377057:0I.@entry.@pl, 100658082:08)
+obj(100658082:08, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9361]
+{org:en}
+Slow sand Filtration
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300980527:02, 100191980:0C.@entry)
+obj(100191980:0C.@entry, 115019030:07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9362]
+{org:en}
+The major problem in using surface water as the source of water supply in tropical developing countries is the turbidity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104703932:35.@entry.@def, 105687338:0C.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000023:17, 104263614:1E.@def)
+man(201158572:0N.@progress, 600000023:17)
+mod(113563522:1U, 107935504:1O)
+obj(600000023:17, 104263614:1E.@def)
+man(201158572:0N.@progress, 600000023:17)
+mod(113563522:1U, 107935504:1O)
+mod(105687338:0C.@topic.@def, 301471002:06)
+plc(113563522:1U, 108167046:2D.@pl)
+scn(105687338:0C.@topic.@def, 201158572:0N.@progress)
+mod(104263614:1E.@def, 113563522:1U)
+mod(104263614:1E.@def, 113563522:1U)
+obj(201158572:0N.@progress, 115689665:0T)
+aoj(301250835:24, 108167046:2D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9363]
+{org:en}
+Suspended and colloidal particles and silt generally cause turbidity in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9364]
+{org:en}
+If the turbidity is less than 1 NTU (Nephlometric Turbidity Unit) water can be directly distributed, and if bacterial contamination is suspected disinfection by chlorination could be the only treatment required for water before distribution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:9365]
+{org:en}
+For higher turbidity levels of raw water, slow-sand filtration has often been the choice for treatment at rural, small-scale level.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105093890:0N.@pl, 107935504:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9366]
+{org:en}
+Filtration is the purification process in which raw water is passed through a porous medium to remove undesirable physical, chemical and bacteriological characteristics.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9367]
+{org:en}
+During such passage, suspended and colloidal matters that cause turbidity are removed due to the straining/screening action of the porous medium.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9368]
+{org:en}
+Bacteria and other microorganisms also are reduced by this action of the medium.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200045817:19.@entry, :01:01)
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+mod:01(101326291:0L.@entry.@pl.@topic, 600000031:0F)
+mod(100037396:1O, 600000017:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9369]
+{org:en}
+Chemical constituents undergo favorable changes that result in improved water quality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202108377:0O.@entry, 106312966:0B.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300231103:1T, 104723816:28)
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+mod(104723816:28, 107935504:22)
+obj(202774178:1J, 104723816:28)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9370]
+{org:en}
+Finely graded sand is predominantly used as the medium of filtration in water treatment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:12.@entry, 115019030:0G.@topic)
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+mod(100658082:27, 107935504:22)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9371]
+{org:en}
+In slow sand filtration, water is filtered at the rate of 0.1 to 0.3 HTM1 of the filtration area per hour.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(201458664:10.@entry, 100191980:0F)
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+obj(600000025:2R, 105131023:2V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9372]
+{org:en}
+The advantages of slow sand filtration are
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:1N.@entry, 105142863:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(100191980:0U, 115019030:0P)
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+mod(105142863:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 100191980:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9373]
+{org:en}
+It is simple, robust and reliable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+and:01(301951112:0G, 301793812:08)
+and:01(300724081:0R.@entry, 301951112:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9374]
+{org:en}
+It is relatively labor intensive with low capital cost.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(300837574:0J.@entry, 600000018:0Z)
+aoj(301206474:14, 115691676:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9375]
+{org:en}
+It requires little of any foreign material to be imported or skill and is within the capabilities of local communities to implement, operate and maintain.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+or:01(105636887:1U.@entry, 301035725:1I)
+gol(202774169:05, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9376]
+{org:en}
+It is able to bring a simultaneous improvement to the raw water with respect to color, turbidity, hardness and pathogenic organisms
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774243:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+and:01(104710588:2S.@pl, 104703932:2H.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9377]
+{org:en}
+The major problem in applying slow sand filtration is the rapid clogging of pores of the filter media.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100191980:16, 115019030:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9378]
+{org:en}
+Experience of tropical countries operating slow sand filters shows that when the average turbidity of raw water exceeds 20 NTU, it requires cleaning so frequently that it can not produce treated water with reliable qualities in adequate quantities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9379]
+{org:en}
+For such cases, some form of pretreatment of raw water will help to achieve greater reliability of water supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(200082081:1Q.@entry.@will, 102974697:0B.@pl)
+qua(103384535:0N, 600000293:0I)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9380]
+{org:en}
+Some of the simple and appropriate HTM1 pretreatment HTM2 systems are as follows
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000323:20.@entry, 104377057:1O.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 115690272:16.@def)
+aoj(:01, 115690272:16.@def)
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+and:01(300134701:0P.@entry, 301793812:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9381]
+{org:en}
+River bed filtration or infiltration galleries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103411544:13.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod(102818832:08, 109411430:02)
+mod(102818832:08, 109411430:02)
+mod(:01, 102818832:08)
+or:01(100976698:0Q.@entry, 100191980:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9382]
+{org:en}
+This has been discussed earlier under water intake systems
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(400100082:0Q, 400099341:1O)
+mod(104377057:1G.@pl, 103576617:19)
+man(400100082:0Q, 400099341:1O)
+man(202774210:0G.@entry.@progress.@complete, 400100082:0Q)
+man(202774210:0G.@entry.@progress.@complete, 600000003:0Y)
+obj(103576617:19, 107935504:13)
+obj(103576617:19, 107935504:13)
+obj(600000003:0Y, 104377057:1G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9383]
+{org:en}
+Storage basins.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(102801525:0A.@entry.@pl, 100811355:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9384]
+{org:en}
+Storage basins help to remove suspended matters as also pathogens from raw water before treatment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200082081:0H.@entry, 102801525:0A.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000062:2B, 100658082:2I)
+obj(200173338:0P, 100020827:16.@pl)
+src(200173338:0P, 107935504:25)
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+man(200173338:0P, 600000062:2B)
+obj(600000023:1E, 101386007:1M.@pl)
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+aoj(302351692:0W, 100020827:16.@pl)
+man(200173338:0P, 600000023:1E)
+aoj(300619433:21, 107935504:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9385]
+{org:en}
+These are simple water-retaining structures (Figure 12a) constructed of earthen HTM1 embankments HTM2 with retention times in the range of a few weeks to few months.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104931965:12.@entry.@pl, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000018:33, 100028270:3I.@pl)
+aoj(301793812:0F, 104931965:12.@entry.@pl)
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+aoj(400121002:3O, 100028270:3I.@pl)
+mod:01(100556992:1I.@entry, "12a":1P)
+aoj(400121002:3O, 100028270:3I.@pl)
+mod:01(100556992:1I.@entry, "12a":1P)
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+obj(200610010:0S.@progress, 107935504:0M)
+mod(104053218:3V.@def, :02)
+mod(103282060:2M.@pl, 302905050:29)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9386]
+{org:en}
+In order to avoid loss of water due to seepage they may be lined with stabilized soil or masonry.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200222993:1W.@entry.@may, 600000044:02)
+obj(300137725:15, 107432119:1C)
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+obj(300137725:15, 107432119:1C)
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+obj(600000018:22, :01)
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+man(200222993:1W.@entry.@may, 600000018:22)
+obj(200811375:0E, 100067526:0N)
+obj(200222993:1W.@entry.@may, 600000020:1K.@topic)
+obj(600000044:02, 200811375:0E)
+obj(600000044:02, 200811375:0E)
+aoj(302291754:27, :01)
+obj(100067526:0N, 107935504:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9387]
+{org:en}
+In addition to pretreatment, the storage basins improve the reliability of water supply during drought periods.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774185:1G.@entry, 600000099:02)
+obj(113563522:2O, 107935504:2I)
+obj(202774185:1G.@entry, 115668905:23.@def)
+obj(600000099:02, 115690272:0J)
+obj(113563522:2O, 107935504:2I)
+obj(202774185:1G.@entry, 115668905:23.@def)
+obj(600000099:02, 115690272:0J)
+dur(202774185:1G.@entry, 106843520:3A.@pl)
+mod(102801525:19.@topic.@def.@pl, 100811355:11)
+agt(202774185:1G.@entry, 102801525:19.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(106843520:3A.@pl, 114537054:32)
+mod(106843520:3A.@pl, 114537054:32)
+mod(115668905:23.@def, 113563522:2O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9388]
+{org:en}
+Sedimentation basins.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(102801525:0G.@entry.@pl, 111445395:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9389]
+{org:en}
+Sedimentation basins also function in the same way as the storage basins albeit shorter retention times (in the order of few hours to few days).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201525666:0S.@entry, 102801525:0G.@topic.@pl)
+mod(102801525:0G.@topic.@pl, 111445395:02)
+mod(102801525:1W.@def.@pl, 100811355:1O)
+qua:01(114484516:3W.@pl.@entry, 600000106:3S)
+man(201525666:0S.@entry, 400047534:0N)
+fmt:01(114484516:3W.@pl.@entry, 105131023:3J.@pl)
+mod(100028270:2S.@pl, 100810598:2I)
+mod(102801525:0G.@topic.@pl, 111445395:02)
+mod(102801525:1W.@def.@pl, 100811355:1O)
+qua:01(114484516:3W.@pl.@entry, 600000106:3S)
+man(201525666:0S.@entry, 400047534:0N)
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+mod(100028270:2S.@pl, 100810598:2I)
+man(201525666:0S.@entry, 600000439:11)
+obj:02(600000808:2Z.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj(300709021:2A, 100028270:2S.@pl)
+man(201525666:0S.@entry, 600000486:23)
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+obj(600000486:23, 100028270:2S.@pl)
+aoj(:02.@parenthesis, 100028270:2S.@pl)
+obj(600000486:23, 100028270:2S.@pl)
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+qua:01(105131023:3J.@pl, 400409709:3F)
+man(300709021:2A, 400099341:43)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9390]
+{org:en}
+The most common configuration is a continuously operated rectangular box made of concrete or masonry (Figure 12b).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100135148:1Z.@entry.@indef, 105731779:0I.@topic.@def)
+man(303162722:1E, 400191656:11)
+aoj(303162722:1E, 100135148:1Z.@entry.@indef)
+man(300485711:0B, 400536271:06)
+man(303162722:1E, 400191656:11)
+aoj(303162722:1E, 100135148:1Z.@entry.@indef)
+man(300485711:0B, 400536271:06)
+src(200012267:23.@past, :01:01)
+aoj(300485711:0B, 105731779:0I.@topic.@def)
+obj(200012267:23.@past, 100135148:1Z.@entry.@indef)
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+or:01(100608896:2N.@entry, 114820180:2B)
+aoj(302048977:1N, 100135148:1Z.@entry.@indef)
+[W]
+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9391]
+{org:en}
+Roughing filters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115695988:0B.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9392]
+{org:en}
+These filters use filter media such as coconut fibers, burnt rice husk, coarse gravel, pea gravel, etc., and are operated at high filtration rates to produce effluent with qualities that are satisfactory for further slow sand filtration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(103331244:1D.@pl, 107772935:15)
+obj(600000068:0X, :01)
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+mod:01(114698884:2L, 107725376:2H)
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+obj(201621555:48, 114857021:4G)
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+mod(106254475:0R.@pl, 103339643:0K)
+obj(200341285:37.@entry, 103339643:08.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(114698884:2L, 114698884:29)
+aoj(300443988:5U, 100191980:6C)
+man(201621555:48, 600000018:4P)
+and:01(114698884:2L, 114698884:29)
+aoj(300443988:5U, 100191980:6C)
+man(201621555:48, 600000018:4P)
+aoj:01(303161944:1L, 113139647:1W)
+obj(201158572:0G, 106254475:0R.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:3J, 113325010:3Z.@pl)
+aoj:01(301950198:22, 114698884:29)
+agt(201158572:0G, 103339643:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301124768:5D, 104723816:4U.@pl)
+mod(103339643:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9393]
+{org:en}
+Figure 12a.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "12a":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9394]
+{org:en}
+Storage basin
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(102801525:0A.@entry, 100811355:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9395]
+{org:en}
+Figure 12b.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "12b":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9396]
+{org:en}
+Sedimentation basin
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(102801525:0G.@entry, 111445395:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9397]
+{org:en}
+The selection of pretreatment method depends on the turbidity and bacteriological quality of raw water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:13.@entry, 108399818:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj:01(300619433:2N, 107935504:2R)
+mod:01(104723816:2C.@entry, 107935504:2R)
+aoj:01(300619433:2N, 107935504:2R)
+mod:01(104723816:2C.@entry, 107935504:2R)
+and:01(104723816:2C.@entry, 104703932:1I.@def)
+mod(105660268:0W, 115690272:0J)
+obj(202663848:13.@entry, :01:01)
+obj(108399818:06.@topic.@def, 105660268:0W)
+obj(108399818:06.@topic.@def, 105660268:0W)
+aoj:01(302914740:1W, 104723816:2C.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9398]
+{org:en}
+Alternative Filtration Technologies
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100949619:0P.@entry.@pl, 300564667:02)
+mod(100949619:0P.@entry.@pl, 100191980:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9399]
+{org:en}
+There are some alternatives to slow sand filtration that have been developed for water treatment in small rural communities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, 115690188:0H.@pl)
+obj(200234057:1W.@complete, 100191980:17)
+aoj(300980527:0X, 100191980:17)
+aoj(301391351:2T, 107941729:35.@pl)
+obj(200234057:1W.@complete, 100191980:17)
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+plc(200234057:1W.@complete, 107941729:35.@pl)
+obj(100191980:17, 115019030:12)
+aoj(302050452:2Z, 107941729:35.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9400]
+{org:en}
+Series filtration systems and dual media filters are among the prominent among these alternatives.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000064:1J.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(104377057:0K.@pl.@topic, 100191980:09)
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+obj(600000064:23, 115690188:2F.@pl)
+aoj(303161885:1T, :3W.@def)
+aoj:01(302183135:0W, 103339643:17.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000064:1J.@entry, :3W.@def)
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+mod(115690188:2F.@pl, 600000017:29.@pl)
+mod:01(100191980:09, 105862721:02.@pl)
+mod(115690188:2F.@pl, 600000017:29.@pl)
+aoj(600000064:23, :3W.@def)
+mod:01(103339643:17.@entry.@pl.@topic, 106254475:11.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9401]
+{org:en}
+Series filtration systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104377057:0K.@entry.@pl, 100191980:09)
+mod(100191980:09, 105862721:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9402]
+{org:en}
+Series filtration systems consist of two stages of filtration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774237:0S.@entry, 104377057:0K.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100191980:09, 105862721:02.@pl)
+qua(100306900:17.@pl, "2":13)
+mod(100191980:09, 105862721:02.@pl)
+qua(100306900:17.@pl, "2":13)
+mod(100191980:1H, 100306900:17.@pl)
+obj(202774237:0S.@entry, 100191980:1H)
+mod(104377057:0K.@topic.@pl, 100191980:09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9403]
+{org:en}
+In the first stage, filter media made up of shredded coconut husks is used to remove the bulk of suspended matter from raw water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(201158572:20.@entry, 100306900:0F.@def)
+mod(106254475:0T.@topic.@pl, 103339643:0M)
+qua(100020827:30, 400535902:2E)
+src(200173338:27, 107935504:3G)
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+mod(113139647:1R.@pl, 303163724:1A)
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+mod(113139647:1R.@pl, 303163724:1A)
+aoj(302351692:2Q, 100020827:30)
+obj(200173338:27, 100020827:30)
+src(200040928:0Z, 113139647:1R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9404]
+{org:en}
+A bed of burnt rice husk as a medium in the second stage of filtration "polishes" the already rough-treated water to achieve a desirable quality of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200473799:27.@entry.@single_quote, 102818832:04.@topic.@indef)
+mod(102818832:04.@topic.@indef, 113139647:0M)
+man(200078760:34.@past, 600000277:2Y)
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+obj(200078760:34.@past, 107935504:3C.@def)
+obj(600000032:0R, 106254475:0W.@indef)
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+pur(107935504:3C.@def, 202526085:3L)
+mod(113139647:0M, 107804323:0H)
+mod(104723816:45.@indef, 107935504:4G)
+obj(200473799:27.@entry.@single_quote, 107935504:3C.@def)
+aoj(303161944:0B, 113139647:0M)
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+aoj(303161944:0B, 113139647:0M)
+obj(202526085:3L, 104723816:45.@indef)
+mod(100306900:1H.@def, "2":1A.@ordinal)
+man(200078760:34.@past, 400031798:2Q)
+tim(106254475:0W.@indef, 100306900:1H.@def)
+aoj(600000032:0R, 102818832:04.@topic.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9405]
+{org:en}
+As both types of media are mostly locally available and often discarded materials in rural communities of tropical countries, this system works out to be very cheap.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(200251270:43.@entry, 600000039:02)
+obj:01(202222318:1V.@entry, 103729951:25.@pl)
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+aoj:01(300183053:1B, 106254475:0M.@pl.@topic)
+obj:01(202222318:1V.@entry, 103729951:25.@pl)
+obj(600000039:02, :01:01)
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+
+[S:9406]
+{org:en}
+There is no need for cleaning of the media, as fresh media at little or no cost can replace them.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:9407]
+{org:en}
+Researches have revealed that burnt rice husks as a filter medium show a significant absorption capability for taste, odor and color removal when compared to slow sand filters.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9408]
+{org:en}
+Dual media filter.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103339643:0D.@entry, 106254475:07)
+mod(106254475:07, 302183135:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9409]
+{org:en}
+As the name implies, a dual media filter consists of two filtration beds made-up of different media.
+{/org}
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+mod(106254475:0Q, 302183135:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9410]
+{org:en}
+Researches have shown that a dual media filter consisting of a coconut fiber bed over burnt rice husk could run for two to three months producing water of excellent clarity with raw water turbidity of about 100 NTU at a filtration rate of 0.2 HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9411]
+{org:en}
+A drawback with this kind of filters is the inconvenience in cleaning the beds which requires their removal from the system.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104722715:1A.@entry.@def, 105164521:04.@topic.@indef)
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+mod(103339643:0V.@pl, 105839024:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9412]
+{org:en}
+Discarding the used-up media and replacing with new filter media is a better way to overcome this difficulty.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100172710:27.@entry.@indef, :01)
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+mod:01(106254475:1P.@pl, 103339643:1I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9413]
+{org:en}
+Selection of Treatment Systems
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(108399818:02.@entry, 104377057:0P.@pl)
+mod(104377057:0P.@pl, 100658082:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9414]
+{org:en}
+Table 1 provides general guidelines for selection of treatment system for rural water supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200406963:0A.@entry, 104379243:02.@topic)
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+mod(104377057:1T, 100658082:1J)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9415]
+{org:en}
+Table 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "1":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9416]
+{org:en}
+Guideline for selection of treatment system in rural areas
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(106802138:02.@entry, 108399818:0G)
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+aoj(302050452:1D, 102735688:1I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9417]
+{org:en}
+Water Distribution Systems
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104377057:0L.@entry.@pl, 101083077:08)
+obj(101083077:08, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9418]
+{org:en}
+Distribution of water to the ultimate consumers namely the households, is as important as extraction and treatment of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301275562:27.@entry, 101083077:02.@topic)
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+obj(400188510:1E, 115669720:1P.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9419]
+{org:en}
+In cases of groundwater-based water supply systems for rural areas, mostly the location of wells and hand pumps become the distribution point.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9420]
+{org:en}
+However, a distribution system will be necessary in many cases of surface-water based systems, particularly when the extraction point is located farther from the area where the population intended to be served lives.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9421]
+{org:en}
+Moreover, villages will eventually need a distribution system that serves people at a closer location to households.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9422]
+{org:en}
+The type of distribution system that can be adopted in a rural area depends on the level of service that has been planned for that area.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9423]
+{org:en}
+This in turn depends on the social, financial and political character of the community.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9424]
+{org:en}
+Methods of Water Transportation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105660268:02.@entry.@pl, 100315986:0J)
+obj(100315986:0J, 107935504:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9425]
+{org:en}
+Water can be transported through the distribution systems to the consumer end through any of the following methods
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201449974:0F.@entry.@ability, 107935504:02.@topic)
+mod(100728065:24.@def, 109612848:1V)
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+mod(105660268:2Z.@def.@pl, 300127815:2P)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:9426]
+{org:en}
+through gravity flow
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000026:02.@entry, 100329227:0I)
+mod(100329227:0I, 107512147:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9427]
+{org:en}
+through direct pumping
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000026:02.@entry, 115698916:0H)
+aoj(300005473:0A, 115698916:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9428]
+{org:en}
+through pumping for elevated storage and gravity flow.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000026:02.@entry, 115698916:0A)
+mod:01(100329227:1F.@entry, 107512147:17)
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+aoj:01(301208044:0M, 100811355:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9429]
+{org:en}
+Water distribution through gravity flow is possible when the water source or the extraction point is located at sufficiently higher elevation to the area being served.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301821266:19.@entry, 101083077:08.@topic)
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+obj(600000045:0L, 100329227:11)
+obj(201077568:4I.@progress, 102735688:47.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9430]
+{org:en}
+It is the ideal method of transporting water, as it will not require pumps and energy for their operation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(105660268:0I.@entry.@def, 600000039:1C)
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+obj(201449974:0S.@progress, 107935504:15)
+and:01(104633197:29.@entry, 104021798:1Z.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9431]
+{org:en}
+However, except hilly areas or areas located close to hills, occasions where water can be distributed by gravity are very rare.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300017024:3G.@entry, 400027384:02)
+aoj:01(303163319:0I, 102735688:0O.@pl)
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+obj(202286204:13, :01)
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+obj(303161323:1B, 109303008:1K.@pl)
+obj(600000222:0B, :01:01)
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+or:01(102735688:0X.@entry.@pl, 102735688:0O.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9432]
+{org:en}
+Where it is not possible to transport water by gravity, it can be done using pumps.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201619014:1W.@entry.@ability, 115689346:02)
+aoj(301821266:0I.@not, 600000016:08.@topic)
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+obj(201449974:0U, 107935504:14)
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+obj(301821266:0I.@not, 201449974:0U)
+plc(301821266:0I.@not, 115689346:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9433]
+{org:en}
+This is the least desirable method as any breakdown of pump or failure of power supply will completely disrupt the water supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(105660268:0U.@entry.@def, 600000039:11)
+obj(105781800:18, :01)
+obj(600000039:11, 200554298:2X.@will)
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+mod(105781800:18, 600000052:14)
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+mod(105781800:18, 600000052:14)
+agt(200554298:2X.@will, 105781800:18)
+man(600001374:0E, 400536271:3M)
+obj(113563522:2A, 105190804:24)
+obj(113563522:3F.@def, 107935504:39)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9434]
+{org:en}
+Especially so in the rural areas of developing countries where a power supply is highly unpredictable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(600000071:0D.@entry, 400535221:02)
+man(300739789:2J, 400089267:2C)
+plc(300739789:2J, 108167046:12.@pl)
+man(300739789:2J, 400089267:2C)
+plc(300739789:2J, 108167046:12.@pl)
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+plc(600000071:0D.@entry, 115669267:0N.@def.@pl)
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+obj(113563522:21.@topic.@indef, 105190804:1V)
+aoj(300739789:2J, 113563522:21.@topic.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9435]
+{org:en}
+An appropriate method to overcome such difficulties is pumping water to an elevated storage tanks and distributing through gravity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(:01.@entry, 105660268:0H.@topic.@indef)
+obj(201108627:0R, 104709253:15.@pl)
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+obj:01(600000026:39, 107512147:3H)
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+mod(104709253:15.@pl, 600001411:10)
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+gol:01(200788057:1L.@progress, 104388743:2M.@indef.@pl)
+aoj(300134701:05, 105660268:0H.@topic.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9436]
+{org:en}
+Types of Distribution Networks
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104504486:02.@entry.@pl, 103820474:0O.@pl)
+mod(103820474:0O.@pl, 101083077:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9437]
+{org:en}
+Water can be distributed through either a branched network or a looped network (Figures 13a,b).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202201644:0F.@entry.@ability, 107935504:02.@topic)
+aoj:01(303162022:1U, 103820474:21.@entry.@indef)
+mod(:01, 600001327:0Z)
+and:02(105400978:2P.@entry, "a":2N)
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+mod(:01, 600001327:0Z)
+and:02(105400978:2P.@entry, "a":2N)
+obj(600000026:0R, :01)
+mod:03(:02, "13":2I)
+man(202201644:0F.@entry.@ability, 600000026:0R)
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+aoj:01(300613866:18, 103820474:1H.@indef)
+or:01(103820474:21.@entry.@indef, 103820474:1H.@indef)
+[W]
+:03.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9438]
+{org:en}
+The looped network is more efficient than a branched network, but involves complicated design and construction.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300839619:0N.@entry, 600000037:1M)
+aoj(300613866:14, 103820474:1D.@indef)
+bas(300839619:0N.@entry, 103820474:1D.@indef)
+aoj(302177584:1Z, :01)
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+obj(200401538:1Q, :01)
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+obj(600000037:1M, 200401538:1Q)
+man(300839619:0N.@entry, 400099341:0I)
+and:01(100873381:2M.@entry, 100928077:2B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9439]
+{org:en}
+This is also not suitable for rural areas where the dwellings are far apart and hence will require long pipings and large numbers of fittings.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115669267:0S.@entry.@pl, 600000022:02.@topic)
+qua:01(100795008:3N.@entry.@pl, 103835412:3C.@pl)
+and(202774169:2H.@will, 303162206:1S)
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+aoj:01(300527870:36, 103835412:3C.@pl)
+aoj(202774169:2H.@will, 115669624:1E.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303162206:1S, 115669624:1E.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(100795008:3N.@entry.@pl, 100101708:2U.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9440]
+{org:en}
+A low cost water distribution will not be possible with a looped network unless the community is densely or closely populated.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301821266:18.@entry.@will.@not, 101083077:0J.@topic.@indef)
+obj(200451279:3A, 107941729:2E.@def)
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+aoj(303163453:04, 101083077:0J.@topic.@indef)
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+man(200451279:3A, :01)
+man(200451279:3A, :01)
+obj(600000147:23, 200451279:3A)
+obj(101083077:0J.@topic.@indef, 107935504:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9441]
+{org:en}
+The branched network is less complicated to design and construct and hence more suitable for small communities and rural areas.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(303161286:2A.@entry, 302177584:0V)
+and:01(201583142:1L.@entry, 200698572:1A)
+and:02(115669267:39.@entry.@pl, 107941729:2T.@pl)
+man(303161286:2A.@entry, 400099341:25)
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+and:02(115669267:39.@entry.@pl, 107941729:2T.@pl)
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+pur(302177584:0V, :01:01)
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+aoj(303161286:2A.@entry, 103820474:0F.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300613866:06, 103820474:0F.@topic.@def)
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+aoj:02(301391351:2N, 107941729:2T.@pl)
+man(400099341:25, 600000173:1Z)
+man(302177584:0V, 400099868:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9442]
+{org:en}
+This system has a disadvantage that when the supply is terminated at one point for repairs or maintenance, the entire downstream population will lose their supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0E.@entry, 104377057:07.@topic)
+obj(202775808:1L, 113563522:1B.@def.@topic)
+obj(201099592:43.@will, 113563522:4E)
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+tim(201099592:43.@will, 600000033:12)
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+obj(202775808:1L, 113563522:1B.@def.@topic)
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+mod(101257969:3N.@topic.@def, 300515380:35)
+obj(200065370:0E.@entry, 105161614:0K.@indef)
+pur(202775808:1L, :01:01)
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+pur(202775808:1L, :01:01)
+mod(113563522:4E, 600000041:48.@pl)
+agt(201099592:43.@will, 101257969:3N.@topic.@def)
+or:01(100765791:2O.@entry, 100266806:2D.@pl)
+obj(600000033:12, 202775808:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9443]
+{org:en}
+Figure 13a.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "13a":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9444]
+{org:en}
+Branched network system
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300613866:02, 104377057:0J.@entry)
+mod(104377057:0J.@entry, 103820474:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9445]
+{org:en}
+Figure 13b.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "13b":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9446]
+{org:en}
+Looped network system
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303162022:02, 104377057:0H.@entry)
+mod(104377057:0H.@entry, 103820474:09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9447]
+{org:en}
+Types of Consumer Outlets
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104504486:02.@entry.@pl, 103748162:0K.@pl)
+mod(103748162:0K.@pl, 109612848:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9448]
+{org:en}
+The distributed water is ultimately made available to the consumer through consumer outlets or connections.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200012267:12.@entry, 107935504:0I.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000026:1X, :01)
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+man(200012267:12.@entry, 600000026:1X)
+or:01(100145218:2P.@entry.@pl, 103748162:2E.@pl)
+or:01(100145218:2P.@entry.@pl, 103748162:2E.@pl)
+man(200012267:12.@entry, 400047903:0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9449]
+{org:en}
+The type of outlet depends on the planned level of service and the financial viability of the consumers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0L.@entry, 104504486:06.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(105093890:18.@def, 100098625:1H)
+mod:01(105056234:27.@entry.@def, 109612848:2O.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(105093890:18.@def, 100098625:1H)
+mod:01(105056234:27.@entry.@def, 109612848:2O.@def.@pl)
+and:01(105056234:27.@entry.@def, 105093890:18.@def)
+mod(104504486:06.@topic.@def, 103748162:0E)
+obj(202663848:0L.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj:01(301797148:10, 105093890:18.@def)
+aoj:01(301797148:10, 105093890:18.@def)
+aoj:01(303161150:1X, 105056234:27.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9450]
+{org:en}
+Distribution systems that are appropriate for rural areas of developing countries are
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:2J.@entry, 104377057:0F.@topic.@pl)
+obj(300134701:0W, 115669267:1C.@pl)
+obj(300134701:0W, 115669267:1C.@pl)
+mod(104377057:0F.@topic.@pl, 101083077:02)
+aoj(300134701:0W, 104377057:0F.@topic.@pl)
+mod(115669267:1C.@pl, 108167046:1R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9451]
+{org:en}
+public standposts
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300493297:02, 115689873:09.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9452]
+{org:en}
+yard tap connections.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100145218:0B.@entry.@pl, 100125436:07)
+mod(100125436:07, 104610503:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9453]
+{org:en}
+It is common that water distribution in small towns and villages of developing countries comprise both the above systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300485711:08.@entry, 202774449:2J.@topic)
+plc(101083077:0Q, :01:01)
+mod(104377057:37.@pl, 600000323:2S)
+and:01(108226699:1M.@entry.@pl, 108226514:1C.@pl)
+plc(101083077:0Q, :01:01)
+mod(104377057:37.@pl, 600000323:2S)
+and:01(108226699:1M.@entry.@pl, 108226514:1C.@pl)
+obj(202774449:2J.@topic, 104377057:37.@pl)
+mod(:01, 108167046:1Y.@pl)
+aoj(202774449:2J.@topic, 101083077:0Q)
+obj(101083077:0Q, 107935504:0K)
+obj(101083077:0Q, 107935504:0K)
+mod(104377057:37.@pl, 300125993:31)
+aoj:01(301391351:16, 108226514:1C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9454]
+{org:en}
+Public Standposts
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300493297:02, 115689873:09.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9455]
+{org:en}
+In urban areas of developing countries, the urban squatter settlements are generally provided with water through public standposts as an intermediate step towards the ideal of direct house connections.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200406963:2F.@entry, 108675967:05.@pl)
+aoj(301014251:3V, 100285557:48.@indef)
+man(200406963:2F.@entry, 400041954:25)
+mod(105789089:1P.@topic.@def.@pl, 110643095:1G)
+man(200406963:2F.@entry, 600000026:2Z)
+aoj(300005473:4Y, 100145218:5B.@pl)
+obj(600000023:3P, 100285557:48.@indef)
+aoj(301014251:3V, 100285557:48.@indef)
+man(200406963:2F.@entry, 400041954:25)
+mod(105789089:1P.@topic.@def.@pl, 110643095:1G)
+man(200406963:2F.@entry, 600000026:2Z)
+aoj(300005473:4Y, 100145218:5B.@pl)
+obj(600000023:3P, 100285557:48.@indef)
+man(200406963:2F.@entry, 600000023:3P)
+mod(105923696:4P.@def, 100145218:5B.@pl)
+aoj(300493297:37, 115689873:3E.@pl)
+mod(108675967:05.@pl, 108167046:0K.@pl)
+gol(200406963:2F.@entry, 105789089:1P.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000104:4D, 105923696:4P.@def)
+obj(600000026:2Z, 115689873:3E.@pl)
+obj(600000104:4D, 105923696:4P.@def)
+obj(600000026:2Z, 115689873:3E.@pl)
+aoj(302052333:1A, 110643095:1G)
+obj(200406963:2F.@entry, 107935504:2T)
+mod(100145218:5B.@pl, 303163326:55)
+aoj(600000104:4D, 100285557:48.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9456]
+{org:en}
+In rural areas, this is the chief means for the majority of the population in rural areas.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+mod(103733547:10.@entry.@def, 301277426:0U)
+plc(103733547:10.@entry.@def, 115669267:28.@pl)
+mod(103733547:10.@entry.@def, 301277426:0U)
+plc(103733547:10.@entry.@def, 115669267:28.@pl)
+aoj(103733547:10.@entry.@def, 600000022:0I.@topic)
+plc(103733547:10.@entry.@def, 115669267:05.@pl)
+mod(105122557:1E.@def, 101257969:1U.@def)
+mod(105122557:1E.@def, 101257969:1U.@def)
+obj(103733547:10.@entry.@def, 105122557:1E.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9457]
+{org:en}
+The planning of public standposts should consider the following aspects
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200691312:17.@entry.@should.@past, 100928371:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(100928371:06.@topic.@def, 115689873:0P.@pl)
+obj(100928371:06.@topic.@def, 115689873:0P.@pl)
+mod(104733118:1U.@def.@pl, 300127815:1K)
+obj(200691312:17.@entry.@should.@past, 104733118:1U.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300493297:0I, 115689873:0P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9458]
+{org:en}
+Locations of standposts
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689873:0D.@entry.@pl, 100027167:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9459]
+{org:en}
+The standposts are to be located in public places that are easily accessible compared with other traditional sources of supplies such as springs, rivers and wells.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202286204:0R.@entry.@will, 115689873:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(600000029:3N, 113563522:3E.@pl)
+man(300019131:1W, 400054435:1P)
+aoj(300493297:12, 100721431:19.@pl)
+and:01(109411430:44.@pl, 104288272:3V.@pl)
+mod(104263614:33.@pl, 600000053:2L)
+aoj(600000029:3N, 113563522:3E.@pl)
+man(300019131:1W, 400054435:1P)
+aoj(300493297:12, 100721431:19.@pl)
+and:01(109411430:44.@pl, 104288272:3V.@pl)
+mod(104263614:33.@pl, 600000053:2L)
+aoj(300019131:1W, 100721431:19.@pl)
+and:01(104572344:4F.@entry.@pl, 109411430:44.@pl)
+mod(104263614:33.@pl, 113563522:3E.@pl)
+plc(202286204:0R.@entry.@will, 100721431:19.@pl)
+obj(600000029:3N, :01)
+obj(303161556:27, 104263614:33.@pl)
+obj(600000029:3N, :01)
+obj(303161556:27, 104263614:33.@pl)
+man(300019131:1W, 303161556:27)
+aoj(300611047:2R, 104263614:33.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9460]
+{org:en}
+The walking distance should not be more than 200 meters for any household intended to be covered.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103753077:1F.@entry.@should.@past.@not.@pl, 105084201:0E.@topic.@def)
+mod(115669720:1U, 600000052:1Q)
+bas(400099341:11, "200":1B)
+mod(115669720:1U, 600000052:1Q)
+bas(400099341:11, "200":1B)
+qua(103753077:1F.@entry.@should.@past.@not.@pl, 400099341:11)
+mod(105084201:0E.@topic.@def, 303163892:06)
+pur(103753077:1F.@entry.@should.@past.@not.@pl, 115669720:1U)
+gol(200708538:24, 200048633:2J.@passive)
+gol(200708538:24, 200048633:2J.@passive)
+obj(200708538:24, 115669720:1U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9461]
+{org:en}
+Number and discharge capacities
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100720951:0N.@entry.@pl, 103835412:02)
+mod(100720951:0N.@entry.@pl, 100123234:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9462]
+{org:en}
+The number of persons served by on public standpost should be between 100 and 150.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000024:1S.@entry.@should.@past, 103835412:06.@topic.@def)
+agt(201077568:0O, 115689873:18)
+mod(103835412:06.@topic.@def, 100007846:0G.@pl)
+agt(201077568:0O, 115689873:18)
+mod(103835412:06.@topic.@def, 100007846:0G.@pl)
+and:01("150":28.@entry, "100":20)
+obj(600000024:1S.@entry.@should.@past, :01:01)
+mod(115689873:18, 300493297:11)
+mod(115689873:18, 300493297:11)
+obj(201077568:0O, 100007846:0G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9463]
+{org:en}
+In exceptional circumstances the upper limit may be exceeded but in any case, it should not exceed 500.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202669081:1I.@entry.@may, 600000037:1R)
+man(202669081:2M.@should.@past.@not, 400322423:1V)
+aoj(301598859:05, 105822746:0H.@pl)
+man(202669081:2M.@should.@past.@not, 400322423:1V)
+aoj(301598859:05, 105822746:0H.@pl)
+obj(202669081:1I.@entry.@may, 108592898:0Z.@topic.@def)
+obj(202669081:2M.@should.@past.@not, "500":2T)
+plc(202669081:1I.@entry.@may, 105822746:0H.@pl)
+aoj(202669081:2M.@should.@past.@not, 600000016:28.@topic)
+aoj(202669081:2M.@should.@past.@not, 600000016:28.@topic)
+obj(600000037:1R, 202669081:2M.@should.@past.@not)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9464]
+{org:en}
+Depending upon the availability of water, a range of 40 to 60 liters per capita per day of supply may be adopted and accordingly, the discharge capacity of the standpost is to be determined.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200699815:51.@entry.@will, 200413195:2Z.@may)
+qua(113624190:1S.@topic.@pl, :01:01)
+man(200413195:2Z.@may, 202663848:02.@progress)
+mod(115668897:0L.@def, 107935504:11)
+mod(100720951:42.@topic.@def, 115689873:4I.@def)
+mod(113624190:1S.@topic.@pl, 113563522:2L)
+aoj(400501291:1Z, 113624190:1S.@topic.@pl)
+qua(113624190:1S.@topic.@pl, :01:01)
+man(200413195:2Z.@may, 202663848:02.@progress)
+mod(115668897:0L.@def, 107935504:11)
+mod(100720951:42.@topic.@def, 115689873:4I.@def)
+mod(113624190:1S.@topic.@pl, 113563522:2L)
+aoj(400501291:1Z, 113624190:1S.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200699815:51.@entry.@will, 100720951:42.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000025:2A, 114484516:2E)
+aoj(600000025:2A, 113624190:1S.@topic.@pl)
+man(200699815:51.@entry.@will, 400063089:3B)
+fmt:01("60":1P.@entry, "40":1J)
+obj(200413195:2Z.@may, 113624190:1S.@topic.@pl)
+fmt:01("60":1P.@entry, "40":1J)
+obj(200413195:2Z.@may, 113624190:1S.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100720951:42.@topic.@def, 100123234:3S)
+obj(202663848:02.@progress, 115668897:0L.@def)
+qua(113624190:1S.@topic.@pl, 600000304:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9465]
+{org:en}
+Height of collection platform
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105137165:02.@entry, 103961939:0N)
+mod(103961939:0N, 101014066:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9466]
+{org:en}
+The height of platform on which the collection vessel is placed should be decided taking due consideration of the local way of carrying water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200697589:24.@entry.@should.@past, 105137165:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(200659776:1N, 104530566:1D.@def.@topic)
+mod(100172710:3E.@def, 200235110:3L.@progress)
+obj(101229793:2N, 100172710:3E.@def)
+mod(105137165:06.@topic.@def, 103961939:0G)
+obj(200659776:1N, 104530566:1D.@def.@topic)
+mod(100172710:3E.@def, 200235110:3L.@progress)
+obj(101229793:2N, 100172710:3E.@def)
+mod(105137165:06.@topic.@def, 103961939:0G)
+obj(200523095:2C.@progress, 101229793:2N)
+obj(200235110:3L.@progress, 107935504:3U)
+man(200697589:24.@entry.@should.@past, 200523095:2C.@progress)
+mod(104530566:1D.@def.@topic, 101014066:12)
+aoj(301106405:38, 100172710:3E.@def)
+mod(104530566:1D.@def.@topic, 101014066:12)
+aoj(301106405:38, 100172710:3E.@def)
+mod(101229793:2N, 300136354:2J)
+plc(200659776:1N, 103961939:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9467]
+{org:en}
+It may be carried on head or on shoulders or on hips.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200235110:0C.@entry.@may, 600000016:02.@topic)
+obj:01(600000360:0V, 104207151:0Y.@pl)
+or:01(600000360:1B.@entry, 600000360:0V)
+obj:01(600000360:0V, 104207151:0Y.@pl)
+or:01(600000360:1B.@entry, 600000360:0V)
+or:02(:01.@entry, 600000360:0K)
+man(200235110:0C.@entry.@may, :02)
+obj:02(600000360:0K, 101318381:0N)
+obj:02(600000360:0K, 101318381:0N)
+obj:01(600000360:1B.@entry, 105556325:1E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9468]
+{org:en}
+Drainage around the standpost
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000077:0B, 115668933:02.@entry)
+obj(600000077:0B, 115689873:0M.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9469]
+{org:en}
+It is important that water from the standpost platforms is appropriately drained so that unhygienic water from stagnating conditions are not created around the standposts.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301275562:08.@entry, 200451648:23.@topic)
+frm(107935504:2U, 105798863:3G.@pl)
+mod(103961939:1C.@def.@pl, 115689873:12)
+man(200451648:23.@topic, 400139508:1P)
+plc(201640207:3Z.@not, 600000090:47)
+frm(107935504:2U, 105798863:3G.@pl)
+mod(103961939:1C.@def.@pl, 115689873:12)
+man(200451648:23.@topic, 400139508:1P)
+plc(201640207:3Z.@not, 600000090:47)
+obj(200451648:23.@topic, 107935504:0N)
+obj(202724835:35.@progress, 105798863:3G.@pl)
+obj(201640207:3Z.@not, 107935504:2U)
+pur(200451648:23.@topic, 600000084:2B)
+aoj(302113672:2J, 107935504:2U)
+obj(600000084:2B, 201640207:3Z.@not)
+aoj(302113672:2J, 107935504:2U)
+obj(600000084:2B, 201640207:3Z.@not)
+frm(107935504:0N, 103961939:1C.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000090:47, 115689873:4I.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9470]
+{org:en}
+Various types of standposts are shown in Figures 14a,b,c are
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:1P.@entry, 104504486:0A.@pl.@topic)
+and:01(106831391:1O.@entry.@topic, 105400978:1M.@topic)
+mod(100556992:17.@pl, :01)
+aoj(303160904:02, 104504486:0A.@pl.@topic)
+and:01(106831391:1O.@entry.@topic, 105400978:1M.@topic)
+mod(100556992:17.@pl, :01)
+aoj(303160904:02, 104504486:0A.@pl.@topic)
+plc(200923307:0Y.@past, 100556992:17.@pl)
+mod(104504486:0A.@pl.@topic, 115689873:0J.@pl)
+obj(200923307:0Y.@past, 104504486:0A.@pl.@topic)
+and:01(105400978:1M.@topic, "a":1K.@topic)
+and:01(105400978:1M.@topic, "a":1K.@topic)
+mod(:01, "14":1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9471]
+{org:en}
+Simple standpipes
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301793812:02, 104302527:09.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9472]
+{org:en}
+Multiple tap standposts
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689873:0F.@entry.@pl, 100125436:0B)
+mod(100125436:0B, 302215977:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9473]
+{org:en}
+Cistern-type standposts.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689873:0F.@entry.@pl, 104504486:0A)
+mod(104504486:0A, 103035510:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9474]
+{org:en}
+Figure 14a.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "14a":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9475]
+{org:en}
+A simple standpipe
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301793812:04, 104302527:0B.@entry.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9476]
+{org:en}
+Figure 14b.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "14b":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9477]
+{org:en}
+A multiple tap standpost
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689873:0H.@entry.@indef, 100125436:0D)
+mod(100125436:0D, 302215977:04)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9478]
+{org:en}
+Figure 14c.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "14c":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9479]
+{org:en}
+Cistern type standposts
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689873:0F.@entry.@pl, 104504486:0A)
+mod(104504486:0A, 103035510:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9480]
+{org:en}
+Figure 15.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "15":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9481]
+{org:en}
+Yard tap connection
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100145218:0B.@entry, 100125436:07)
+mod(100125436:07, 104610503:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9482]
+{org:en}
+Yard Tap Connections
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100145218:0B.@entry.@pl, 100125436:07)
+mod(100125436:07, 104610503:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9483]
+{org:en}
+Figure 15 shows a yard tap connection with water meter.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0C.@entry, 100556992:02.@topic)
+mod(103753077:1F, 107935504:19)
+mod(100125436:0P, 104610503:0K)
+mod(103753077:1F, 107935504:19)
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+mod(100145218:0T.@indef, 100125436:0P)
+obj(200923307:0C.@entry, 100145218:0T.@indef)
+mod(100556992:02.@topic, "15":09)
+mod(100556992:02.@topic, "15":09)
+gol(100145218:0T.@indef, 103753077:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9484]
+{org:en}
+In this type of outlet, a service connection with a tap is provided to a household from the supply main.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(200406963:1P.@entry, 103748162:0I)
+gol(100145218:10.@topic.@indef, 100125436:1I.@indef)
+gol(200406963:1P.@entry, 115669720:23.@indef)
+mod(104504486:0A, 600000017:05)
+gol(100145218:10.@topic.@indef, 100125436:1I.@indef)
+gol(200406963:1P.@entry, 115669720:23.@indef)
+mod(104504486:0A, 600000017:05)
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+mod(103748162:0I, 104504486:0A)
+obj(200406963:1P.@entry, 100145218:10.@topic.@indef)
+mod(100145218:10.@topic.@indef, 100098625:0S)
+mod(100145218:10.@topic.@indef, 100098625:0S)
+mod(103711145:2T.@def, 113563522:2M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9485]
+{org:en}
+This type of connection does not require any in-house plumbing.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774169:0Z.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 104504486:07.@topic)
+mod(104504486:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(100609669:1K, 303159840:1B)
+mod(104504486:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(100609669:1K, 303159840:1B)
+mod(100609669:1K, 600000052:17)
+obj(202774169:0Z.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 100609669:1K)
+mod(104504486:07.@topic, 100145218:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9486]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9487]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9488]
+{org:en}
+Extraction devices
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100171249:0D.@entry.@pl, 100392950:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9489]
+{org:en}
+Mechanical arrangements or devices used to extract groundwater from open wells and tube wells.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:11, :01.@entry)
+obj(200638723:18, 115669379:1G)
+pur(201158572:11, 200638723:18)
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+pur(201158572:11, 200638723:18)
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+and:02(115691935:2C.@entry.@pl, 104572344:22.@pl)
+and:02(115691935:2C.@entry.@pl, 104572344:22.@pl)
+src(200638723:18, :02:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9490]
+{org:en}
+Rainwater harvesting
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(115689835:0C.@entry, 115689732:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9491]
+{org:en}
+Planning and arranging to collect rainwater as a source for domestic water uses.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(:01.@entry, 201384439:0S)
+pur(104263614:1F.@indef, 100947128:25.@pl)
+aoj(600000032:1A, 115689732:10)
+pur(104263614:1F.@indef, 100947128:25.@pl)
+aoj(600000032:1A, 115689732:10)
+obj(201384439:0S, 115689732:10)
+obj(100947128:25.@pl, 107935504:1Z)
+and:01(115694775:0F.@entry, 100928371:02)
+aoj(301036754:1Q, 100947128:25.@pl)
+aoj(301036754:1Q, 100947128:25.@pl)
+obj(600000032:1A, 104263614:1F.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9492]
+{org:en}
+Water intake structures
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104931965:0F.@entry.@pl, 103576617:08)
+obj(103576617:08, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9493]
+{org:en}
+Civil engineering structures constructed to extract water from surface water sources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201583142:0V, 104931965:0K.@entry.@pl)
+mod(104263614:27.@pl, 115689665:1T)
+src(200638723:1A, 104263614:27.@pl)
+mod(104263614:27.@pl, 115689665:1T)
+src(200638723:1A, 104263614:27.@pl)
+pur(201583142:0V, 200638723:1A)
+mod(104931965:0K.@entry.@pl, 106127683:02)
+obj(200638723:1A, 107935504:1I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9494]
+{org:en}
+Water distribution systems
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104377057:0L.@entry.@pl, 101083077:08)
+obj(101083077:08, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9495]
+{org:en}
+Pipe network arrangements to transport water from source or water treatment plants to consumers/households.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(100939628:0F.@entry.@pl, 201449974:0V)
+obj(201449974:0V, 107935504:15)
+gol(201449974:0V, :02)
+obj(201449974:0V, 107935504:15)
+gol(201449974:0V, :02)
+mod(103820474:07, 103944672:02)
+or:02(115669720:2Q.@entry.@pl, 109612848:2G.@pl)
+obj(100939628:0F.@entry.@pl, 103820474:07)
+or:01(115698720:1Q.@entry.@pl, 104263614:1G.@pl)
+or:01(115698720:1Q.@entry.@pl, 104263614:1G.@pl)
+src(201449974:0V, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9496]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9497]
+{org:en}
+IRC (1977).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323634:02.@entry, "1977":07.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9498]
+{org:en}
+Hand pumps for use in drinking water supplies in developing countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(104021798:07.@entry.@pl, 100947128:0H)
+plc(113563522:13.@pl, 108167046:1F.@pl)
+plc(113563522:13.@pl, 108167046:1F.@pl)
+scn(100947128:0H, 113563522:13.@pl)
+mod(104021798:07.@entry.@pl, 101208460:02)
+obj(113563522:13.@pl, 107936263:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9499]
+{org:en}
+Technical Paper Series #10.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105862721:0I.@entry.@pl, "#10":0P)
+aoj(300484070:02, 106255613:0C)
+mod(105862721:0I.@entry.@pl, 106255613:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9500]
+{org:en}
+WHO International Reference Center for Community Water Supply, The Hague, Netherlands.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323584:06.@entry, 500323530:1T)
+plc(500323530:1T, 500004034:24)
+mod(500323584:06.@entry, 115669126:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9501]
+{org:en}
+Comprehensive information on description, operation and maintenance of various types of hand pumps.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(105091527:0G.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(104504486:29.@pl, 104021798:2N.@pl)
+and:01(100765791:1M.@entry, 100409211:18)
+mod(104504486:29.@pl, 104021798:2N.@pl)
+and:01(100765791:1M.@entry, 100409211:18)
+obj(:01, 104504486:29.@pl)
+mod(104021798:2N.@pl, 101208460:2I)
+aoj(300525453:02, 105091527:0G.@entry)
+aoj(303160904:21, 104504486:29.@pl)
+aoj(303160904:21, 104504486:29.@pl)
+and:01(100409211:18, 105840076:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9502]
+{org:en}
+IRC (1978).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323634:02.@entry, "1978":07.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9503]
+{org:en}
+Public stand posts for developing countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(115689873:0F.@entry.@pl, 108167046:0P.@pl)
+mod(115689873:0F.@entry.@pl, 300493297:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9504]
+{org:en}
+Bulletin Series #11.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105862721:0B.@entry.@pl, "#11":0I)
+mod(105862721:0B.@entry.@pl, 106682290:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9505]
+{org:en}
+WHO International Reference Center for Community Water Supply, The Hague, Netherlands.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323584:06.@entry, 500323530:1T)
+plc(500323530:1T, 500004034:24)
+mod(500323584:06.@entry, 115669126:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9506]
+{org:en}
+Proceedings of an international expert meeting held in Accra, Ghana that describes technological, economic, socio-cultural and management aspects of public stand posts.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115694243:02.@entry.@pl, 101230965:15.@indef)
+and:01(303163462:3L.@entry, 303162830:32)
+plc(500004021:1L, 500004020:1S)
+mod(101230965:15.@indef, 109617867:0Y)
+mod(115689873:4K.@pl, 300493297:47)
+mod(104733118:3W.@pl, 115689873:4K.@pl)
+and:01(303163462:3L.@entry, 303162830:32)
+plc(500004021:1L, 500004020:1S)
+mod(101230965:15.@indef, 109617867:0Y)
+mod(115689873:4K.@pl, 300493297:47)
+mod(104733118:3W.@pl, 115689873:4K.@pl)
+aoj(301568375:0K, 101230965:15.@indef)
+and:01(300840212:2S, 302084979:2D)
+obj(200987071:23, 104733118:3W.@pl)
+obj(200004492:1D, 101230965:15.@indef)
+and:01(303162830:32, 300840212:2S)
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+and:01(303162830:32, 300840212:2S)
+agt(200987071:23, 500004020:1S)
+plc(200004492:1D, 500004021:1L)
+mod(104733118:3W.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9507]
+{org:en}
+IRC (1979).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323634:02.@entry, "1979":07.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9508]
+{org:en}
+Public Stand Post Water Supplies-design Manual.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106421685:16.@entry, 100928077:0Z)
+mod(107935504:0K, 115689873:0F)
+mod(107935504:0K, 115689873:0F)
+obj(113563522:0Q.@pl, 107935504:0K)
+obj(100928077:0Z, 113563522:0Q.@pl)
+mod(115689873:0F, 300493297:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9509]
+{org:en}
+WHO International Reference Center for Community Water Supply, The Hague, Netherlands.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(500323584:06.@entry, 115669126:02)
+plc(500323530:1X, 500004034:24)
+plc(500323584:06.@entry, 500323530:1X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9510]
+{org:en}
+Details of planning and design aspects of water supplies using public stand posts.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105817845:02.@entry.@pl, 104733118:0X.@pl)
+obj(113563522:1E.@pl, 107935504:18)
+and:01(100928077:0Q.@entry, 100928371:0D)
+obj(113563522:1E.@pl, 107935504:18)
+and:01(100928077:0Q.@entry, 100928371:0D)
+mod(104733118:0X.@pl, :01)
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+mod(104733118:0X.@pl, 113563522:1E.@pl)
+obj(201158572:1N.@progress, 115689873:26.@pl)
+obj(201158572:1N.@progress, 115689873:26.@pl)
+agt(201158572:1N.@progress, 113563522:1E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9511]
+{org:en}
+IRC (1981).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323634:04.@entry, "1981":09.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9512]
+{org:en}
+;;Small community water supplies-echnology of small water supply systems in developing countries.Small community water supplies-Technology of small water supply systems in developing countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(113563522:0O.@pl.@entry, 107935504:0I)
+aoj(301391351:1B, 104377057:1U.@pl)
+plc(100949619:0X.@entry, 108167046:25.@pl)
+aoj(301391351:1B, 104377057:1U.@pl)
+plc(100949619:0X.@entry, 108167046:25.@pl)
+aoj(301391351:02, 107941729:08)
+obj(113563522:1N, 107935504:1H)
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+mod(104377057:1U.@pl, 113563522:1N)
+mod(104377057:1U.@pl, 113563522:1N)
+mod(100949619:0X.@entry, 104377057:1U.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9513]
+{org:en}
+International Reference Center for Community Water Supply and Sanitation, The Hague, Netherlands.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500324117:02.@entry, 500323530:24)
+plc(500323530:24, 500004034:2F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9514]
+{org:en}
+Comprehensive document detailing all technological aspects of small water supply systems for developing countries
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200678105:0P.@progress, 103217458:0G.@entry)
+aoj(302084979:13, 104733118:1H.@pl)
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+mod(104377057:2B.@pl, 113563522:24)
+aoj(302084979:13, 104733118:1H.@pl)
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+pur(104377057:2B.@pl, 108167046:2N.@pl)
+pur(104377057:2B.@pl, 108167046:2N.@pl)
+qua(104733118:1H.@pl, 600000011:0Z)
+obj(113563522:24, 107935504:1Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9515]
+{org:en}
+Letterman R. D.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323451:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9516]
+{org:en}
+Water Quality and Treatment
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(:01.@entry, 107935504:02)
+and:01(100658082:0K.@entry, 104723816:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9517]
+{org:en}
+A Handbook of Community Water Supplies
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106421301:04.@entry.@indef, 113563522:0W.@pl)
+mod(107935504:0Q, 107941729:0G)
+obj(113563522:0W.@pl, 107935504:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9518]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 edition, McGraw-Hill Inc., Washington DC.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106590446:07.@entry, HTM1:02.@ordinal)
+mod(115669560:0S.@entry, 500323870:0G)
+plc(115669560:0S.@entry, 500323548:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9519]
+{org:en}
+Comprehensive overview of drinking water quality standards, public health issues and detailed information on different water treatment processes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106469223:0G.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(115690621:17.@pl, 107936263:0S)
+aoj:01(300490413:33, 100029677:3T.@pl)
+obj:01(105091527:2O.@entry, 100029677:3T.@pl)
+aoj:01(300493297:1Q, 101060234:24.@pl)
+mod:01(115690621:17.@pl, 107936263:0S)
+aoj:01(300490413:33, 100029677:3T.@pl)
+obj:01(105091527:2O.@entry, 100029677:3T.@pl)
+aoj:01(300493297:1Q, 101060234:24.@pl)
+and:01(105091527:2O.@entry, 101060234:24.@pl)
+and:01(101060234:24.@pl, 115690621:17.@pl)
+aoj(300525453:02, 106469223:0G.@entry)
+mod:01(100029677:3T.@pl, 115669330:3D)
+mod:01(100029677:3T.@pl, 115669330:3D)
+aoj:01(300310433:2F, 105091527:2O.@entry)
+mod:01(101060234:24.@pl, 113923779:1X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9520]
+{org:en}
+Schulz C. R., and Okun D. A.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323192:0K.@entry, 500323235:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9521]
+{org:en}
+Surface water treatment for small communities in developing countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(100658082:0G.@entry, 107941729:10.@pl)
+plc(107941729:10.@pl, 108167046:1F.@pl)
+plc(107941729:10.@pl, 108167046:1F.@pl)
+aoj(301391351:0U, 107941729:10.@pl)
+obj(100658082:0G.@entry, 115689665:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9522]
+{org:en}
+Wiley Interscience, New York
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500324358:02.@entry, 500004836:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9523]
+{org:en}
+An excellent overview on simple water treatment options in community water supplies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(106469223:0F.@entry.@indef, 105790944:1E.@pl)
+obj(113563522:25.@pl, 107935504:1Z)
+mod(105790944:1E.@pl, 115669330:0Y)
+obj(113563522:25.@pl, 107935504:1Z)
+mod(105790944:1E.@pl, 115669330:0Y)
+aoj(301793812:0R, 105790944:1E.@pl)
+aoj(302343110:05, 106469223:0F.@entry.@indef)
+mod(107935504:1Z, 107941729:1P)
+mod(107935504:1Z, 107941729:1P)
+scn(105790944:1E.@pl, 113563522:25.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9524]
+{org:en}
+Also gives detailed design of water treatment plants suitable for Africa, Asia and South America, with a number of case studies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200108604:07.@entry, 400047534:02)
+qua(104345028:3D.@pl, 600000054:2W)
+man(303161286:1J, 600000018:2R)
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+and:01(115690876:23, 500005179:1V)
+qua(104345028:3D.@pl, 600000054:2W)
+man(303161286:1J, 600000018:2R)
+aoj(300310433:0D, 100928077:0M)
+and:01(115690876:23, 500005179:1V)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:9548]
+{org:en}
+THE DUBLIN PRINCIPLES
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323542:06.@entry.@def
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9549]
+{org:en}
+INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9550]
+{org:en}
+THE DUBLIN PRINCIPLES
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323542:06.@entry.@def
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(100939628:1D.@entry.@pl, 101133281:2K)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9552]
+{org:en}
+Miguel Solanes HTM1 and Fernando Gonzalez-Villarreal
+{/org}
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+and(500323287:0L.@entry, 500323406:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9553]
+{org:en}
+Global Water Partnership, Santiago, Chile
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323910:0S.@entry, 500323594:02)
+plc(500323910:0S.@entry, 500003032:12)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9554]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
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+{unl}
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9555]
+{org:en}
+Dublin principles, Water law, Water Policies, Water Planning and Management, Water Assessment, Stakeholder Participation, Economic Good, Water Rights
+{/org}
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+[S:9556]
+{org:en}
+Contents
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+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
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+[/S]
+
+[S:9557]
+{org:en}
+Overview and introduction
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+and(100238022:0I.@entry, 106469223:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9558]
+{org:en}
+Fresh Water as Finite and Vulnerable Resource
+{/org}
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+
+[S:9559]
+{org:en}
+Water Development and Management
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+mod(100250259:0B, 107935504:05)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:9560]
+{org:en}
+Water as an Economic Good
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+
+[S:9561]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
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+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9562]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9563]
+{org:en}
+Summary
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+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9564]
+{org:en}
+The Dublin principles represent the first international major effort to concisely state the main issues and thrust of water management in the world.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:9567]
+{org:en}
+Overview and Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and:01(100238022:0I.@entry, 106469223:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9568]
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+The Dublin principles represent the first international major effort to concisely state the main issues and thrust of water management in the world.
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+These principles are summarized in Table 1.
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+Four main themes inform the principles
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+{org:en}
+environment, economics, social needs, and the role of women, under a paramount goal of sustainability.
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+This contribution specifically considers the relationship between the 1992 Dublin Principles, integrated water management and water law.
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+Discussion is organized according to the four guiding principles for water in Table 1.
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+It is based on the review of a number of systems of national water law and on experiences provided by ongoing processes in countries such as Chile, Mexico, South Africa, and Zimbabwe.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9575]
+{org:en}
+Cases selected were generally chosen as representative of trends or situations, and not necessarily as models to be followed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:9576]
+{org:en}
+The Report relates each principle to actual law.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:9577]
+{org:en}
+Table 1
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9578]
+{org:en}
+The Dublin Principles on Water and Water Management
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:9579]
+{org:en}
+Fresh Water as a Finite and Vulnerable Resource
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000032:0H, 115009326:05.@entry)
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+Water Policies
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+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9581]
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+Several countries state the purposes and objectives of their water policies in their water legislation.
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+Quality Controls and Environmental Concerns
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+Some pesticides have been absolutely prohibited, others are restricted, and some are subject to application according to best environmental practices.
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+Additional measures, intended to control environmentally negative effects, include friendly environmental design and sedimentation and eutrophication control.
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+The 1989 Water Act of England provides for
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+the classification of water quality in relation to controlled waters (sect. 104)
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+the establishment of water quality objectives (sect. 105)
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+controlling and remedying pollution (sect. 107)
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+protection from sedimentation and refuse or waste vegetation (sect. 109)
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+protection against pollution (sect. 110)
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+establishment of nitrate sensitive areas (sect. 112)
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+establishment of minimum acceptable river flows (sect. 127)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:9625]
+{org:en}
+The 1991 Water Resources Act imposes conservation and enhancement duties on ministers and the National Rivers Authority, with a view to protect amenities, flora, fauna, historical places and other environmental interests.
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+[S:9626]
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+These duties are likewise to be considered when dealing with undertakers and their proposals for the management of waters and lands (sect. 16).
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+{org:en}
+Additional duties refer to environmental concerns for sites of special interest and for the enactment of codes of practice with respect to environmental and recreational duties (sects. 17-18).
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The Water Law of China creates a state duty to protect water resources and adopt effective measures to protect flora, conserve water sources, control soil and water losses and improve the ecological environment.
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+{org:en}
+Water pollution is to be prevented and controlled, with a view to protect and improve water quality.
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:9631]
+{org:en}
+Supervision and management of prevention and control of water pollution is to be strengthened (arts. 5-7).
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Agriculture must be practiced with a view to promote stable and high agricultural yield (art. 15).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:9633]
+{org:en}
+Hydropower development is to be done in accordance with protection of the ecological environment (art. 16).
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+Adverse environmental impacts in the implementation of interbasin transfers (art. 21) must be prevented.
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+Additional rules control disposal of refuse, mining activities, land reclamation, construction of projects, and creation of management and safeguard zones (arts. 24-29).
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+In some systems environmental concerns are the basis on which existing water rights can be amended, restricted, subjected to prorata, or cancelled.
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+The 1992 French Water Law authorizes changes in water rights when public health or safety so requires, or when water environments are threatened (art. 10iv).
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+In the United States the public trust doctrine has been utilized to limit prior appropriation rights when the full exercise of such rights would have affected the environmental functions of a lake.
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+Protection and Management of Water Supplies
+{/org}
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+Increasing demand and externalities have strengthened this concern.
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+The Mexican Water Law reflects this dimension of water legislation through the regulation of the use and development of national water resources.
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+The German Water Law provides for the creation of water protection areas, within which certain activities cannot take place, or certain measures have to be tolerated (art. 19).
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+These licenses are subject to conditions that can be changed even after a license has been issued (art. 19).
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+Use of, and discharges into, groundwater are subject to permit and licensing (arts. 32-34).
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+[S:9650]
+{org:en}
+Management measures include
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+[S:9651]
+{org:en}
+issuing certifications of assured water supplies, required for the approval of subdivision plats
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+{org:en}
+registration and recording of wells
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+control of water storage and recovery
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+control of well drillers
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+{org:en}
+stopping and reducing withdrawals in order to allow replenishment
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+[S:9660]
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+granting emergency powers in case of drought
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+granting of permits at the discretion of water administrators (except in cases of clear abuse of discretion)
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+deadlines for waterworks and activities
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+monitoring
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+possibility to amend and forfeit water rights (previous hearing)
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+{org:en}
+conjunctive use of surface and groundwater
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+{org:en}
+The 1991 Water Resources Act of England provides for the National Rivers Authority to have a general mandate of proper management, which includes conserving, redistributing, augmenting, and securing the proper use of the water supplies of England and Wales.
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+Water resources management schemes can be entered into for this purpose.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Water Planning and River Basins
+{/org}
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+The development of water resources is no longer amenable to isolated action.
+{/org}
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+Water legislation is rapidly evolving towards integrated water planning to satisfy environmental objectives, economic requirements and social concerns.
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+The German water legislation requires a prior plan approval procedure before approving any substantial modifications of water bodies and their banks (art. 31).
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+River basins and economic regions shall be subject to water plans, in order to safeguard the water resources needed for economic improvement and protection of the quality of life.
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+Plans must consider available water resources, flood control, and protection from pollution, integrating water planning with regional planning.
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+Plans are subject to adjustment and updating.
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+They are implemented through a variety of means including, inter alia, administrative requirements, revocation of permits and licenses (art. 36b).
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+In Europe, there is trend to implement a double level of water resources management
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+a regional level for water basin plans, legal enforcement and incentive policies, and a local level for operation of services, and for implementation of innovative policies, like urban hydrology.
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+The German (Ruhr) organizations and the French model are known worldwide.
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+However, the Ruhr system seems to be strictly related to the socio-economic characteristics of its area of origin, and therefore non-replicable.
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+On the other hand, the performance of the French river basin agencies has drawn some criticisms, resulting from excessive reliance on a "give and take" approach and also from argued shortcomings in integrated water resources planning and lack of clearly defined police powers.
+{/org}
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+Interestingly, this kind of criticism is the same that could be leveled out at attempts to incept river basin institutions in Latin America.
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+
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+{org:en}
+Another well-known international example is the Tennessee Valley Authority in the United States.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:9685]
+{org:en}
+However, its unique policy foundations, political support at the time of inception, and complex gamut of economic, social and managerial objectives would be very difficult to successfully replicate elsewhere.
+{/org}
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+While the role of regional and basin planning, control and management has been strengthened in Europe, in other regions, such as Latin America, the lack of adequate mechanisms for intersectoral planning and coordination at basin level seems to be negatively affecting water management.
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+{org:en}
+A constraint to water planning stems from the split between planning and regulation.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+The Water Law of China requires that the development and utilization of water and the prevention of disaster be planned in a comprehensive and systematic manner, with all the aspects taken into account, for multipurpose development and maximum benefits, allowing full consideration of the multifunctions of water (art. 4).
+{/org}
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+[W]
+:05.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9707]
+{org:en}
+In the Netherlands activities requiring environmental impact statements include, inter alia, discharges into surface and groundwater
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200183879:22.@entry, 500004034:09.@def)
+and:01(115669379:3F.@entry, 104362025:33)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:9708]
+{org:en}
+or interfering with the groundwater table
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+obj(202775228:3V.@entry.@progress, 115693810:4G.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9709]
+{org:en}
+construction of navigable waterways or widening or deepening them
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(100873381:4Z, 109476331:5P.@pl)
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+aoj(301724743:5F, 109476331:5P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9710]
+{org:en}
+diverting navigable waterways when it is a river
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(201952363:6U.@entry.@progress, 109411430:81.@indef)
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+obj(201952363:6U.@entry.@progress, 109476331:7E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:9711]
+{org:en}
+construction of naval ports
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100873381:88.@entry, 103984908:8O.@pl)
+aoj(302767701:8O, 103984908:8O.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9712]
+{org:en}
+construction of main water pipelines
+{/org}
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+obj(100873381:91.@entry, 103946325:9S.@pl)
+mod(103946325:9S.@pl, 107935504:9M)
+mod(103946325:9S.@pl, 301512527:9H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9713]
+{org:en}
+construction of marinas, dikes, dams
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100873381:A3.@entry, :04:04)
+and:04(115693596:AS.@pl, 103721590:AJ.@pl)
+and:04(101323493:AZ.@entry.@pl, 115693596:AS.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9714]
+{org:en}
+land reclamation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115669654:B5.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9715]
+{org:en}
+and construction of water reservoirs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100873381:BR.@entry, :00)
+obj(100873381:BR.@entry, 115698723:C7.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9716]
+{org:en}
+Norway has environmental impact statements procedures requiring that possible impacts on the environment, natural resources, and society of all major physical developments be assessed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:09.@entry, 500003243:02.@topic)
+mod:01(100250259:4B.@pl, 300627004:4A)
+obj(200682230:50.@should, :01:01)
+mod(100577068:19.@pl, 115669666:0D.@pl)
+aoj:01(301821266:22, 107338552:2B.@pl)
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+mod:01(100250259:4B.@pl, 300627004:4A)
+obj(200682230:50.@should, :01:01)
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+and:01(113332009:33.@pl, 107338552:2B.@pl)
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+and:01(113332009:33.@pl, 107338552:2B.@pl)
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+obj(202774169:1K.@progress, 200682230:50.@should)
+aoj:01(301471002:45, 100250259:4B.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9717]
+{org:en}
+Some countries have established areas within which projects or programs are presumed to have significant environmental effects.
+{/org}
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+agt(200636888:0M.@entry.@complete, 108168978:07.@topic.@pl)
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+qua(108168978:07.@topic.@pl, 600000034:02)
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+obj(600000042:4U, 102735688:0Y.@pl)
+aoj(300625055:2N, 104809642:3D.@pl)
+obj(200636888:0M.@entry.@complete, 102735688:0Y.@pl)
+obj(200065370:2I, 104809642:3D.@pl)
+obj(200065370:2I, 104809642:3D.@pl)
+obj(200011551:26, :01)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9718]
+{org:en}
+In Finland they include a number of areas in the Wild and Scenic Rivers Conservation Act
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200183879:0I.@entry, 500003316:05)
+scn(102735688:12.@pl, 500324357:1F.@def)
+scn(102735688:12.@pl, 500324357:1F.@def)
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+aoj(200183879:0I.@entry, 600000020:0D.@topic)
+qua(102735688:12.@pl, 600000054:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9719]
+{org:en}
+groundwater protection areas
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(102735688:37.@entry.@pl, 100784755:2W)
+mod(100784755:2W, 115669379:2K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9720]
+{org:en}
+the criteria of sensitive areas is also utilized in land planning.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200161872:4I.@entry, 115689586:3I.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300416164:3U, 102735688:44.@pl)
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+aoj(300416164:3U, 102735688:44.@pl)
+mod(100928371:4Z, 109334396:4U)
+man(200161872:4I.@entry, 400047534:4D)
+scn(200161872:4I.@entry, 100928371:4Z)
+mod(115689586:3I.@topic.@def.@pl, 102735688:44.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9721]
+{org:en}
+Poland lists the disturbance of water regime and intakes as one of the factors likely to produce environmental alterations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200945853:09.@entry, 500004191:02.@topic)
+mod:01(100199707:35.@pl, 302943151:2R)
+obj:01(600000032:1N, 600000027:1Q)
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+obj:01(300645169:29, 201621555:2J)
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+obj:01(300645169:29, 201621555:2J)
+obj(100333829:0J.@def, :01:01)
+aoj:01(300645169:29, 105858317:21.@def.@pl)
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+obj:01(201621555:2J, 100199707:35.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9722]
+{org:en}
+The 1992 Canadian Environmental Assessment Act aims to assure that environmental effects of projects are carefully considered
+{/org}
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+obj(200691312:3C, 104809642:2E.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104809642:2E.@topic.@pl, 105910453:2P.@pl)
+obj(200691312:3C, 104809642:2E.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200776268:1L, 200691312:3C)
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+pur(200708980:1D.@entry, 200776268:1L)
+mod(104809642:2E.@topic.@pl, 302943151:20)
+mod(104809642:2E.@topic.@pl, 302943151:20)
+man(200691312:3C, 400153568:32)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9723]
+{org:en}
+that sustainable development is promoted for a healthy environment and a healthy economy
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201080235:4R.@entry, 115668827:40.@topic)
+aoj:01(301170243:5W, 104893787:64.@entry.@indef)
+aoj:01(301170243:5W, 104893787:64.@entry.@indef)
+and:01(104893787:64.@entry.@indef, 108567235:5E.@indef)
+pur(201080235:4R.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj:01(301170243:56, 108567235:5E.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9724]
+{org:en}
+to ensure that projects do not cause significant adverse environmental effects and to ensure public participation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774184:6K.@entry, 201645601:7F.@emphasis.@not)
+aoj(300995647:7X, 104809642:8J.@pl)
+obj(201645601:7F.@emphasis.@not, 104809642:8J.@pl)
+aoj(300493297:95, 113924659:9C)
+aoj(300995647:7X, 104809642:8J.@pl)
+obj(201645601:7F.@emphasis.@not, 104809642:8J.@pl)
+aoj(300493297:95, 113924659:9C)
+pur(201645601:7F.@emphasis.@not, 202774184:8Y)
+obj(202774184:8Y, 113924659:9C)
+agt(201645601:7F.@emphasis.@not, 105910453:6Z.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104809642:8J.@pl, 302943151:85)
+mod(104809642:8J.@pl, 302943151:85)
+aoj(300625055:7L, 104809642:8J.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9725]
+{org:en}
+The Act applies to projects where the Federal Government has decision-making authority.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200765396:0A.@entry, 100030358:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(105176607:27, 105788149:1R)
+aoj(200065370:1N, 101124794:1C.@def)
+mod(105176607:27, 105788149:1R)
+aoj(200065370:1N, 101124794:1C.@def)
+plc(200065370:1N, 105910453:0L.@pl)
+gol(200765396:0A.@entry, 105910453:0L.@pl)
+aoj(301106129:14, 101124794:1C.@def)
+aoj(301106129:14, 101124794:1C.@def)
+obj(200065370:1N, 105176607:27)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9726]
+{org:en}
+Assessments are to be carried out as early as possible (art. 11).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(105146055:02.@topic.@pl, 202774207:0O.@entry.@will)
+obj(600000023:19, 301821266:1C)
+obj(600000023:19, 301821266:1C)
+man(400100082:13, 600000023:19)
+man(202774207:0O.@entry.@will, 400100082:13)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9727]
+{org:en}
+The Act is to be implemented through four regulations
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(100030358:06.@topic.@def, 202408965:0J.@entry.@will)
+qua(100805034:18.@pl, "4":13)
+qua(100805034:18.@pl, "4":13)
+obj(600000026:0V, 100805034:18.@pl)
+man(202408965:0J.@entry.@will, 600000026:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9728]
+{org:en}
+Inclusion List, (physical activities)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(106481320:1L.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(100407535:2B.@entry.@pl, 300627004:22)
+mod(106481320:1L.@entry, 100373130:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9729]
+{org:en}
+Exclusion List (insignificant environmental effects)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(106481320:2P.@entry, :02.@parenthesis)
+mod:02(104809642:3W.@entry.@pl, 302943151:3I)
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+aoj:02(301288298:34, 104809642:3W.@entry.@pl)
+mod(106481320:2P.@entry, 113935227:2O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9730]
+{org:en}
+Law list (functions, powers and duties whose exercise requires assessment)
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9731]
+{org:en}
+and the Comprehensive Study List (significant environmental effects).
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+cnt(500323680:6I.@entry.@def, :04.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:9732]
+{org:en}
+The Law List includes several water related enactments, like the Navigable Waters Protection Act
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0F.@entry, 106481320:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301971237:12, 101126856:1A.@pl)
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+aoj(200691665:1M, 101126856:1A.@pl)
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+
+[S:9733]
+{org:en}
+the International Rivers Improvement Regulations, and so forth.
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+{unl}
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+:01.@entry
+[/W]
+and:01(115694744:46.@entry, 500324118:2W.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9734]
+{org:en}
+The Comprehensive Study List includes, inter alia
+{/org}
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+man(200183879:0V.@entry, 400256344:15)
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+
+[S:9735]
+{org:en}
+water related activities like dams in national parks and protected areas
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(301971237:1N, 107935504:1H)
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+plc(101323493:2B.@pl, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9736]
+{org:en}
+hydroelectric generating stations with more than 300 MW of production capacity
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(500323723:50, "300":4W)
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+man(600000019:4H, 400099341:4M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9737]
+{org:en}
+certain categories of water projects
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105838765:5Z.@entry.@pl, 105910453:6J.@pl)
+mod(105910453:6J.@pl, 107935504:6D)
+aoj(300309740:5R, 105838765:5Z.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9738]
+{org:en}
+off-shore oil, gas and minerals projects
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303163542:6T, 105910453:7P.@entry.@pl)
+and:02(114481080:78, 103843092:73)
+and:02(114481080:78, 103843092:73)
+and:02(114662574:7G.@entry.@pl, 114481080:78)
+mod(105910453:7P.@entry.@pl, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9739]
+{org:en}
+and certain transportation facilities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(115689574:8Q.@entry.@pl, 100315986:8B)
+aoj(300309740:83, 115689574:8Q.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9740]
+{org:en}
+It has been possible to identify at least one court case where an environmental impact assessment was requested for irrigation subsidies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301821266:0E.@entry.@complete, 200618451:0Q)
+mod(102974697:1I, 101229223:1C)
+qua(102974697:1I, "1":18)
+mod(113267014:3L.@pl, 100695448:3A)
+mod(102974697:1I, 101229223:1C)
+qua(102974697:1I, "1":18)
+mod(113267014:3L.@pl, 100695448:3A)
+qua(102974697:1I, 400535886:0Z)
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+obj(200752764:2W.@past, 115695168:1W.@indef)
+plc(200752764:2W.@past, 102974697:1I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9741]
+{org:en}
+A federal judge in California, USA, ordered an environmental review of rules setting up how many acres farmers in the West can irrigate using subsidized federal water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+These regulations were found to have no significant impact, and were, therefore, not subjected to Environmental Impact Statement.
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+Water Development and Management
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+Vesting Responsibility for Overall Water Management
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+Where these functions are vested in institutions with functional responsibilities for specific water uses, or for discrete economic activities, water planning and management might not be objective.
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+Other Middle East Countries, like Yemen, have followed a similar pattern.
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+A Yemeni authority states
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+Therefore, water planning in the Netherlands is a multiparty process which includes the central, regional and local levels of government, both for surface and groundwater and for quantitative and qualitative aspects.
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+Conciliation of Interests and Consultations
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+Governments are resorting to conciliation mechanisms and preventive strategies in order to manage water related differences and coordinate activities, with a view to achieve the several objectives, and satisfy the multi-demands, usually associated to water resources.
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+The Federal Government and the states of Australia signed an "Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment" on May 1
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+The agreement acknowledges
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+[S:9816]
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+{org:en}
+Under special circumstances the federal government can create federal water quality management programs for interjurisdictional waters (art.11).
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+Concern for International Issues
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+Growing scarcity, competing demands, and transfer of externalities occur not only within national boundaries, but also at an international level.
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+In addition, in common market areas differing regulations might either curb imports or give a competitive advantage to exports.
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+With the worldwide privatization of water related services there are likewise, worldwide possibilities for advice and provision of services.
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+Therefore, countries are increasingly referring to extraterritorial factors or elements in their national water legislation.
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+The German Water Law provides for refusal of pipeline licenses when there are concerns about parts of the pipeline which are constructed or operated outside the area of application of the act (art. 19).
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+Specific water management schemes shall be drawn up in order to fulfill international obligations (art. 36b).
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+The 1989 Water Act of England authorizes the Authority to provide international assistance, training, and advice (sect. 144).
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+The appropriate minister is granted powers to issue regulations to give effect to any community obligation, and to any international agreement to which the United Kingdom is, for the time being, a party (sect. 171).
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+The activities of water service companies are affected by the requirements of the EC directives, such the ones on drinking and bathing waters.
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+Chinese water legislation anticipates the possibility of conflict between national water law and treaties to which the People’s Republic of China is a party.
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+In these cases the provisions of international treaties or agreements shall prevail (art. 51).
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+{org:en}
+Stakeholders Participation
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9833]
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+The process to democratize water decision-making and water related activities takes place through public hearings, stakeholder involvement in administrative bodies, organization of user associations and, for general environmental concerns, a greater permissiveness in the rules governing standing to act in either administrative or judicial fora.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+In Mexico, participation includes the establishment of formalities for the transfer of water rights within irrigation units and irrigation districts.
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+{org:en}
+The system intends to promote participation, while facilitating water transfers.
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+Stakeholders and water users can participate in public hearings or consultations intended to discuss policies, programs, projects or legislation.
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+
+[S:9838]
+{org:en}
+While the mechanism is fundamentally apt to open venues for participation, its sole inception does not necessarily mean that every stakeholder will necessarily participate.
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+[S:9839]
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+In fact, some argue that governments can encourage empowerment of interested parties by providing access to data, standing in meetings and, generally, providing opportunities for interested parties to express opinions and positions.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:9840]
+{org:en}
+This suggestion of an active government role in promoting participation seems to be confirmed in practice by the experience in South Africa.
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+[S:9841]
+{org:en}
+In a public consultation on forthcoming water legislation, industries submitted comprehensive responses, while a number of organizations and individuals also responded in a positive manner.
+{/org}
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+[S:9842]
+{org:en}
+Yet, it was noticed that no comments were submitted by community-based organizations, rural communities or village-level water committees.
+{/org}
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+[S:9843]
+{org:en}
+Very few submissions came from non-governmental organizations.
+{/org}
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+[S:9844]
+{org:en}
+Representatives of the public and of consumers can integrate advisory bodies, such as the Water Board, which advised the Ministry of Agriculture in Israel.
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+
+[S:9845]
+{org:en}
+In Mendoza, Argentina, representatives of the different basins and sub-basins of the province integrate the Tribunal and the Council of the Department of Irrigation, with important functions in relation to work plans, budgets, tariffs, and appeals.
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+{/unl}
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+[S:9846]
+{org:en}
+Representatives of agricultural users sit at the Directive Council of the Ecuatorian Institute of Water Resources.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9847]
+{org:en}
+The 1985 Spanish Water Law provides for user participation in basin authorities, and, through them, in the National Water Resources Council.
+{/org}
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+Representatives of users, local communities, and the central administration integrate the river basin committees of France.
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+
+[S:9849]
+{org:en}
+Water users also participate at field level.
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+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Both, the European and the American experience, coincide in that the most effective institutional manners of users involvement are the ones taking place through some sort of public organization.
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+
+[S:9851]
+{org:en}
+They assure economies of scale and mandatory dispute resolution processes, essential were a large number of diverse water users are involved.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:9852]
+{org:en}
+In a number of places where public participation is relevant it is associated to institutional environments where water is an important part of national policies and public water related organizations have an established and acknowledged role.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:9853]
+{org:en}
+In addition, in some countries such as Chile, the United States, Argentina’s western provinces, France, and South Korea, where participation is relevant, it has been possible to identify present or historical subsidies to water development and use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua(108168978:0N.@pl, 600000034:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9854]
+{org:en}
+Information
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105091527:06.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9855]
+{org:en}
+To be effective, a system of participatory planning and management of water resources must be able to provide timely information on what kind and quality of water is available where, and on who is using the water and for what purposes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9856]
+{org:en}
+Therefore, effective water management systems require adequate official surveys, inventories and cadastres of water sources and water supplies, as well as up to date registers and records of water uses and discharges into waters, water rights, and beneficiaries of such rights, with their respective water allocations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9857]
+{org:en}
+The 1989 Water Law of England provides for registers with information on water quality objectives, applications, consents, certifications, water samples and the like.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:9858]
+{org:en}
+The registers shall be available for inspection by the public, free of charge.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9859]
+{org:en}
+The members of the public can obtain copies of entries paying a reasonable fee (sect. 117).
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:9860]
+{org:en}
+English legislation also requires that the Authority and every water undertaker keep records of underground works, maps of water mains and sewers, and that this information be made available to the public free of charge (sect. 165).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[W]
+:03.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9861]
+{org:en}
+The 1991 Water Resources Act creates
+{/org}
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+mod(500323616:0B.@topic.@def, "1991":06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9862]
+{org:en}
+registers of abstraction and impoundment licenses, pollution control, and discharge works
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9863]
+{org:en}
+and also mapping systems of freshwater limits, main rivers, and waterworks (sects. 191-195).
+{/org}
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+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9864]
+{org:en}
+The objective of information is to allow appropriate decisions by policy makers, administrators, managers, users and the public.
+{/org}
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+mod(103838298:06.@topic.@def, 105091527:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9865]
+{org:en}
+Therefore, legislation requiring the submission of information by managers to policy makers, users and the public at large, and by users and the public to managers is becoming part of modern water law.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(200149583:4P.@entry.@progress, 103892891:4Y)
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+to:02(107965817:43.@entry.@def, 115669430:4D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9866]
+{org:en}
+The 1991 English Water Resources Act requires the National Rivers Authority to provide information to policy makers and undertakers and the public (sects. 196-197).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202774169:13.@entry, 500323616:0J.@topic.@def)
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+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9867]
+{org:en}
+The Authority does, in turn have powers to obtain information about surface and groundwater.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0U.@entry.@emphasis, 105176607:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000013:1S, 105091527:1G)
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+aoj(600000013:1S, 105091527:1G)
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+obj(600000013:1S, :01)
+obj(600000013:1S, :01)
+obj(202238085:19, 105091527:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9868]
+{org:en}
+Information shall be timely and adequate, and there are provisions on the kind of information to be collected and the manner in which the information must be organized (sects. 197-203).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202603699:1I.@entry, :01)
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+mod(105839024:24.@def, :04)
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+plc(101057200:1M.@pl, 105839024:24.@def)
+obj:04(201384439:2U, 105091527:2C)
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+obj:04(200404642:4G.@obligation, 105091527:3W.@def)
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+and:04(104910135:3C.@entry.@def, 105091527:2C)
+and:01(300051045:0Y.@entry.@obligation, 301661529:0N.@obligation)
+[W]
+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9869]
+{org:en}
+The English system is complemented with norms on confidential and reserved information and penalties for false statements (sects. 205-206).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200455919:0O.@entry, 104377057:0E.@topic.@def)
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+[W]
+:03.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9870]
+{org:en}
+Public participation is sought through a system of enquiries (sects. 213-215).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201069989:0Q.@entry, 113924659:09.@topic)
+mod(104377057:17.@indef, 115695165:1H.@pl)
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+[W]
+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9871]
+{org:en}
+The Water Act of Canada sets up public information programs under which the public is informed about water conservation, development and utilization (art. 27).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200407848:0Q.@entry, 100030358:0C.@topic.@def)
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+mod(100030358:0C.@topic.@def, 107935504:06)
+obj(600000128:2P, :01)
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+man(200522613:2G, 600000003:51)
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+mod(100030358:0C.@topic.@def, 107935504:06)
+obj(600000128:2P, :01)
+obj(600000003:51, 100551215:1H.@pl)
+mod(100030358:0C.@topic.@def, 500003493:0J)
+man(200522613:2G, 600000128:2P)
+obj(200407848:0Q.@entry, 100551215:1H.@pl)
+mod:01(100819274:31, 107935504:2V)
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+and:01(114580476:3V.@entry, 100250259:3F)
+[W]
+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9872]
+{org:en}
+The Act also requires that the minister responsible for water informs the Parliament on the operations carried out under the Act, each fiscal year (art. 36).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774169:0F.@entry, 200522613:1V)
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+man(202774207:30, 600000003:3C)
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+plc(200522613:1V, 100409211:2P.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300324878:19, 100585810:10.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9873]
+{org:en}
+The Lowest Appropriate Level
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301206474:0A, 105093890:0T.@entry)
+man(301206474:0A, 400536271:0W)
+aoj(300134701:0H, 105093890:0T.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9874]
+{org:en}
+In Germany water plans are produced by the Lander, according to federal directives (art. 36).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201621555:0T.@entry, 500003258:05)
+aoj(301106129:1U, 107170080:22.@pl)
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+man(201621555:0T.@entry, 600000046:1H)
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+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9875]
+{org:en}
+Water management schemes, to be produced by the Lander, shall consider the role of water within ecosystems, the rational use of groundwater, and the requirements of different uses (art. 36 b).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9876]
+{org:en}
+In at least one country, New Zealand, the river basin has become not only the unit for water planning and management, but also the main focus of Regional Councils having the greatest responsibilities for the implementation of sustainable management.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(200149583:1O.@entry.@complete, 105869857:28.@def)
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+mod:03(104703235:3U.@entry.@def, 600000132:3C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9877]
+{org:en}
+They are responsible for water resource development, water and soil conservation, geothermal resources, pollution control, and regional hazard mitigation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(109335240:1T.@entry, 107935504:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9878]
+{org:en}
+Levels lower than provinces, regions, or states, have been the focus of particular water related services, like drinking water and sanitation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+bas(301206474:09, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9879]
+{org:en}
+However, in countries such as Mexico vesting of these systems on municipal governments have drawn severe criticism
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200097029:2M.@entry.@complete, 600000070:02)
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+aoj(301038580:1V, 101124794:25.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9880]
+{org:en}
+it resulted in a fragmented water industry, unable to take advantage of economies of scale
+{/org}
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+mod(100923444:48.@indef, 107935504:42)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9881]
+{org:en}
+local governments were afraid of political reactions to raising charges
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200158503:7E.@progress, 100974762:7M.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9882]
+{org:en}
+and financing, management and other skills were in short supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(600000364:92.@entry.@past, :00)
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+{org:en}
+This prompted a major change in the water industry.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Changes in the European context include the reorganization of water management in England, separating water services from water resources planning, control, and regulation.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:9885]
+{org:en}
+Water services are produced by private limited companies, while water management and control are reserved to public organizations like the National Rivers Authority and the Office of Water Services.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:9886]
+{org:en}
+Water as an Economic Good
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+
+[S:9887]
+{org:en}
+In this paper the expression economic value of water refers only and exclusively to water as a natural resource, without addressing the issue of water related services, and connected added value and expenses.
+{/org}
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+mod(101060234:3U.@def, 100098625:4H.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9888]
+{org:en}
+This distinction is important to clearly focus the issue of the economic value of water and its legal implications.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:9889]
+{org:en}
+Property is to law, what scarcity is to economics.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:9890]
+{org:en}
+Law and economics are not separate and mutually exclusive, but interdependent regarding form and content and ends and means.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:9891]
+{org:en}
+Traditionally, law has not been interested in granting rights to the use of resources plentiful enough not to have any economic value.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
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+{org:en}
+In European-based western law, as resulting from Roman law, these resources were known as "common resources".
+{/org}
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+
+[S:9893]
+{org:en}
+The typical examples were the high seas and the atmosphere
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9894]
+{org:en}
+of such magnitude that they were deemed nor appropriable, neither vulnerable
+{/org}
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+and:02(302326482:3N.@entry, 300093433:31)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9895]
+{org:en}
+of such abundance that they were owned by nobody because no restrictions applied to the use of unlimited supplies, which were free for all.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:9896]
+{org:en}
+Apparently, in China water was an element within the concept of universal harmony, subject to public control.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300493297:2O, 100803617:2V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9897]
+{org:en}
+Fulfillment of individual duties in relation to water would satisfy the greatest good for the social system.
+{/org}
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+man(301278818:22, 400536271:3K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9898]
+{org:en}
+In earliest Muslim Law water was the common entitlement of all Muslims.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9899]
+{org:en}
+Similarly, in early Hindu law water had a fluid and purifying nature, and could not become an object of appropriation.
+{/org}
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+and:01(302117694:1I.@entry, 300345494:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9900]
+{org:en}
+Curiously, in Roman Law, terrestrial waters were not included within the concept of common resources.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
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+{org:en}
+They were either public or private.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:9902]
+{org:en}
+;The distinction was based on magnitude, perenmiality and the opinion of local inhabitants (existimatio circumcolentium).The distinction was based on magnitude, perenniality and the opinion of local inhabitants (existimatio circumcolentium).
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9903]
+{org:en}
+However, whatever the categorization of any specific body of water, the main fact for the purpose of this discussion is that in Roman Law water was considered important enough, scarce enough, and useful enough, to be publicly or privately owned.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9904]
+{org:en}
+Here we find an early indication that water was granted, albeit implicitly, an economic value.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200715239:0A.@entry, 400536275:02)
+gol(202255942:1E.@past, 107935504:14.@topic)
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+aoj(300812952:0I, 105816790:0O.@indef)
+mod(104979425:2I.@indef, 300840212:29)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9905]
+{org:en}
+However, water is not an ordinary commodity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(103076708:10.@entry.@indef, 600000070:02)
+aoj(301672607:0R, 103076708:10.@entry.@indef)
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+aoj(103076708:10.@entry.@indef, 107935504:0B.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9906]
+{org:en}
+The peculiar characteristics of water resources stem from its polyvalent environmental, economic and social roles.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200176137:1E.@entry, 104731497:0F.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+and:01(301076634:2V.@entry, 300840212:2I)
+mod(105154676:14.@pl, 107935504:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9907]
+{org:en}
+They include, inter alia
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:07.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+man(200183879:07.@entry, 400256344:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9908]
+{org:en}
+public good aspects
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104733118:14.@pl.@entry, 115669187:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9909]
+{org:en}
+external effects
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300948103:1D, 104809642:1M.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9910]
+{org:en}
+imperfect competition
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668927:1V.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9911]
+{org:en}
+risk, uncertainty, and imperfect information
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105091527:3F.@entry, 104756887:2O)
+and(104756887:2O, 100802238:2I)
+aoj(301752167:35, 105091527:3F.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9912]
+{org:en}
+potential for social and environmental inefficiencies and inequity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(114482620:3S.@entry, :03:03)
+and:02(302943151:4H.@entry, 301076634:46)
+and:02(302943151:4H.@entry, 301076634:46)
+and:03(115695408:5E.@entry, 105648953:4V.@pl)
+mod(:03, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9913]
+{org:en}
+and vulnerability to monopolization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105042871:5S.@entry, :00)
+obj(105042871:5S.@entry, 101128806:69)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9914]
+{org:en}
+These peculiarities have resulted in water rights systems which are hard pressed to strike a balance among the different demands and requirements resulting from polyvalency and unique physical chemical and biological attributes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200340704:0R.@entry.@complete, 104763925:08.@topic.@pl)
+obj:03(200340704:44.@progress, 115669633:3R.@entry.@pl)
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+src:03(200340704:44.@progress, :02:02)
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+and:01(301405904:5T.@entry, 302692624:5G)
+and:03(115669633:3R.@entry.@pl, 101061333:3F.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9915]
+{org:en}
+Water Rights
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100351000:0C.@entry.@pl, 107935504:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9916]
+{org:en}
+While in most countries water belongs to the public domain, water use rights granted to private individuals or corporations are protected under the property provisions of national and, in the case of federal countries, state or provincial constitutions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(201128193:3M.@entry, 202719930:0W)
+agt(202719930:0W, 107935504:0Q.@topic)
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+or:01(108059412:35.@entry.@pl, 110203839:2Q.@pl)
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+mod(100947128:1W, 107935504:1Q)
+man(301105840:4T, 600000134:57)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9917]
+{org:en}
+The 1992 Mexican Water Law has incepted a system of water rights, their registration, and transfer, with a view to promote security and stability in water management and use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100611143:0P.@topic.@def, "1992":06)
+obj(201080235:39, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9918]
+{org:en}
+Thus, stability of water rights is an important principle in water law, which some authorities have traced back to Roman law.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(105872477:1E.@entry.@indef, 400121135:02)
+obj(104778401:08.@topic, 100351000:0R.@pl)
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+qua(105176607:2D.@topic.@pl, 600000034:28)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9919]
+{org:en}
+The impossibility to grant stable water rights negatively affects development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200019448:1O.@entry, 105792312:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300894551:0T, 100351000:16.@pl)
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+mod(100351000:16.@pl, 107935504:10)
+obj(202255942:0N, 100351000:16.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9920]
+{org:en}
+In Zimbabwe, difficulties in acquiring reliable water rights are a main constraint to new viable agricultural investment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(101149621:22.@entry.@indef, 500005097:05)
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+aoj(300724081:15, 100351000:1K.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9921]
+{org:en}
+A system of stable water rights is an incentive to invest in the development and conservation of water resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(104377057:04.@topic.@indef, 100351000:0R.@pl)
+and:01(100819274:2B.@entry.@def, 100250259:1V.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9922]
+{org:en}
+Stable water rights are useful collaterals, assets, or appurtenances for credit purposes, and also important elements when assessing properties for taxation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 100351000:0F.@topic.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9923]
+{org:en}
+Additionally, the stability and certainty of water rights and appurtenant uses provide recognition to existing economies and prevent social unrest.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(104753455:0Y.@entry.@topic.@def, 104778401:0K.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9924]
+{org:en}
+A water right usually is a right to use, and ownership of a water right does normally mean a usufructuary power, and not ownership of the corpus of water itself.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:02(113240514:1B.@topic, 100351000:1W.@indef)
+mod:02(100351000:0A.@topic.@indef, 107935504:04)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9925]
+{org:en}
+In some legislations the usufructuary power can be traded.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(202259005:1H.@entry.@ability, 101125693:0A.@pl)
+qua(101125693:0A.@pl, 600000034:05)
+qua(101125693:0A.@pl, 600000034:05)
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+obj(202259005:1H.@entry.@ability, 105190804:14.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9926]
+{org:en}
+Effective and Beneficial Use
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01, 100947128:0V.@entry)
+and:01(300064787:0K.@entry, 300044132:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9927]
+{org:en}
+The relevance of water rights as property assets is related to the availability of the resource.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200953058:1I.@entry, 113794417:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100351000:0P.@pl, 107935504:0J)
+mod(113794417:06.@topic.@def, 100351000:0P.@pl)
+mod(100351000:0P.@pl, 107935504:0J)
+mod(113794417:06.@topic.@def, 100351000:0P.@pl)
+mod(115668897:1X.@def, 105154676:2H.@def)
+mod(105154517:18.@pl, 104012260:0Z)
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+obj(600000032:0W, 105154517:18.@pl)
+aoj(600000032:0W, 100351000:0P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9928]
+{org:en}
+The scarcer resource is the most valuable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302500884:0Z.@entry, 105154676:0E.@topic.@def)
+man(300016756:06, 400099341:16)
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+aoj(300016756:06, 105154676:0E.@topic.@def)
+man(302500884:0Z.@entry, 400536271:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9929]
+{org:en}
+Therefore, most water laws have provisions that require the effective use of water entitlements, either for a right to be born and kept, or for the maintenance of a valid water right.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0T.@entry, 100611143:0O.@topic.@pl)
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+and:01(201065877:3P.@entry, 201432601:3G)
+obj:02(100765791:46.@entry.@def, 100351000:4Z.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9930]
+{org:en}
+The principle of effective and beneficial use is widespread.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301102876:1F.@entry, 105872477:06.@topic.@def)
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+mod(105872477:06.@topic.@def, 100947128:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9931]
+{org:en}
+While the terminology is not uniform, in the German Law (as amended on 23 September 1986)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301960310:0V.@entry.@not, 106304059:0C.@topic.@def)
+tim:01(200996328:1Q, "23":21)
+aoj(302957469:1B, 100611143:1I.@def)
+tim:01(200996328:1Q, "23":21)
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+tim:01("23":21, 115212739:24)
+obj:01(600000032:BQ.@entry, 200996328:1Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9932]
+{org:en}
+the 1985 Spanish law
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100611143:32.@entry.@def, "1985":2P)
+aoj(302958576:2U, 100611143:32.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9933]
+{org:en}
+the Mexican water law (art. 27. III)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(100611143:3P.@entry.@def, :02.@parenthesis)
+mod:02(115690754:3U.@entry, "27.3":3Z)
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+mod(100611143:3P.@entry.@def, 107935504:3J)
+aoj(303026902:3B, 100611143:3P.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9934]
+{org:en}
+the legislation of most Argentinean Provinces
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(600000028:4S, 400536271:CZ)
+man(600000028:4S, 400536271:CZ)
+aoj(303162980:4X, 115690275:59.@pl)
+qua(115690275:59.@pl, 600000028:4S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9935]
+{org:en}
+and the laws of the states of the American West, there is a notion that water rights risk forfeiture if not used, or if not used according to the terms of a license or permit.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+or:04(201158572:90.@entry.@not, 201158572:8K.@not)
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+or:04(201158572:90.@entry.@not, 201158572:8K.@not)
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+man:04(201158572:90.@entry.@not, 600000046:95)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9936]
+{org:en}
+The rationale behind the principle has been precisely and clearly constructed by the authorities, judges, and legislation of the United States.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201583142:1W.@entry.@complete, 105793210:06.@topic.@def)
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+and:01(400039058:1O.@entry, 400158309:1A)
+and:01(400039058:1O.@entry, 400158309:1A)
+mod:02(101125693:34.@entry, 500004476:3N.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9937]
+{org:en}
+A typical statement of the rule of beneficial use is
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:7U.@entry, 106722453:0C.@topic.@indef)
+mod(105846054:0T.@def, 100947128:1C)
+mod(105846054:0T.@def, 100947128:1C)
+aoj(301595440:04, 106722453:0C.@topic.@indef)
+mod(106722453:0C.@topic.@indef, 105846054:0T.@def)
+aoj(300064787:11, 100947128:1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9938]
+{org:en}
+Beneficial use is the basis, the measure, and the limit of all rights to the use of water in this state...consistent with the interest of the public in the best utilization of water supplies
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(:01.@entry, 100947128:1W)
+obj(300576680:4I.@entry, 100431552:52.@def)
+obj:01(100947128:3Q.@def, 107935504:3X)
+mod(113563522:6M.@pl, 107935504:6G)
+to:01(100351000:3C.@pl, 100947128:3Q.@def)
+obj(114580476:61.@def, 113563522:6M.@pl)
+and:01(100174412:2I.@def, 105793554:27.@def)
+obj(300576680:4I.@entry, 100431552:52.@def)
+obj:01(100947128:3Q.@def, 107935504:3X)
+mod(113563522:6M.@pl, 107935504:6G)
+to:01(100351000:3C.@pl, 100947128:3Q.@def)
+obj(114580476:61.@def, 113563522:6M.@pl)
+and:01(100174412:2I.@def, 105793554:27.@def)
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+scn(107965817:5I.@def, 114580476:61.@def)
+mod:01(100024720:4B, 600000017:46)
+and:01(105124057:2Z.@entry.@def, 100174412:2I.@def)
+mod(100431552:52.@def, 107965817:5I.@def)
+plc:01(107935504:3X, 100024720:4B)
+mod(100431552:52.@def, 107965817:5I.@def)
+plc:01(107935504:3X, 100024720:4B)
+mod:01(100351000:3C.@pl, 300521584:38)
+aoj(300227507:5W, 114580476:61.@def)
+aoj(300064787:1L, 100947128:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9939]
+{org:en}
+The tenets of the doctrine of effective and beneficial use are
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115696194:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 105943300:0K.@def)
+and:01(300064787:1A.@entry, 300044132:0W)
+and:01(300064787:1A.@entry, 300044132:0W)
+aoj(:01, 100947128:1L)
+mod(105943300:0K.@def, 100947128:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9940]
+{org:en}
+water is not to be obtained for speculation or let run to waste (reality of use)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200332672:39.@entry, 107935504:1U.@topic)
+or:02(200496673:35.@entry.@will.@not, 202238085:2D.@will.@not)
+cnt(100742645:3G, :03.@parenthesis)
+or:02(200496673:35.@entry.@will.@not, 202238085:2D.@will.@not)
+cnt(100742645:3G, :03.@parenthesis)
+gol(200332672:39.@entry, 100742645:3G)
+man(200332672:39.@entry, :02)
+pur:02(202238085:2D.@will.@not, 105891783:2Q)
+pur:02(202238085:2D.@will.@not, 105891783:2Q)
+obj:03(104762355:3N.@entry, 100947128:3Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9941]
+{org:en}
+the end use must be a generally recognized and socially acceptable use
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100947128:62.@entry.@obligation.@indef, 115695155:4B.@topic.@def)
+man:04(300017782:5R.@entry, 400126527:5I)
+man:04(300017782:5R.@entry, 400126527:5I)
+and:04(300017782:5R.@entry, 301636507:53)
+aoj(:04, 100947128:62.@entry.@obligation.@indef)
+man:04(301636507:53, 400041954:4T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9942]
+{org:en}
+water is not to be misused (reasonable efficiency)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(107935504:6A.@topic, 202776842:6T.@entry.@will.@not)
+[W]
+:05.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9943]
+{org:en}
+the use must be reasonable as compared against other uses.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(301926229:89.@entry.@obligation, 200652900:8N)
+mod(100947128:9A.@pl, 600000031:94)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9944]
+{org:en}
+A common idea was that the quantity of water was to be no more than needed, the concern being with the possibility of "vesting an absolute monopoly on a single individual".
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:02.@entry, 105670710:2D.@def)
+obj:01(200052043:3G.@entry.@progress, 114444114:40.@indef)
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+plc:01(200052043:3G.@entry.@progress, 110203839:4L.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9945]
+{org:en}
+This antimonopoly/antispeculation concern where claimants do not have a specific use in mind continues today.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(202776013:2F.@not, 100947128:2B.@indef)
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+aoj(202776013:2F.@not, 109925592:1E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9946]
+{org:en}
+For a long time it was difficult to assess what happens in practice when water legislation does not have a requirement of use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300744916:0P.@entry.@past, 600000610:02)
+man(200339934:1E, 400166512:1M)
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+tim(200339934:1E, 200065370:2U.@emphasis.@not)
+mod(101125693:29, 107935504:23)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9947]
+{org:en}
+The reason being that national systems of water legislation did not normally grant exclusive-non riparian-based water rights, without adding the requirement of effective and beneficial use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:02, 105651680:06.@entry.@def)
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+and:01(300064787:4Z.@entry, 300044132:4L)
+mod:02(100351000:3F.@pl, 107935504:39)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9948]
+{org:en}
+At present, the state of flux of water legislation in general, and legislation related to water-based public services in particular, has prompted specific research on the subject of water rights and on the consequences of creating water rights severed from the requirement of effective and beneficial use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+It has helped that assessments of the Chilean experience (where water rights are not conditioned to effective and beneficial use) are becoming widely available.
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+Natural resources economists notice that non-use, if not penalized with forfeiture may result in "sleeper rights" which increase uncertainty on the quantities of available waters.
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+The Chilean experience on the issuance of non-conditioned water rights is an apparent validation of the forebodings behind the requirement of effective and beneficial use.
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+{org:en}
+A study on the impact of the legal system for water allocation on the electrical industry in Chile has found that it is also common for state-owned monopolies that benefited from exclusive rights to be privatized with them, creating legal barriers to entry that maintain the monopolistic characteristics of the sector.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The regulatory framework for electricity is based on the existence of competition in the generation of electricity.
+{/org}
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+[S:9954]
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+However, competition practically does not exist in Chile.
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+
+[S:9955]
+{org:en}
+The water rights of the main hydro electrical projects belong mainly to a single corporation.
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+
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+The implication of this is that the largest generator has an incentive to appraise projects considering the effects that they will have on the profitability of its intramarginal capacity.
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+It can obtain the monopoly equilibrium overtime by postponing investments.
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+[S:9958]
+{org:en}
+New entrepreneurs will be unable to enter into the generation market because they do not have the water rights to undertake the more efficient projects.
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+Water rights should have been returned to the state prior to privatization, which in turn could have granted them subject to the conditionality of their timely development through new projects by existing producers or new comers.
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+Thus, the actual operation of the Chilean system appears to confirm the rational behind the requirement of effective and beneficial use.
+{/org}
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+Monopolization through the creation of barriers to entry resulting from the control of essential production inputs and natural resources, are standard fare in economics literature.
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+The existence of water markets does not alleviate the situation since in fact "crucial inputs of this kind are not usually traded on competitive markets".
+{/org}
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+
+[S:9963]
+{org:en}
+Also, water markets do not reallocate large quantities of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:9964]
+{org:en}
+To the contrary, the amounts historically traded are limited enough for these markets to have been identified as "thin" markets.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:9965]
+{org:en}
+Furthermore, for large institutional users the incentives to sell water rights, absent the penalty of forfeiture for non-use, are minor, if compared against the strategic advantages that control of a key production input represents within the market power policies of corporative practices.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9966]
+{org:en}
+Hence, it appears that the absence of a requirement of effective and beneficial use does have a negative effect on water transactions, on water markets, and on efficient water allocations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9967]
+{org:en}
+Empirical evidence on the actual working of water markets in Chile shows that with a few local exceptions market transactions of water rights in Chile have been limited.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9968]
+{org:en}
+As of August 1998 there have been several court decisions on the effects of the Chilean system of water rights.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:9969]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the Constitutional Court has recognized the right of the Government to regulate the conditionalities of water rights (Rol 60/1997).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9970]
+{org:en}
+In addition, the Antimonopoly Commission has recommended that no further water rights be granted until provisions requiring effective use of water are included into the water law (CPC 992/636; CR 480/97).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9971]
+{org:en}
+Conditionalities on Water Uses
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(113924069:06.@entry.@pl, 100947128:0W.@pl)
+mod(100947128:0W.@pl, 107935504:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9972]
+{org:en}
+In addition to the requirement of effective and beneficial use there is general trend to condition the use of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9973]
+{org:en}
+This conditioning includes formal (obtaining a permit) and substantive requirements (i.e. no harm to third parties, environmental protection, efficiency).
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:9974]
+{org:en}
+German Water Law, which provides a good example of trends, attaches a number of conditions to water use, permits and licenses.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:9975]
+{org:en}
+They include effective use, prevention of detrimental effects, payment of compensations, preventive assessment, appointment of caretakers, remedial measures, and payment of common control costs (art. 4).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9976]
+{org:en}
+A particular feature of the German legislation is the possibility to impose new conditions after a permit or license has been granted.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:9977]
+{org:en}
+Ex-post conditions may refer to the environmental or the economic requirements of water resources management (art. 5).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774311:0P.@entry.@may, 105798863:0A.@topic.@pl)
+mod(101133281:2S, 105154676:2I.@pl)
+mod(115669633:1W.@def.@pl, :01)
+mod(101133281:2S, 105154676:2I.@pl)
+mod(115669633:1W.@def.@pl, :01)
+mod(115669633:1W.@def.@pl, 101133281:2S)
+aoj(303163232:02, 105798863:0A.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202774311:0P.@entry.@may, 115669633:1W.@def.@pl)
+mod(105154676:2I.@pl, 107935504:2C)
+mod(105154676:2I.@pl, 107935504:2C)
+or:01(300840212:1N.@entry, 302943151:12)
+[W]
+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9978]
+{org:en}
+A water right can be revoked for non-use, lack of need, change of use by the permittee, use beyond the allocation under the permit, etcetera (art. 15).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200799798:0N.@entry.@ability, 100351000:0A.@topic.@indef)
+obj(600000203:2M, 100164579:2X.@def)
+and:02(114449405:18, 100947128:13)
+obj:02(100191142:1M.@entry, 100947128:1W)
+man(:01.@entry.@parenthesis, 400119230:3Q)
+mod(100351000:0A.@topic.@indef, 107935504:04)
+obj(600000203:2M, 100164579:2X.@def)
+and:02(114449405:18, 100947128:13)
+obj:02(100191142:1M.@entry, 100947128:1W)
+man(:01.@entry.@parenthesis, 400119230:3Q)
+mod(100351000:0A.@topic.@indef, 107935504:04)
+and:02(100191142:1M.@entry, 114449405:18)
+obj(600000009:38, 102579928:3I.@def)
+mod:02(100947128:13, 303161142:0Z)
+pur(200799798:0N.@entry.@ability, :02:02)
+mod(100164579:2X.@def, 600000009:38)
+obj:02(114449405:18, 109367991:1G)
+mod(100164579:2X.@def, 600000009:38)
+obj:02(114449405:18, 109367991:1G)
+ins:02(100947128:1W, 115695827:27.@def)
+mod:01(115690754:40.@entry, "15":45)
+aoj(600000203:2M, 100947128:2I.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9979]
+{org:en}
+Permits are required to either withdraw water or to effect discharges into them.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774169:0E.@entry, 102579928:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(201642924:1I.@entry, 100123234:1P.@pl)
+man(:01, 400047534:0Q)
+obj:01(201642924:1I.@entry, 100123234:1P.@pl)
+man(:01, 400047534:0Q)
+gol(:01, 600000020:25)
+gol(202774169:0E.@entry, :01)
+obj:01(201994442:0X, 107935504:16)
+obj:01(201994442:0X, 107935504:16)
+or:01(201642924:1I.@entry, 201994442:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9980]
+{org:en}
+However, as far as it regards the relationships between the Administration and a water user, a water right is not an entitlement to any specific water quantity or quality (art. 2).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+600000070:02.@entry
+[/W]
+aoj(301099951:3U, :02)
+and:01(110741590:2H.@entry.@indef, 100694866:1Q.@def)
+aoj(600000024:1E, 113780719:10.@def.@pl)
+man(301099951:3U, 600000394:3Q)
+to(105181754:3B.@entry.@indef, :02:02)
+aoj(301099951:3U, :02)
+and:01(110741590:2H.@entry.@indef, 100694866:1Q.@def)
+aoj(600000024:1E, 113780719:10.@def.@pl)
+man(301099951:3U, 600000394:3Q)
+to(105181754:3B.@entry.@indef, :02:02)
+obj(400074095:0B, 600000016:0L)
+mod:02(105108740:49, 107935504:43)
+aoj(105181754:3B.@entry.@indef, 100351000:2V.@topic.@indef)
+man(202133185:0O.@entry, 400074095:0B)
+or:02(104723816:4L.@entry, 105108740:49)
+mod:01(110741590:2H.@entry.@indef, 107935504:2B)
+or:02(104723816:4L.@entry, 105108740:49)
+mod:01(110741590:2H.@entry.@indef, 107935504:2B)
+obj(600000024:1E, :01)
+mod(100351000:2V.@topic.@indef, 107935504:2P)
+man(105181754:3B.@entry.@indef, 400024073:34)
+obj(202133185:0O.@entry, 113780719:10.@def.@pl)
+[W]
+:03.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9981]
+{org:en}
+Applications can be rejected and permits and licenses are granted for specific purposes, in a specific manner, and to a specific extent.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202255942:1O.@entry, 200685683:0M.@ability)
+aoj(301099951:20, 105982152:29.@pl)
+plc(202255942:1O.@entry, 104910135:2X.@indef)
+and:01(101139194:1B.@entry.@pl.@topic, 102579928:0Z.@pl.@topic)
+aoj(301099951:20, 105982152:29.@pl)
+plc(202255942:1O.@entry, 104910135:2X.@indef)
+and:01(101139194:1B.@entry.@pl.@topic, 102579928:0Z.@pl.@topic)
+gol(202255942:1O.@entry, 105123416:3N.@indef)
+aoj(301099951:3E, 105123416:3N.@indef)
+obj(202255942:1O.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj(301099951:2O, 104910135:2X.@indef)
+aoj(301099951:2O, 104910135:2X.@indef)
+pur(202255942:1O.@entry, 105982152:29.@pl)
+obj(200685683:0M.@ability, 100036061:02.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9982]
+{org:en}
+They are revocable (arts. 6-7).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301760132:0B.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9983]
+{org:en}
+Use of water by property owners and riparians shall not adversely affect other persons, cause detrimental change to water, adversely alter water balance, or substantially reduce water flows (art. 24).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(:03.@entry, 100947128:02.@topic)
+obj(600000035:5V, :01)
+gol:03(201645601:2I, 107935504:3A)
+or:03(200060477:3R, 201645601:2I)
+man:03(400261102:1M, 400024073:1I)
+man:03(200045817:4T.@entry, 400379432:4F)
+obj:03(200019448:1W.@obligation, 100007846:29.@pl)
+mod:03(102777100:43, 107935504:3X)
+obj(600000035:5V, :01)
+gol:03(201645601:2I, 107935504:3A)
+or:03(200060477:3R, 201645601:2I)
+man:03(400261102:1M, 400024073:1I)
+man:03(200045817:4T.@entry, 400379432:4F)
+obj:03(200019448:1W.@obligation, 100007846:29.@pl)
+mod:03(102777100:43, 107935504:3X)
+aoj(600000035:5V, 107935504:09)
+obj:03(200045817:4T.@entry, 100329227:56.@pl)
+mod:01(110388924:0R.@pl, 104012260:0I)
+aoj:03(303158717:2O, 100191142:30)
+man:03(200060477:3R, 400261102:3H)
+obj(100947128:02.@topic, 107935504:09)
+or:03(200045817:4T.@entry, 200060477:3R)
+and:01(115693059:12.@entry.@pl, 110388924:0R.@pl)
+obj:03(201645601:2I, 100191142:30)
+obj:03(200060477:3R, 102777100:43)
+and:01(115693059:12.@entry.@pl, 110388924:0R.@pl)
+obj:03(201645601:2I, 100191142:30)
+obj:03(200060477:3R, 102777100:43)
+mod:03(100007846:29.@pl, 600000031:23)
+mod:03(100329227:56.@pl, 107935504:50)
+man:03(200019448:1W.@obligation, 400261102:1M)
+or:03(201645601:2I, 200019448:1W.@obligation)
+[W]
+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9984]
+{org:en}
+A common feature of water law is to establish preferences among uses in order to allocate water at times of scarcity, or to grant water rights in case of competing applications.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200636888:12.@entry.@will, 103325769:0B.@topic.@indef)
+tim:01(107935504:2K, 100028270:2T.@pl)
+obj(600000044:1Z, :01)
+mod(103325769:0B.@topic.@indef, 100611143:0S)
+aoj(600000064:1O, 105158095:1C.@pl)
+obj(600000265:41, 100036061:4M.@pl)
+or:01(202255942:3I.@entry, 202234087:2B)
+tim:01(107935504:2K, 100028270:2T.@pl)
+obj(600000044:1Z, :01)
+mod(103325769:0B.@topic.@indef, 100611143:0S)
+aoj(600000064:1O, 105158095:1C.@pl)
+obj(600000265:41, 100036061:4M.@pl)
+or:01(202255942:3I.@entry, 202234087:2B)
+obj(200636888:12.@entry.@will, 105158095:1C.@pl)
+mod(100351000:3U.@pl, 107935504:3O)
+obj(:01, 100351000:3U.@pl)
+mod(100611143:0S, 107935504:0M)
+man(200636888:12.@entry.@will, 600000044:1Z)
+mod:01(100028270:2T.@pl, 105116953:32)
+man(:01, 600000265:41)
+mod:01(100028270:2T.@pl, 105116953:32)
+man(:01, 600000265:41)
+aoj(300485711:04, 103325769:0B.@topic.@indef)
+obj(600000064:1O, 100947128:1U.@pl)
+mod(100036061:4M.@pl, 303162471:4C)
+obj:01(202234087:2B, 107935504:2K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9985]
+{org:en}
+An example of this feature, which incidentally is a major element in Muslim law ("right to thirst"), is article 58 of the 1985 Spanish Law granting a preference to drinking purposes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100022903:2Y.@entry, 105820620:05.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(105868954:1O.@indef, 103325769:0L)
+aoj(302958576:3L, 100611143:3T.@def)
+cnt(100611143:26, :01.@parenthesis.@double_quote)
+agt(202255942:3X.@progress, 100611143:3T.@def)
+scn(105868954:1O.@indef, 100611143:26)
+mod(105982152:4V.@pl, 100843128:4M)
+aoj(105868954:1O.@indef, 103325769:0L)
+aoj(302958576:3L, 100611143:3T.@def)
+cnt(100611143:26, :01.@parenthesis.@double_quote)
+agt(202255942:3X.@progress, 100611143:3T.@def)
+scn(105868954:1O.@indef, 100611143:26)
+mod(105982152:4V.@pl, 100843128:4M)
+mod(100022903:2Y.@entry, "58":36)
+man(105868954:1O.@indef, 400212411:10)
+to(105158095:48.@indef, 105982152:4V.@pl)
+pur:01(100351000:2C.@entry, 202122060:2L)
+mod(100022903:2Y.@entry, 100611143:3T.@def)
+mod(103325769:0L, 600000017:0G)
+obj(202255942:3X.@progress, 105158095:48.@indef)
+mod(103325769:0L, 600000017:0G)
+obj(202255942:3X.@progress, 105158095:48.@indef)
+aoj(302923510:1Z, 100611143:26)
+mod(100611143:3T.@def, "1985":3G)
+aoj(301471002:1I, 105868954:1O.@indef)
+mod(105820620:05.@topic.@indef, 103325769:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9986]
+{org:en}
+Water Markets
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101097292:0C.@entry.@pl, 107935504:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9987]
+{org:en}
+Marketing of water rights is being paid increased attention as a useful and economically efficient alternative for the improvement of water allocations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(200737884:11.@entry.@progress, 100082081:02.@topic)
+mod(100164579:3Y.@pl, 107935504:3S)
+pur(115690188:2T.@indef, 100248977:3D.@def)
+mod(101228645:1G, 300880207:16)
+man:01(300839619:2J.@entry, 400123229:26)
+mod(100164579:3Y.@pl, 107935504:3S)
+pur(115690188:2T.@indef, 100248977:3D.@def)
+mod(101228645:1G, 300880207:16)
+man:01(300839619:2J.@entry, 400123229:26)
+man(101228645:1G, 600000032:1Q)
+mod(100351000:0L.@pl, 107935504:0F)
+and:01(300839619:2J.@entry, 302495922:1V)
+obj(200737884:11.@entry.@progress, 101228645:1G)
+obj(100082081:02.@topic, 100351000:0L.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 115690188:2T.@indef)
+obj(100082081:02.@topic, 100351000:0L.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 115690188:2T.@indef)
+obj(600000032:1Q, 115690188:2T.@indef)
+obj(100248977:3D.@def, 100164579:3Y.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9988]
+{org:en}
+As supplies diminish relative to demand markets become not only an efficient alternative, but also a necessary solution to problems of water scarcity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(200149583:1E.@entry, :01)
+aoj:01(300343552:2V, 100190783:35.@entry.@indef)
+mod(101097292:16.@pl, 101061333:0Z)
+man(200441881:0E.@should, 600000412:0N)
+aoj:01(300839619:1X, 115690188:27.@indef)
+mod:01(100190783:35.@entry.@indef, 600000132:2K)
+aoj:01(300343552:2V, 100190783:35.@entry.@indef)
+mod(101097292:16.@pl, 101061333:0Z)
+man(200441881:0E.@should, 600000412:0N)
+aoj:01(300839619:1X, 115690188:27.@indef)
+mod:01(100190783:35.@entry.@indef, 600000132:2K)
+obj(200441881:0E.@should, 113563522:05.@pl)
+mod:01(105116953:3Z, 107935504:3T)
+and:01(100190783:35.@entry.@indef, 115690188:27.@indef)
+man(200149583:1E.@entry, 200441881:0E.@should)
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+mod:01(100190783:35.@entry.@indef, 600000119:1L)
+obj(600000412:0N, 101097292:16.@pl)
+to:01(100190783:35.@entry.@indef, 105687338:3H.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9989]
+{org:en}
+Thus, new legislation, such as the Mexican Water Law, allows water transfers, subject to administrative authorization, should such transfers affect the rights of third parties, the environment or the regime of water resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200019448:3Z.@entry.@past.@should.@will.@interrogative, 200723545:1K)
+aoj(303026902:11, 100611143:1F.@def)
+agt(200723545:1K, 101125693:0C.@topic)
+mod:01(115669360:5M.@entry.@def, 105154676:62.@pl)
+aoj(302904075:2J, 101138670:2Y)
+mod(100351000:4A.@def.@pl, :01)
+mod(100201671:1X.@pl, 107935504:1R)
+mod(100201671:3P.@topic.@pl, 600001411:3K)
+aoj(303026902:11, 100611143:1F.@def)
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+aoj(302904075:2J, 101138670:2Y)
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+mod(100201671:3P.@topic.@pl, 600001411:3K)
+obj(600000029:0P, 100611143:1F.@def)
+obj(200019448:3Z.@entry.@past.@should.@will.@interrogative, 100351000:4A.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303161166:28, 100201671:1X.@pl)
+or:01(108567235:53.@def, 108264441:4K.@pl)
+aoj(300024996:08, 101125693:0C.@topic)
+agt(200019448:3Z.@entry.@past.@should.@will.@interrogative, 100201671:3P.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100611143:1F.@def, 107935504:19)
+obj(200723545:1K, 100201671:1X.@pl)
+mod:01(105154676:62.@pl, 107935504:5W)
+mod(100611143:1F.@def, 107935504:19)
+obj(200723545:1K, 100201671:1X.@pl)
+mod:01(105154676:62.@pl, 107935504:5W)
+aoj(600000029:0P, 101125693:0C.@topic)
+or:01(115669360:5M.@entry.@def, 108567235:53.@def)
+obj(303161166:28, 101138670:2Y)
+man(200723545:1K, 400121135:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9990]
+{org:en}
+Absent such impacts, or should the transfer not change the conditions of the original title, or existing regional agreements so authorizing, water rights may be transferred by registration in the Public Water Rights Registry.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+300165171:02.@entry
+[/W]
+mod(100351000:45.@topic.@pl, 107935504:3Z)
+mod(104713428:38.@entry.@pl, 302408977:2Z)
+agt(200803325:3M.@progress, 104713428:38.@entry.@pl)
+scn(200555240:4J.@entry.@may, 500324251:5I.@def)
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+mod(104713428:38.@entry.@pl, 302408977:2Z)
+agt(200803325:3M.@progress, 104713428:38.@entry.@pl)
+scn(200555240:4J.@entry.@may, 500324251:5I.@def)
+aoj(300699207:27, 105181199:2G.@def)
+obj(200555240:4J.@entry.@may, 100351000:45.@topic.@pl)
+obj(105798863:1P.@def.@pl, 105181199:2G.@def)
+man(200803325:3M.@progress, 600000071:3J)
+man(200803325:3M.@progress, 600000071:3J)
+mod(104713428:38.@entry.@pl, 301731786:2Q)
+agt(200555240:4J.@entry.@may, 100050037:4Y)
+mod(110324357:0E.@entry.@pl, 600001411:09)
+[W]
+100201671:11.@entry.@def
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9991]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the formalities of water transfers are established by regional regulations established by the National Water Commission according to the requirements of individual regions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200636888:1B.@entry, 400121135:02)
+mod(101204055:0C.@topic.@def.@pl, 100201671:0X.@pl)
+man(200636888:2B, 600000046:3K)
+obj(200636888:2B, 100805034:1Z.@pl)
+mod(115669633:41.@def.@pl, 105221895:4S.@pl)
+mod(101204055:0C.@topic.@def.@pl, 100201671:0X.@pl)
+man(200636888:2B, 600000046:3K)
+obj(200636888:2B, 100805034:1Z.@pl)
+mod(115669633:41.@def.@pl, 105221895:4S.@pl)
+agt(200636888:1B.@entry, 100805034:1Z.@pl)
+obj(600000046:3K, 115669633:41.@def.@pl)
+obj(200636888:1B.@entry, 101204055:0C.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(100201671:0X.@pl, 107935504:0R)
+agt(200636888:2B, 500323577:2U.@def)
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+agt(200636888:2B, 500323577:2U.@def)
+mod(100805034:1Z.@pl, 302408977:1Q)
+mod(105221895:4S.@pl, 300493460:4H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:9992]
+{org:en}
+However, countries such as the People’s Republic of China, while acknowledging the need to develop water markets, emphasizes the need for macromanagement of water resources to avoid harmful impacts on the environment and social development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774625:38.@entry, 600000070:02)
+aoj(301160031:54, 107338552:5C.@pl)
+pur(109367991:3N.@def, 115669807:3W)
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+obj(202774625:38.@entry, 109367991:3N.@def)
+pur(109367991:2D.@def, 200234057:2L)
+obj(200811375:4Y, 107338552:5C.@pl)
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+{org:en}
+Spain has recently incepted water markets in its water legislation.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The American Experience
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+A review of their experience is important to the understanding of the subject and its complexities.
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+
+[S:9997]
+{org:en}
+In the United States reallocation of water rights may be "with the possible exception of water quality...the most pressing matter facing the arid west".
+{/org}
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+
+[S:9998]
+{org:en}
+For a reallocation to be legally valid some requirements must be fulfilled
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+[S:9999]
+{org:en}
+water must have been beneficially used, and must continue to be beneficially used after the reallocation
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+{org:en}
+such reallocation must not affect other users and must be in the public interest
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+[S:10001]
+{org:en}
+in many jurisdictions, interbasin transfers or transfer outside the area-of-origin can only take place with due consideration to local interests
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+[S:10002]
+{org:en}
+in some jurisdictions appurtenance statutes prevent water reallocation.
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+{/unl}
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+[S:10003]
+{org:en}
+Marketing of water rights is a complex process, which is affected and influenced by several factors, including
+{/org}
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+mod(100351000:0L.@pl, 107935504:0F)
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+
+[S:10004]
+{org:en}
+the priority of the transacted right
+{/org}
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+[S:10005]
+{org:en}
+the profile of the parties
+{/org}
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+mod(106516404:1F.@entry.@def, 107447641:1U.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10006]
+{org:en}
+geographic flexibility
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301470496:26, 104659287:2H.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10007]
+{org:en}
+size and economic value of the transaction
+{/org}
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+mod(104979425:3F.@entry, 300840212:36)
+mod(104979425:3F.@entry, 101106808:3S.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10008]
+{org:en}
+reliability of the marketed water right
+{/org}
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+mod(100351000:57.@def, 107935504:51)
+obj(202298160:4S.@past, 107935504:51)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10009]
+{org:en}
+buyer characteristics
+{/org}
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+mod(104731497:5N.@entry.@pl, 109885145:5H)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10010]
+{org:en}
+volume of water transferred
+{/org}
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+obj(200555240:6N, 107935504:6H)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10011]
+{org:en}
+changes in regional economies
+{/org}
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+mod(104893787:7N.@pl, 302408977:7E)
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+[S:10012]
+{org:en}
+system for water administration
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+{org:en}
+availability of infrastructure to effect a change
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+{org:en}
+environmental impacts.
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+{/unl}
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+[S:10015]
+{org:en}
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+A result of the complexities of water marketing is that the activity has been subjected to regulations in the interest of third parties and the public.
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+obj(115698567:04.@topic.@indef, 104766275:0I.@def.@pl)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10021]
+{org:en}
+Broadly stated, regulations include
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+aoj(200183879:0U.@entry, 100805034:0I.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10022]
+{org:en}
+the appurtenacy principle, which prohibits the transfer of water rights if not as an appurtenance to the land where they are used.
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+{unl}
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+plc(201158572:3M, 109334396:32.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10023]
+{org:en}
+Its purpose was to prevent land speculation
+{/org}
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+obj(202450505:0L.@entry.@past.@will, 105891783:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10024]
+{org:en}
+transfers are to be approved by judicial, legislative or administrative authorities (the approving authority varies according to the law of each state)
+{/org}
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+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10025]
+{org:en}
+public notice of the intent to transfer, with the possibility of filing protests granted to either any interested person or only to holders of water rights (again standing to oppose varies according to the legislation of each state)
+{/org}
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+or:02(103525454:3T.@entry.@pl, 100007846:30)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10026]
+{org:en}
+administrative recording of the transfer and filling with the authority for water management
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100910203:0K.@entry, :01:01)
+pur(105176607:1U.@def, 101133281:2E)
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+and:01(100811491:1E.@entry.@def, 100201671:11.@def)
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+aoj(302904075:05, 100910203:0K.@entry)
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+mod(101133281:2E, 107935504:28)
+obj(600000019:1L, 105176607:1U.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10027]
+{org:en}
+issuance of permits to reallocate and use subject to existing or new conditionalities, including proof of completion of work and beneficial use
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(115692849:05.@entry, 102579928:0H.@pl)
+obj:03(100211110:33, :02)
+aoj:03(600000007:2K, 113924069:22.@pl)
+man:03(201158572:17.@entry, 303161166:1B)
+obj:03(600000007:2K, 104011130:2U)
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+and:03(201158572:17.@entry, 202775030:0S)
+aoj:02(300064787:3Q, 100947128:41.@entry)
+or:01(300024996:1Y.@entry, 301731786:1M)
+pur(102579928:0H.@pl, :03:03)
+and:02(100947128:41.@entry, 100575741:3H)
+aoj:03(:01, 113924069:22.@pl)
+and:02(100947128:41.@entry, 100575741:3H)
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+obj:03(303161166:1B, 113924069:22.@pl)
+obj:03(104011130:2U, 100211110:33)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10028]
+{org:en}
+forfeiture of water right, (and in some states charges for misdemeanor), if prior approval is not obtained
+{/org}
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+con(:02.@entry, 202238085:2V.@not)
+obj:02(115691471:05, 100351000:0P)
+pur:01(100974762:1G.@entry.@pl, 100770270:1S)
+mod(101215392:2F, 303162060:29)
+obj:02(115691471:05, 100351000:0P)
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+mod(101215392:2F, 303162060:29)
+plc:01(100974762:1G.@entry.@pl, 100024720:19.@pl)
+obj(202238085:2V.@not, 101215392:2F)
+and:02(:01.@entry.@parenthesis, 115691471:05)
+mod:02(100351000:0P, 107935504:0J)
+mod:02(100351000:0P, 107935504:0J)
+qua:01(100024720:19.@pl, 600000034:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10029]
+{org:en}
+limitation of transferable entitlement to historic consumptive use
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301279028:1B, 100947128:1K)
+aoj(301279028:1B, 100947128:1K)
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+to(105181754:0W, 100947128:1K)
+aoj(301867502:1J, 100947128:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10030]
+{org:en}
+requirement that transfer does not injure other appropriators who, even if junior, have a right to the substantial maintenance of the stream conditions existing at the time of their appropriations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+to(100351000:2N.@indef, 100765791:3C.@def)
+obj(200069879:14.@emphasis.@not, 109802641:1H.@pl)
+man(202603699:4D.@progress, 600000321:4M)
+obj(200065370:2G, 100351000:2N.@indef)
+agt(200069879:14.@emphasis.@not, 100201671:0M.@topic)
+aoj(202603699:4D.@progress, 115694475:3V.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000137:20, 301015185:28)
+aoj(202603699:4D.@progress, 115694475:3V.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000137:20, 301015185:28)
+mod(109802641:1H.@pl, 600000031:1B)
+mod(100083975:57.@pl, 600000020:51.@pl)
+obj(100765791:3C.@def, 115694475:3V.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10031]
+{org:en}
+Injury might result from changes in volumes, timing, storage, means of diversion, quality, deprivation of return flows, point of diversion, or a combination thereof
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200340704:0F.@entry.@may.@past, 100744305:02.@topic)
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+or:01(103974215:3E, 115692650:2L)
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+or:01(100807078:1B, 104990220:12.@pl)
+obj:01(115692650:2L, 115691879:30.@pl)
+or:01(103733547:1S.@pl, 100811355:1J)
+or:01(103974215:3E, 115692650:2L)
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+obj:01(115692650:2L, 115691879:30.@pl)
+scn(100191142:0R.@pl, :01:01)
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+or:01(104723816:2C, 103733547:1S.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10032]
+{org:en}
+accommodation of uses through conditions intended to mitigate or prevent injury
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100193225:4R.@entry, 100947128:57.@pl)
+or:02(202450505:6J.@entry, 200198850:67)
+obj(200708538:5V, 105798863:5K.@pl)
+or:02(202450505:6J.@entry, 200198850:67)
+obj(200708538:5V, 105798863:5K.@pl)
+obj(600000045:5C, 105798863:5K.@pl)
+mod(100947128:57.@pl, 600000045:5C)
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+obj:02(202450505:6J.@entry, 100744305:6R)
+gol(200708538:5V, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10033]
+{org:en}
+compensation and payment of expenses
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:03.@entry, 107420671:7U.@pl)
+and:03(101120448:7J.@entry, 113282550:72)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10034]
+{org:en}
+limitations of transfers to historical usage.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301934284:8Z, 100413239:9A)
+to(100201671:8M.@pl, 100413239:9A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10035]
+{org:en}
+In addition to the above-mentioned regulatory examples, there are also ‘considerations of public interest’ which apply to the review of applications to transfer water rights.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:1S.@entry, :01.@single_quote)
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+aoj(303161670:11, 105820620:1C.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000099:02, 105820620:1C.@def.@pl)
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+man(202603699:1S.@entry, 600000099:02)
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+man(202603699:1S.@entry, 400047534:1W)
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+obj(200765396:37, :01.@single_quote)
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+mod(105820620:1C.@def.@pl, 300126116:0L)
+pur(100036061:3U.@pl, 200555240:4A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10036]
+{org:en}
+They apply to the review of ‘public value externalities’
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200765396:07.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+aoj:01(300493297:0V, 115669000:18.@entry.@pl)
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+mod:01(115669000:18.@entry.@pl, 104979425:12)
+{/unl}
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+[S:10037]
+{org:en}
+They include
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+obj(200183879:07.@entry, :AK)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10038]
+{org:en}
+effects of the economic activity resulting from the application
+{/org}
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+mod(104809642:0J.@entry.@pl, 100407535:17.@def)
+src(200340704:1G.@progress, 100036061:1Z.@def)
+src(200340704:1G.@progress, 100036061:1Z.@def)
+mod(100407535:17.@def, 300840212:0Y)
+obj(200340704:1G.@progress, 100407535:17.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10039]
+{org:en}
+effects on fish and game resources and on public recreation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(104809642:2F.@entry.@pl, :02:02)
+mod:02(105154676:2Z.@pl, :01)
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+and:02(115668787:3S.@entry, 105154676:2Z.@pl)
+and:01(100430606:2Y.@entry, 102512053:2Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10040]
+{org:en}
+effects on public health
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(104809642:47.@entry.@pl, 113923779:4P)
+aoj(300493297:4I, 113923779:4P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10041]
+{org:en}
+opportunity cost of the use
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(113305794:50.@entry, 100947128:5O.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10042]
+{org:en}
+harms to other persons
+{/org}
+{unl}
+to(115692168:5W.@entry.@pl, 100007846:6B.@pl)
+mod(100007846:6B.@pl, 600000031:65)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:10043]
+{org:en}
+intent and ability to use
+{/org}
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+pur(:03.@entry, 201158572:79)
+and:03(105200169:6Y.@entry, 106605897:6N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10044]
+{org:en}
+effects on access to public and navigable waters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(104809642:7H.@entry.@pl, 100281132:7S)
+and:04(301724743:8D.@entry, 300493297:82)
+and:04(301724743:8D.@entry, 300493297:82)
+aoj(:04, 107935504:8N.@pl)
+obj(100281132:7S, 107935504:8N.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10045]
+{org:en}
+needs for water conservation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(109367991:8Y.@entry.@pl, 100819274:9E)
+mod(100819274:9E, 107935504:98)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10046]
+{org:en}
+factors of local relevance.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105858317:9V.@entry.@pl, 113794417:AC)
+aoj(301106405:A6, 113794417:AC)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10047]
+{org:en}
+Accordingly, a reallocation would not be allowed if it results in the violation of minimum health, environmental, or safety standards.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200723545:17.@entry.@will.@past.@not, 200340704:1L)
+obj(100770543:20.@def, 104301140:3I.@pl)
+obj(200340704:1L, 600000016:1I)
+mod(104301140:3I.@pl, 100188620:3B)
+obj(100770543:20.@def, 104301140:3I.@pl)
+obj(200340704:1L, 600000016:1I)
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+obj(200723545:17.@entry.@will.@past.@not, 113289630:0H.@topic.@indef)
+mod(104301140:3I.@pl, 302943151:2T)
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+gol(200340704:1L, 100770543:20.@def)
+mod(113923779:2L, 303161105:2D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10048]
+{org:en}
+However, the public interest element can be accommodated by conditioning a requirement for reallocation to measures to mitigate public interest concerns.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200482893:1A.@entry.@ability, 600000070:02)
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+{org:en}
+While there are no questions on the substantive legitimacy of public interest concerns questions on the appropriate fora and means for their consideration have been raised.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+While there is always an administrative and judicial role, for some authorities such means and fora should include water planning and public participation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:10051]
+{org:en}
+Additional considerations may include the assessment of the impacts that a transfer may have on the environment, and the tax base or the local economy of the area of origin of the water allocation to be transferred.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10052]
+{org:en}
+Finally is worth to notice
+{/org}
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+man(302502016:0D.@entry, 400048138:02)
+{/unl}
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+[S:10053]
+{org:en}
+that research on water markets in the American West, California and Chile have concluded that requirements of effective and beneficial use of waters encourage water transfers
+{/org}
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+[S:10054]
+{org:en}
+that the existence of subsidies to specific activities affects water transfers
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10055]
+{org:en}
+and that the absence of requirements of effective and beneficial use negatively affects water markets
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10056]
+{org:en}
+Charging for Water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200498016:06.@entry.@progress, 107935504:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10057]
+{org:en}
+Charging or pricing water is a vexing problem.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10058]
+{org:en}
+For starters there are technical complications about what is the price that would best reflect the value of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:0L.@entry, 101076359:0Z.@pl)
+iof(600000048:1J.@qfocus, :01)
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+mod:01(104979425:2T.@def, 107935504:32)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10059]
+{org:en}
+Economists specializing in water resources notice that water has a relatively low economic value at the margin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201059123:19.@entry, 200065370:1U)
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+man(301206474:2B, 400160834:20)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10060]
+{org:en}
+While the value of the first unit of water to be used by a city may be very high, the value of additional units may be quite low.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10061]
+{org:en}
+Additionally, it seems that by nature water markets are thin markets, with a relatively low number of transactions performed in each one of them.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10062]
+{org:en}
+Moreover, water markets are not classical markets in the sense of having quick and clear agreements, anonymity, instant exchange, and no further dealings among the parties.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man:02(300443988:3V, 400099341:66)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10063]
+{org:en}
+Therefore, it is argued that water markets are not perfectly competitive, consequently not necessarily reflecting full costs of transactions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200772189:0J.@entry, 400043003:02)
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+
+[S:10064]
+{org:en}
+Many systems charge for the cost of administering water resources.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:10065]
+{org:en}
+There are also charges for water related services, and to protect and recover water when affected by environmental deterioration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10066]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the German Water Law requires payment of common control costs (art. 4).
+{/org}
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+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10067]
+{org:en}
+Also in Germany, the Act on waste water Charges of 6 November 1990, provides for water charges to be paid for water pollution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100974762:16.@pl, "6":1H)
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+mod(100030358:0N.@topic.@def, 100974762:16.@pl)
+mod(100030358:0N.@topic.@def, 100974762:16.@pl)
+obj(200737884:2V, 115691953:2B.@pl)
+tim("6":1H, 115213406:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10068]
+{org:en}
+Charges are based on noxiousness levels, which depend on oxidisable substances, phosphorous, nitrogen, mercury, cadmium, chromium, nickel, lead, copper, and their compounds; as well as on toxicity to fish.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302351064:0E.@entry, 100974762:02.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(114635092:3E, 114632444:35)
+and:01(103081859:4K.@entry.@pl, 102282385:42)
+aoj:01(303163566:1N, 100019613:1Y.@pl)
+mod(105093890:0Z.@pl, 115692950:0N)
+and:01(114647235:2M, 114649197:2A)
+and:01(101256270:3W, 113390139:3O)
+and:01(114635092:3E, 114632444:35)
+and:01(103081859:4K.@entry.@pl, 102282385:42)
+aoj:01(303163566:1N, 100019613:1Y.@pl)
+mod(105093890:0Z.@pl, 115692950:0N)
+and:01(114647235:2M, 114649197:2A)
+and:01(101256270:3W, 113390139:3O)
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+aoj(202663848:1D, 105093890:0Z.@pl)
+and:01(105014308:2W, 114647235:2M)
+and:01(102282385:42, 101256270:3W)
+obj(600000014:4V, 113583478:59)
+obj(302351064:0E.@entry, 105093890:0Z.@pl)
+and:01(114632444:35, 105014308:2W)
+mod:01(103081859:4K.@entry.@pl, 600000020:4E.@pl)
+and:01(114632444:35, 105014308:2W)
+mod:01(103081859:4K.@entry.@pl, 600000020:4E.@pl)
+aoj(600000014:4V, 105093890:0Z.@pl)
+obj(202663848:1D, :01)
+and:01(114649197:2A, 100019613:1Y.@pl)
+and:01(113390139:3O, 114635092:3E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10069]
+{org:en}
+arts. 1-3, Act of 6 November 1990
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115690754:02.@entry.@pl, "1-3":08)
+tim(115213406:0M, "1990.":0V)
+tim(115213406:0M, "1990.":0V)
+tim("6":0K, 115213406:0M)
+mod(100030358:0D.@entry, "6":0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10070]
+{org:en}
+They also consider the classification of particular river basins and the number of units of noxiousness in the water body downstream the river classification basin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200691312:0C.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+obj:01(101148904:0P.@def, 108518940:1I.@pl)
+mod:01(103835412:23.@def, 105869857:2D.@entry.@def.@pl)
+man(200691312:0C.@entry, 400047534:07)
+mod(101148904:41, 109411430:3V)
+mod:01(102861886:3B.@def, 107935504:35)
+obj:01(101148904:0P.@def, 108518940:1I.@pl)
+mod:01(103835412:23.@def, 105869857:2D.@entry.@def.@pl)
+man(200691312:0C.@entry, 400047534:07)
+mod(101148904:41, 109411430:3V)
+mod:01(102861886:3B.@def, 107935504:35)
+gol(200691312:0C.@entry, 102801525:4G.@def)
+mod(102801525:4G.@def, 101148904:41)
+plc:01(115692950:2M, 102861886:3B.@def)
+obj(200691312:0C.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj:01(300311044:17, 108518940:1I.@pl)
+mod:01(105869857:2D.@def.@pl, 115692950:2M)
+aoj:01(300311044:17, 108518940:1I.@pl)
+mod:01(105869857:2D.@def.@pl, 115692950:2M)
+and:01(103835412:23.@def.@entry, 101148904:0P.@def)
+aoj:01(302494499:3G, 102861886:3B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10071]
+{org:en}
+Water charges are to be paid by anyone discharging wastewater.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(115691953:02.@topic.@pl, 200737884:0Q.@entry.@will)
+obj(201097743:15.@progress, 115669276:1H)
+obj(201097743:15.@progress, 115669276:1H)
+agt(201097743:15.@progress, 600000297:0Y)
+agt(200737884:0Q.@entry.@will, 600000297:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10072]
+{org:en}
+The revenue resulting from water charges shall be used in measures to improve water quality (arts. 9 and 13 Act of November 6, 1990).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:1G.@entry.@obligation, 115669339:06.@topic.@def)
+tim:01(115213406:38, "6":3H)
+mod(104723816:2E, 107935504:28)
+man(202774185:20, :01.@parenthesis)
+src(200340704:0E.@progress, 115691953:0T.@pl)
+qua:01(100030358:31.@entry, "13":2Y)
+tim:01(115213406:38, "6":3H)
+mod(104723816:2E, 107935504:28)
+man(202774185:20, :01.@parenthesis)
+src(200340704:0E.@progress, 115691953:0T.@pl)
+qua:01(100030358:31.@entry, "13":2Y)
+plc(201158572:1G.@entry.@obligation, 100174412:1O.@pl)
+obj(200340704:0E.@progress, 115669339:06.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(100030358:31.@entry, 115213406:38)
+pur(201158572:1G.@entry.@obligation, 202774185:20)
+mod:01(115690754:2N, "9":2S)
+and:01(100030358:31.@entry, 115690754:2N)
+mod:01(115690754:2N, "9":2S)
+and:01(100030358:31.@entry, 115690754:2N)
+obj(202774185:20, 104723816:2E)
+tim:01(115213406:38, "1990":3K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10073]
+{org:en}
+The costs of pollution control and environmental protection in the Netherlands are financed through the general budget (tax payers) or through a special budget financed with specific levies or charges.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202217266:2D.@entry, 113275847:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+man(202217266:4I, 600000018:4R)
+mod(113421462:36.@def, 300487198:2Y)
+plc(:01, 500004034:1X.@def)
+obj(600000026:2M, 113421462:36.@def)
+aoj:03(301099951:4W, 101158064:55.@pl)
+obj(202217266:4I, 113421462:4B.@indef)
+man(202217266:4I, 600000018:4R)
+mod(113421462:36.@def, 300487198:2Y)
+plc(:01, 500004034:1X.@def)
+obj(600000026:2M, 113421462:36.@def)
+aoj:03(301099951:4W, 101158064:55.@pl)
+obj(202217266:4I, 113421462:4B.@indef)
+man(202217266:2D.@entry, 600000026:2M)
+or:03(100974762:5F.@entry.@pl, 101158064:55.@pl)
+obj(600000026:3T, 113421462:4B.@indef)
+man(202217266:2D.@entry, 600000026:3T)
+obj(600000018:4R, :03)
+mod:02(110409752:3I.@entry.@pl, 113308999:3E)
+obj(600000018:4R, :03)
+mod:02(110409752:3I.@entry.@pl, 113308999:3E)
+and:01(115669489:11.@entry, 115691323:0F)
+cnt(113421462:36.@def, :02.@parenthesis)
+mod(113275847:06.@topic.@def.@pl, :01)
+aoj(301678729:43, 113421462:4B.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10074]
+{org:en}
+Pollution levies and charges are raised from polluters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200158503:0Z.@entry, :01:01)
+mod:01(101158064:0C.@pl.@topic, 114516743:02)
+mod:01(101158064:0C.@pl.@topic, 114516743:02)
+and:01(100974762:0N.@entry.@pl.@topic, 101158064:0C.@pl.@topic)
+src(200158503:0Z.@entry, 110451858:1B.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10075]
+{org:en}
+Examples like these cases, where charges are used to recover costs, or to promote environmental protection are relatively numerous.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301552419:3G.@entry, 105820620:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(200528339:1J, 113275847:1R.@pl)
+mod(102974697:0M.@pl, 600000017:0G)
+obj(200691665:0B, 102974697:0M.@pl)
+or:01(201080235:24.@entry, 200528339:1J)
+obj:01(200528339:1J, 113275847:1R.@pl)
+mod(102974697:0M.@pl, 600000017:0G)
+obj(200691665:0B, 102974697:0M.@pl)
+or:01(201080235:24.@entry, 200528339:1J)
+aoj(200691665:0B, 105820620:02.@topic.@pl)
+pur(201158572:1B, :01:01)
+man(301552419:3G.@entry, 400160834:35)
+obj(201158572:1B, 100974762:0Z.@pl)
+obj(201158572:1B, 100974762:0Z.@pl)
+plc(201158572:1B, 102974697:0M.@pl)
+obj:01(201080235:24.@entry, 115669489:2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10076]
+{org:en}
+However, legislation charging for water as such is not so abundant.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300013887:1O.@entry, 600000070:02)
+obj(200498016:0N.@progress, 107935504:10)
+man(600000071:1L, 400024073:1H)
+obj(200498016:0N.@progress, 107935504:10)
+man(600000071:1L, 400024073:1H)
+man(300013887:1O.@entry, 600000071:1L)
+obj(600000032:16, 600000321:19)
+aoj(300013887:1O.@entry, 101125693:0B.@topic)
+aoj(600000032:16, 107935504:10)
+aoj(600000032:16, 107935504:10)
+agt(200498016:0N.@progress, 101125693:0B.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10077]
+{org:en}
+A recent case is the Mexican Water Law of December 1, 1992, which charges for the exploitation, use, and enjoyment of surface and ground waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100611143:11.@entry.@def, 102974697:0B.@topic.@indef)
+and:01(100947128:2Q, 100418903:2C.@def)
+tim(115213774:18, "1":1H)
+mod(100611143:11.@entry.@def, 107935504:0V)
+aoj(301642477:04, 102974697:0B.@topic.@indef)
+obj(:01, 107935504:3V.@pl)
+and:01(100947128:2Q, 100418903:2C.@def)
+tim(115213774:18, "1":1H)
+mod(100611143:11.@entry.@def, 107935504:0V)
+aoj(301642477:04, 102974697:0B.@topic.@indef)
+obj(:01, 107935504:3V.@pl)
+aoj(303026902:0N, 100611143:11.@entry.@def)
+and:02(303155671:3O.@entry, 302471091:3C)
+obj(200498016:1W, :01)
+mod(100611143:11.@entry.@def, 115213774:18)
+mod(107935504:3V.@pl, :02)
+agt(200498016:1W, "1992":1K)
+mod(107935504:3V.@pl, :02)
+agt(200498016:1W, "1992":1K)
+tim(115213774:18, "1992":1K)
+and:01(101072072:2Z.@entry, 100947128:2Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10078]
+{org:en}
+Payments are also established for discharges into water bodies (art. 112).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200636888:0K.@entry, 101120448:02.@topic.@pl)
+gol(100123234:10.@pl, 102861886:1M.@pl)
+gol(100123234:10.@pl, 102861886:1M.@pl)
+man(200636888:0K.@entry, 400047534:0F)
+pur(200636888:0K.@entry, 100123234:10.@pl)
+mod(102861886:1M.@pl, 107935504:1G)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10079]
+{org:en}
+Water prices and values are established according to regional water availability.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200636888:0U.@entry, :01:01)
+and:01(104979425:0J.@entry.@pl.@topic, 105141683:08.@pl.@topic)
+mod(115668897:1Y, 302408977:1J)
+and:01(104979425:0J.@entry.@pl.@topic, 105141683:08.@pl.@topic)
+mod(115668897:1Y, 302408977:1J)
+obj(600000046:16, 115668897:1Y)
+man(200636888:0U.@entry, 600000046:16)
+mod:01(105141683:08.@pl.@topic, 107935504:02)
+mod:01(105141683:08.@pl.@topic, 107935504:02)
+mod(115668897:1Y, 107935504:1S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10080]
+{org:en}
+The goals of the system are
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100187337:06.@entry.@def.@pl, :00.@entry)
+mod(100187337:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 104377057:0J.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10081]
+{org:en}
+to relate water charges to benefits resulting from services and water works
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(:00.@entry, 200953058:10)
+and:01(100575741:2V.@entry.@pl, 100098625:2C.@pl)
+obj(200340704:1X.@progress, 105142641:1O.@pl)
+and:01(100575741:2V.@entry.@pl, 100098625:2C.@pl)
+obj(200340704:1X.@progress, 105142641:1O.@pl)
+obj(200953058:10, 115691953:17.@pl)
+gol(200953058:10, 105142641:1O.@pl)
+mod:01(100575741:2V.@entry.@pl, 107935504:2P)
+mod:01(100575741:2V.@entry.@pl, 107935504:2P)
+src(200340704:1X.@progress, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10082]
+{org:en}
+to integrate the financial system within an overall strategy for water resources management, including, the solution of structural problems
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(:00.@entry, 200466651:38)
+obj(100190783:65.@def, 105687338:6S.@pl)
+mod(106249177:4L.@indef, 301102451:4D)
+obj(600000006:43, 106249177:4L.@indef)
+mod(105154676:54.@pl, 107935504:4Y)
+obj(100190783:65.@def, 105687338:6S.@pl)
+mod(106249177:4L.@indef, 301102451:4D)
+obj(600000006:43, 106249177:4L.@indef)
+mod(105154676:54.@pl, 107935504:4Y)
+aoj(600000006:43, 115669814:3M.@def)
+mod(101133281:5E, 105154676:54.@pl)
+obj(200466651:38, 115669814:3M.@def)
+aoj(300586060:6H, 105687338:6S.@pl)
+aoj(600000007:5Q, 101133281:5E)
+aoj(300586060:6H, 105687338:6S.@pl)
+aoj(600000007:5Q, 101133281:5E)
+pur(106249177:4L.@indef, 101133281:5E)
+obj(600000007:5Q, 100190783:65.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10083]
+{org:en}
+to promote rational water use and conservation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(:00.@entry, 201080235:78)
+mod(:02, 107935504:7P)
+mod(:02, 107935504:7P)
+aoj(301333118:7G, :02)
+obj(201080235:78, :02)
+and:02(100819274:83.@entry, 100947128:7V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10084]
+{org:en}
+to adjust water price to cost
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(:00.@entry, 200150287:8N)
+mod(105141683:90, 107935504:8U)
+mod(105141683:90, 107935504:8U)
+obj(200150287:8N, 105141683:90)
+gol(200150287:8N, 113275847:99)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10085]
+{org:en}
+to strengthen the National Water Commission, which collects and manages water related revenues.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(:00.@entry, 200220461:9L)
+mod(115669339:BW.@pl, 107935504:BI)
+obj(:03, 115669339:BW.@pl)
+mod(115669339:BW.@pl, 107935504:BI)
+obj(:03, 115669339:BW.@pl)
+agt(:03, 500323577:A0.@def)
+obj(200220461:9L, 500323577:A0.@def)
+aoj(301971237:BO, 115669339:BW.@pl)
+aoj(301971237:BO, 115669339:BW.@pl)
+and:03(202436349:BA.@entry, 201384439:AX)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10086]
+{org:en}
+The system intends to charge according to the opportunity cost of water, allowing adjustments according to regional conditions, and taking into consideration the social and political situation of different groups of users.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200708538:0D.@entry, 104377057:06.@topic.@def)
+obj:02(202774407:3X.@entry.@progress, 113925752:55.@def)
+mod(113305794:1C.@def, 107935504:1W)
+aoj:02(300490413:5I, 100031264:5S.@pl)
+man(200498016:0O, 600000046:0V)
+and:01(301814385:4V.@entry, 301076634:4K)
+obj(600000111:2O, :02)
+obj:02(202774407:3X.@entry.@progress, 113925752:55.@def)
+mod(113305794:1C.@def, 107935504:1W)
+aoj:02(300490413:5I, 100031264:5S.@pl)
+man(200498016:0O, 600000046:0V)
+and:01(301814385:4V.@entry, 301076634:4K)
+obj(600000111:2O, :02)
+man(200498016:0O, 200723545:23.@progress)
+aoj:02(:01, 113925752:55.@def)
+aoj(600000111:2O, 100999787:2C.@pl)
+gol(200708538:0D.@entry, 200498016:0O)
+obj:02(113925752:55.@def, 100031264:5S.@pl)
+obj(200723545:23.@progress, 100999787:2C.@pl)
+obj:02(113925752:55.@def, 100031264:5S.@pl)
+obj(200723545:23.@progress, 100999787:2C.@pl)
+mod:02(105798863:3A.@pl, 302408977:31)
+obj(600000046:0V, 113305794:1C.@def)
+mod:02(100031264:5S.@pl, 110741590:62.@pl)
+and:02(202774407:3X.@entry.@progress, 105798863:3A.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10087]
+{org:en}
+The charge is a main source of financing for the activities and investments of the National Water Commission.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104263614:0N.@entry.@indef, 100974762:06.@topic.@def)
+and:01(100198919:1Q.@entry.@pl.@def, 100407535:1B.@pl.@def)
+obj(202217266:0X.@progress, :01:01)
+and:01(100198919:1Q.@entry.@pl.@def, 100407535:1B.@pl.@def)
+obj(202217266:0X.@progress, :01:01)
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+mod(104263614:0N.@entry.@indef, 202217266:0X.@progress)
+obj(:01, 500323577:29.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10088]
+{org:en}
+The 1985 Spanish Water Law provides for the payment of fees for the use or occupation of public waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202774323:0T.@entry, 100611143:0P.@topic.@def)
+or:01(100086809:25.@entry.@def, 100947128:1Y.@def)
+pur(113288529:1L.@pl, :01:01)
+aoj(302958576:0B, 100611143:0P.@topic.@def)
+or:01(100086809:25.@entry.@def, 100947128:1Y.@def)
+pur(113288529:1L.@pl, :01:01)
+aoj(302958576:0B, 100611143:0P.@topic.@def)
+obj(101120448:1A.@def, 113288529:1L.@pl)
+mod(100611143:0P.@topic.@def, "1985":06)
+obj(202774323:0T.@entry, 101120448:1A.@def)
+aoj(300493297:2J, 107935504:2Q.@pl)
+aoj(300493297:2J, 107935504:2Q.@pl)
+obj(:01, 107935504:2Q.@pl)
+mod(100611143:0P.@topic.@def, 107935504:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10089]
+{org:en}
+The base value to calculate the charge is the value of the capital asset which is utilized by the user.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10090]
+{org:en}
+Such value is estimated on the basis of the economic returns generated by the asset.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200672433:0G.@entry, 104979425:07.@topic)
+agt(201627355:1R, 105154517:28.@def)
+obj(201627355:1R, 100051192:1J.@def.@pl)
+agt(201627355:1R, 105154517:28.@def)
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+obj(600000085:0Q, 100051192:1J.@def.@pl)
+man(200672433:0G.@entry, 600000085:0Q)
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+mod(104979425:07.@topic, 600001411:02)
+mod(100051192:1J.@def.@pl, 300840212:1A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10091]
+{org:en}
+The rate to be collected is four percent of the base value.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(113325010:1E.@entry.@def, 113325010:06.@topic.@def)
+qua(115689109:0Z, "4":0U)
+qua(115689109:0Z, "4":0U)
+aoj(301117362:1C, 113325010:1E.@entry.@def)
+qua(113325010:1E.@entry.@def, 115689109:0Z)
+obj(201384439:0H, 113325010:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10092]
+{org:en}
+Revenues are collected and managed by the Water Confederations, which are the water authorities at basin level (arts. 104-105).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:03.@entry, 115669339:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:03(105176607:2E.@def.@pl, 101081456:18.@def.@pl)
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+and:03(202436349:0T.@entry, 201384439:0F)
+mod:03(101081456:18.@def.@pl, 107935504:17)
+mod:03(101081456:18.@def.@pl, 107935504:17)
+mod:02(115690754:36.@entry.@pl, "104-105":3C)
+mod:03(105093890:2Z, 102801525:2T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10093]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10094]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10095]
+{org:en}
+Bauer, Carl. (1996)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323237:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+"1996":0G.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10096]
+{org:en}
+Water Markets and the Principles of Dublin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105872477:0O.@entry.@def.@pl, 101097292:08.@pl)
+mod(101097292:08.@pl, 107935504:02)
+mod(105872477:0O.@entry.@def.@pl, 500003764:12)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10097]
+{org:en}
+Berkeley
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324000:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10098]
+{org:en}
+September 1996.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(115212739:0B.@entry, "1996.":0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10099]
+{org:en}
+Discussion of water markets in light of Dublin principles
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(107138085:02.@entry, 101097292:0M.@pl)
+obj(400535936:0U, 500323542:16.@pl)
+obj(400535936:0U, 500323542:16.@pl)
+mod(101097292:0M.@pl, 107935504:0G)
+aoj(400535936:0U, 101097292:0M.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10100]
+{org:en}
+Beck, Robert E. Ed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115695137:0I.@entry, 500323462:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10101]
+{org:en}
+Water and Water Rights.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100351000:0I.@pl.@entry, 107935504:0C)
+and(100351000:0I.@pl.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10102]
+{org:en}
+Vols. 1-3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689976:0Q.@entry.@pl, "1-3":0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10103]
+{org:en}
+Charlottesville
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324028:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10104]
+{org:en}
+The Michie Company.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324180:0J.@def.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10105]
+{org:en}
+Discussion of water rights.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(107138085:02.@entry, 100351000:0M.@pl)
+mod(100351000:0M.@pl, 107935504:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10106]
+{org:en}
+Caponera, Dante.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323256:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10107]
+{org:en}
+Principles of Water Law and Administration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105872477:02.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod:01(100611143:0M, 107935504:0G)
+and:01(100694866:0U.@entry, 100611143:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10108]
+{org:en}
+Balkema
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323997:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10109]
+{org:en}
+Pa?ses Bajos.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324230:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10110]
+{org:en}
+Discussion of various aspects of water law and administration of water laws.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(107138085:02.@entry, 104733118:0O.@pl)
+mod:01(100611143:15, 107935504:0Z)
+obj(:01, 100611143:21.@pl)
+mod:01(100611143:15, 107935504:0Z)
+obj(:01, 100611143:21.@pl)
+aoj(303160904:0G, 104733118:0O.@pl)
+mod(104733118:0O.@pl, :01)
+mod(100611143:21.@pl, 107935504:1V)
+mod(100611143:21.@pl, 107935504:1V)
+and:01(100694866:1D.@entry, 100611143:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10111]
+{org:en}
+Colby-Saliba, Bonnie and David Bush. (1987)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323258:0R.@entry, 500323080:0G)
+and(500323080:0G, 500323243:02)
+[W]
+"1987":15.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10112]
+{org:en}
+Water Markets in Theory and Practice
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(101097292:08.@entry.@pl, :01:01)
+and:01(100410247:0U.@entry, 105952979:0J)
+mod(101097292:08.@entry.@pl, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10113]
+{org:en}
+Market Transfers, Water Values and Public Policy.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105901508:2A.@entry, 104979425:1S.@pl)
+mod(104979425:1S.@pl, 107935504:1M)
+mod(104979425:1S.@pl, 107935504:1M)
+and(104979425:1S.@pl, 100201671:1B.@pl)
+aoj(300493297:23, 105901508:2A.@entry)
+mod(100201671:1B.@pl, 101097292:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10114]
+{org:en}
+Studies in Water Policy and Management
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(104345028:02.@entry.@pl, :01:01)
+mod:01(105901508:0J, 107935504:0D)
+and:01(101133281:0U.@entry, 105901508:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10115]
+{org:en}
+Boulder, No. 12.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(107205104:0B.@entry, 109227839:02)
+mod(107205104:0B.@entry, "12.":0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10116]
+{org:en}
+Discussion of water markets operation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(107138085:02.@entry, 100409211:0X)
+mod(100409211:0X, 101097292:0P.@pl)
+mod(100409211:0X, 107935504:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10117]
+{org:en}
+Livingston M.L.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323130:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10118]
+{org:en}
+Designing Water Institutions
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200698572:02.@entry.@progress, 103574555:0I)
+mod(103574555:0I, 107935504:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10119]
+{org:en}
+Market Failures and Institutional Responses.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105212808:1T.@entry.@pl, 100066397:12.@pl)
+mod(100066397:12.@pl, 101097292:0V)
+mod(105212808:1T.@entry.@pl, 301231191:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10120]
+{org:en}
+World Bank Policy Paper
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106255613:0K.@entry, 105901508:0D)
+mod(105901508:0D, 500323529:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10121]
+{org:en}
+General discussion of development of water institutions for water management.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(107138085:0A.@entry, 100250259:0O)
+mod(101133281:1W, 107935504:1Q)
+pur(103574555:19.@pl, 101133281:1W)
+mod(101133281:1W, 107935504:1Q)
+pur(103574555:19.@pl, 101133281:1W)
+obj(100250259:0O, 103574555:19.@pl)
+aoj(300487198:02, 107138085:0A.@entry)
+mod(103574555:19.@pl, 107935504:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10122]
+{org:en}
+Livingston M.L.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323130:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10123]
+{org:en}
+Normative and Positive Aspects of Institutional Economics
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104733118:0P.@entry.@pl, 106149484:1E)
+mod(106149484:1E, 301231191:10)
+mod(106149484:1E, 301231191:10)
+and:01(300358678:0G.@entry, 302996239:02)
+aoj(:01, 104733118:0P.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10124]
+{org:en}
+The Implications for Water Policy.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(107238102:1T.@entry.@def.@pl, 105901508:2G)
+mod(105901508:2G, 107935504:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10125]
+{org:en}
+Water Resources Research.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100636921:0I.@entry, 105154676:08.@pl)
+mod(105154676:08.@pl, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10126]
+{org:en}
+Vol. 29.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689976:0S.@entry, "29":0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10127]
+{org:en}
+No. 4.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107205104:11.@entry, "4":15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10128]
+{org:en}
+Discusses links between emerging economic theory and water policy.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774210:02.@entry, 103673971:0C.@pl)
+mod(105901508:1P, :01)
+mod(105901508:1P, 301733082:0Q)
+mod(105901508:1P, :01)
+mod(105901508:1P, 301733082:0Q)
+obj(600000024:0I, 105901508:1P)
+aoj(600000024:0I, 103673971:0C.@pl)
+and:01(107935504:1J.@entry, 105952979:18)
+and:01(107935504:1J.@entry, 105952979:18)
+mod(105901508:1P, 300840212:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10129]
+{org:en}
+Trelease, Frank.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323290:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10130]
+{org:en}
+Water Law, Resource Use and Environmental Protection
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115669489:0U.@entry, 100947128:0M)
+mod(100611143:08, 107935504:02)
+mod(100611143:08, 107935504:02)
+mod(100947128:0M, 105154676:0D)
+and(100947128:0M, 100611143:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10131]
+{org:en}
+St. Paul
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324299:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10132]
+{org:en}
+West Publishing Co.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324353:0B.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10133]
+{org:en}
+Links water management and law issues with wider topic of environmental protection.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774319:02.@entry, 600000018:14)
+obj(600000018:14, 105814291:1F)
+and:01(100611143:0T.@entry, 101133281:0E)
+man(300024241:19, 400099341:2M)
+obj(600000018:14, 105814291:1F)
+and:01(100611143:0T.@entry, 101133281:0E)
+man(300024241:19, 400099341:2M)
+mod(101060234:0X.@pl, :01)
+aoj(300024241:19, 105814291:1F)
+obj(202774319:02.@entry, 101060234:0X.@pl)
+mod(105814291:1F, 115669489:1O)
+mod(105814291:1F, 115669489:1O)
+mod:01(101133281:0E, 107935504:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10134]
+{org:en}
+World Bank.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(500323529:02.@entry, "1993.":0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10135]
+{org:en}
+Water Resources Management
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101133281:0I.@entry, 105154676:08.@pl)
+mod(105154676:08.@pl, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10136]
+{org:en}
+Washington, D.C.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323548:0U.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10137]
+{org:en}
+The World Bank.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323529:1G.@entry.@def
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10138]
+{org:en}
+General discussion of water resources management.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(107138085:0A.@entry, 101133281:14)
+mod(105154676:0U.@pl, 107935504:0O)
+mod(105154676:0U.@pl, 107935504:0O)
+mod(101133281:14, 105154676:0U.@pl)
+aoj(300487198:02, 107138085:0A.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10139]
+{org:en}
+TSUNAMIS
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+107349299:00.@topic.@pl.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10140]
+{org:en}
+CAUSES, CONSEQUENCES, PREDICTION, AND RESPONSE
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105212808:1C.@entry, 105775081:0W)
+and(105170574:0I.@pl, 100007347:0A.@pl)
+and(105775081:0W, 105170574:0I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10141]
+{org:en}
+TSUNAMIS
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+107349299:00.@topic.@pl.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10142]
+{org:en}
+CAUSES, CONSEQUENCES, PREDICTION, AND RESPONSE
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105212808:1C.@entry, 105775081:0W)
+and(105212808:1C.@entry, 105775081:0W)
+and(105170574:0I.@pl, 100007347:0A.@pl)
+and(105775081:0W, 105170574:0I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10143]
+{org:en}
+Boris W. Levin
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323226:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323226:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10144]
+{org:en}
+Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, RAS, Russia, Moscow
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(500323914:00.@entry, 500323564:0Y)
+mod(500323914:00.@entry, 500323564:0Y)
+mod(500323564:0Y, 500004285:13)
+plc(500323914:00.@entry, 500004288:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10145]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668697:00.@topic.@pl.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115668697:00.@topic.@pl.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10146]
+{org:en}
+tsunami, seaquake, oceanic earthquake, generation, oscillating structures.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(104931965:22.@entry.@pl, 100849982:1E)
+and(107429870:0K, 107349299:0B)
+and(107428954:12, 107429870:0K)
+and(104931965:22.@entry.@pl, 100849982:1E)
+and(107429870:0K, 107349299:0B)
+and(107428954:12, 107429870:0K)
+and(100849982:1E, 107428954:12)
+obj(201878063:1Q.@progress, 104931965:22.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301381196:0U, 107428954:12)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10147]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:00.@entry.@title
+[/W]
+[W]
+106489659:00.@entry.@title
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10148]
+{org:en}
+Introduction.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:03.@entry.@title
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10149]
+{org:en}
+Causes of tsunamis.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100007347:03.@entry.@pl.@title, 107349299:0D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10150]
+{org:en}
+Consequences of tsunamis and kindred phenomena.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100034213:14.@entry.@pl.@title, 105170574:03.@pl)
+mod(105170574:03.@pl, 107349299:0J.@pl)
+mod(100034213:14.@entry.@pl.@title, 301972479:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10151]
+{org:en}
+Tsunami prediction and tsunami warning systems around the world.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10152]
+{org:en}
+Tsunami mitigation and steps to reduce potential losses.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100285557:0Q.@entry.@pl.@title, 115690265:0B)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10153]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:00, 106396142:08.@entry.@pl.@title)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10154]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:00.@entry.@title
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10155]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:00.@entry.@title
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10156]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10157]
+{org:en}
+Summary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106467007:00.@entry.@title
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10158]
+{org:en}
+Tsunami waves rank the fifth among the world's natural hazards in terms of the number of casualties.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10159]
+{org:en}
+This article presents the essentials of a tsunami event which may be induced by a bottom earthquake, a submarine landslide, underwater volcano eruption, atmospheric disturbance, cosmic body fall or the decomposition of a gas hydrate at the shelf.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10160]
+{org:en}
+These gravity waves at the water surface occur in the sea as the result of a large-scale fast-acting disturbance on the water basin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10161]
+{org:en}
+;The typical length of a tsunami wave is from 1 to 1000 km, the event`s duration may run between 5 and 100 minutes, the propagation velocity is from 1 to 200 HTM1 , and the wave height may reach up to 10 - 30 m above the coastline.The typical length of a tsunami wave is from 1 to 1000 km, the event`s duration may run between 5 and 100 minutes, the propagation velocity is from 1 to 200 m/s , and the wave height may reach up to 10 - 30 m above the coastline.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10162]
+{org:en}
+The peculiarities of tsunamis, seaquakes and unusual seism-generated kindred phenomena in the open ocean are presented in this article.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10163]
+{org:en}
+What one should know about tsunami prediction and means of warning and salvaging are described in the article.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10164]
+{org:en}
+Recent development of tsunami warning systems in the USA, Japan, Russia, France, and other countries are also discussed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(500003942:24, 500004285:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10165]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:03.@entry.@title
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10166]
+{org:en}
+If you are planning to visit a country of volcanoes and earthquakes - Japan, the Kuril Islands or Kamchatka - you will be surely ready for a surprise at any time.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+cnt(108168978:0V.@indef, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10167]
+{org:en}
+And when you have set up a camp at the coast of the bluest warm sea for fine days of relaxation with your friend (or for an expedition survey) you hardly expect an invasion of water in the form of a deadly tsunami wave.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10168]
+{org:en}
+The ocean is the forefather of humankind, and continues to be its strict teacher.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(110102800:0H.@def, 109376198:04.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10169]
+{org:en}
+Often a tsunami wave warns of its arrival with roaring and rumbling from the ocean, but sometimes a rising wall of water approaches silently and imperceptibly.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10170]
+{org:en}
+A flowering and crowded sea-coast may be transformed into devastated ruins in a matter of minutes
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+gol(200381601:1C.@entry.@may, 104118635:24.@pl)
+and:01(300559690:0J.@entry, 302597850:05)
+man(200381601:1C.@entry.@may, 106506315:2P.@pl)
+mod(105934029:0Z.@topic.@indef, 109426788:0V)
+mod(105934029:0Z.@topic.@indef, 109426788:0V)
+obj(200260311:1T.@past, 104118635:24.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10171]
+{org:en}
+Paramushir, USSR, 1952
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500324231:2Y.@entry, 500323525:3A)
+tim(500323525:3A, "1952":3G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10172]
+{org:en}
+Okushiri, Japan, 1993
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323608:3M.@entry, 103593222:3W)
+tim(103593222:3W, "1993":43)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10173]
+{org:en}
+Papua New Guinea, 1998
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500003605:49.@entry, "1998":4R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10174]
+{org:en}
+Izmit, Turkey, 1999
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(115695454:4X.@entry, 101794158:54)
+plc(115695454:4X.@entry, 101794158:54)
+tim(101794158:54, "1999":5C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10175]
+{org:en}
+The consequences of the giant earthquake and tsunami in Lisbon in 1755 are imaged in the ancient etching (Figure 1).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202151603:2A.@entry, 105170574:04.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(105170574:04.@topic.@def.@pl, 500004208:1R)
+plc(103299406:2W, :01:01.@parenthesis)
+obj(202151603:2A.@entry, 105170574:04.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(105170574:04.@topic.@def.@pl, 500004208:1R)
+plc(103299406:2W, :01:01.@parenthesis)
+and:02(107349299:1C.@entry.@def, 107428954:0X.@def)
+mod(103299406:2W, 301644847:2O)
+mod(:02.@def, 303158551:0O)
+plc(202151603:2A.@entry, 103299406:2W)
+mod(105170574:04.@topic.@def.@pl, :02.@def)
+mod(105170574:04.@topic.@def.@pl, :02.@def)
+mod:01(100556992:35.@entry.@def, "1":3C)
+tim(:02.@def, "1755":21)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10176]
+{org:en}
+Figure 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:00.@entry, "1":07)
+mod(100556992:00.@entry, "1":07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10177]
+{org:en}
+Computer copy of etching "Earthquake at Lisbon in 1755,"
+{/org}
+{unl}
+frm(103104594:0J.@entry, 103299406:0R)
+tim:01(107428954:10.@entry, "1755":1O)
+frm(103104594:0J.@entry, 103299406:0R)
+tim:01(107428954:10.@entry, "1755":1O)
+cnt(103299406:0R, :01.@double_quote)
+mod(103104594:0J.@entry, 103082979:0A)
+plc:01(107428954:10.@entry, 500004208:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10178]
+{org:en}
+Mary Evans Picture Library, London, England.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500324171:26.@entry, 500008271:2N)
+plc(500324171:26.@entry, 500008271:2N)
+plc(500008271:2N, 115690437:2V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10179]
+{org:en}
+Tsunami (translated from Japanese for "a big wave in a harbor") is a sequence of long gravity water waves, propagating with high velocity from a tsunami source in the ocean (a large-scale zone of short-lived disturbances on the water surface) to the coastline.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105044822:1X.@entry.@indef, 107349299:00.@topic)
+gol:03(200383542:09.@entry.@past, :02.@double_quote)
+mod(104263614:49.@indef, 107349299:41)
+mod(107935504:2M, 107512147:2E)
+plc:01(100333829:5S.@pl, 104362025:6I.@def)
+aoj(300015589:29, 100346095:2S.@pl)
+aoj:02(300173391:15, 100346095:19.@entry.@indef)
+mod:01(105611062:58.@entry.@indef, 100333829:5S.@pl)
+aoj(105044822:1X.@entry.@indef, 107349299:00.@topic)
+gol:03(200383542:09.@entry.@past, :02.@double_quote)
+mod(104263614:49.@indef, 107349299:41)
+mod(107935504:2M, 107512147:2E)
+plc:01(100333829:5S.@pl, 104362025:6I.@def)
+aoj(300015589:29, 100346095:2S.@pl)
+aoj:02(300173391:15, 100346095:19.@entry.@indef)
+mod:01(105611062:58.@entry.@indef, 100333829:5S.@pl)
+man(200055539:2Z.@progress, 115689301:3L)
+obj(:03.@parenthesis, 107349299:00.@topic)
+mod(105044822:1X.@entry.@indef, 100346095:2S.@pl)
+plc:02(100346095:19.@entry.@indef, 103492250:1J.@indef)
+mod(109376198:4N.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
+src(200055539:2Z.@progress, 104263614:49.@indef)
+mod:01(104362025:6I.@def, 107935504:6C)
+obj(200055539:2Z.@progress, 105044822:1X.@entry.@indef)
+src:03(200383542:09.@entry.@past, 109718217:0P)
+to(109376198:4N.@def, 108613000:6Y.@def)
+plc(200055539:2Z.@progress, 109376198:4N.@def)
+src:03(200383542:09.@entry.@past, 109718217:0P)
+to(109376198:4N.@def, 108613000:6Y.@def)
+plc(200055539:2Z.@progress, 109376198:4N.@def)
+aoj:01(303163723:5G, 100333829:5S.@pl)
+mod(100346095:2S.@pl, 107935504:2M)
+aoj:01(301388418:4W, 105611062:58.@entry.@indef)
+aoj(300705498:3G, 115689301:3L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10180]
+{org:en}
+Local rising or sinking of the water-level in the ocean may be rather small, about 10 meters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(301391351:25.@entry.@may, 103753077:2L.@pl)
+aoj(301106405:00, :01)
+plc(:01, 109376198:1L.@def)
+man(301391351:25.@entry.@may, 103753077:2L.@pl)
+aoj(301106405:00, :01)
+plc(:01, 109376198:1L.@def)
+bas(600000076:2C, "10":2I)
+man(301391351:25.@entry.@may, 600000114:1Y)
+qua(103753077:2L.@pl, 600000076:2C)
+aoj(301391351:25.@entry.@may, :01)
+or:01(201971929:0J.@entry.@progress.@topic, 200155143:09.@progress.@topic)
+or:01(201971929:0J.@entry.@progress.@topic, 200155143:09.@progress.@topic)
+obj(:01, 115696318:12.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10181]
+{org:en}
+At the same time, the large horizontal size of the geophysical disturbance, which is in the order of 100 km above the bottom earthquake, may give rise to a gravity wave about 100 km in length.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202774441:3X.@entry.@may, 105095691:13.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301232635:0S, 105095691:13.@topic.@def)
+qua(103656231:55, 115669024:4Z)
+qua(115669024:2X, "100":2T)
+mod(100346095:4K.@indef, 103656231:55)
+man(600000072:30, 115669024:2X)
+agt(202774441:3X.@entry.@may, 105095691:13.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301232635:0S, 105095691:13.@topic.@def)
+qua(103656231:55, 115669024:4Z)
+qua(115669024:2X, "100":2T)
+mod(100346095:4K.@indef, 103656231:55)
+man(600000072:30, 115669024:2X)
+mod(105095691:13.@topic.@def, 100333829:1R.@topic.@def)
+man(202774441:3X.@entry.@may, 400535235:00)
+aoj(600000072:30, 100333829:1R.@topic.@def)
+bas(600000076:4P, "100":4V)
+mod(107428954:3H.@def, 102878222:3A)
+obj(202774441:3X.@entry.@may, 100346095:4K.@indef)
+aoj(302908235:1F, 100333829:1R.@topic.@def)
+qua(115669024:4Z, 600000076:4P)
+aoj(302908235:1F, 100333829:1R.@topic.@def)
+qua(115669024:4Z, 600000076:4P)
+bas(600000072:30, 107428954:3H.@def)
+mod(100346095:4K.@indef, 107512147:4C)
+bas(400536055:2D, 115669024:2X)
+aoj(300527870:0M, 105095691:13.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10182]
+{org:en}
+The wave propagates from the source with a velocity of long gravity water waves in accordance with the equation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200055539:09.@entry, 100346095:04.@topic.@def)
+mod(115689301:17.@indef, 100346095:22.@pl)
+src(200055539:09.@entry, 104263614:0T.@def)
+obj(200055539:09.@entry, 100346095:04.@topic.@def)
+mod(115689301:17.@indef, 100346095:22.@pl)
+src(200055539:09.@entry, 104263614:0T.@def)
+mod(107935504:1W, 107512147:1O)
+man(200055539:09.@entry, 115689301:17.@indef)
+mod(100346095:22.@pl, 107935504:1W)
+man(200055539:09.@entry, 600000133:28)
+aoj(300015589:1J, 100346095:22.@pl)
+aoj(300015589:1J, 100346095:22.@pl)
+obj(600000133:28, 100185307:2V.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10183]
+{org:en}
+where g is the acceleration due to gravity, and H is the depth of the basin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105094725:1L.@entry.@def, 100330457:0F.@def)
+aoj(300137725:0X, 100330457:0F.@def)
+plc(100330457:0F.@def, 115689346:00)
+and(105094725:1L.@entry.@def, 100330457:0F.@def)
+aoj(300137725:0X, 100330457:0F.@def)
+plc(100330457:0F.@def, 115689346:00)
+mod(105094725:1L.@entry.@def, 109468604:1Y.@def)
+aoj(105094725:1L.@entry.@def, 106831926:1C.@topic)
+obj(300137725:0X, 107512147:0Z)
+obj(300137725:0X, 107512147:0Z)
+aoj(100330457:0F.@def, 106831819:06.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10184]
+{org:en}
+Because the average depth of the world ocean is 4 km, the typical velocity of tsunami in the ocean is 200 m/s or 720 km/h.;Because the average depth of the world ocean is 4 km, the typical velocity of tsunami in the ocean is 200 HTM1 or 720 HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(:01.@entry, 115669024:1E)
+aoj(115669024:1E, 105094725:0K.@topic.@def)
+obj:01(600000025:3E, 106831926:3F)
+qua:01(115669024:3C.@entry, "720":38)
+mod(105094725:0K.@topic.@def, 105856979:0C)
+rsn(:01.@entry, 115669024:1E)
+aoj(115669024:1E, 105094725:0K.@topic.@def)
+obj:01(600000025:3E, 106831926:3F)
+qua:01(115669024:3C.@entry, "720":38)
+mod(105094725:0K.@topic.@def, 105856979:0C)
+mod(115689301:1U.@topic.@def, 107349299:26)
+or:01(115669024:3C.@entry, 115690699:31)
+mod(105094725:0K.@topic.@def, 109376198:13.@def)
+plc(115689301:1U.@topic.@def, 109376198:2L.@def)
+aoj(:01.@entry, 115689301:1U.@topic.@def)
+qua(115669024:1E, "4":1C)
+qua:01(115690699:31, "200":2X)
+qua(115669024:1E, "4":1C)
+qua:01(115690699:31, "200":2X)
+aoj:01(600000025:3E, 115669024:3C.@entry)
+mod(109376198:13.@def, 105670972:0X)
+aoj(301595440:1M, 115689301:1U.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10185]
+{org:en}
+;Such a wave, propagating with the velocity of an airplane, may traverse the Pacific ocean in 10-12 hours and bring down a wall of water 10 m high with a velocity of more than 70 HTM1 upon a calm ocean beach.Such a wave, propagating with the velocity of an airplane, may traverse the Pacific ocean in 10-12 hours and bring down a wall of water 10 m high with a velocity of more than 70 km/h upon a calm ocean beach.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(:02.@entry, 100346095:07.@topic.@indef)
+mod:02(109376198:2F.@def, 500005690:27)
+qua:02(115689301:4C.@indef, 115669024:51)
+mod:02(104546855:3H.@indef, 107935504:3P)
+man(200055539:0D.@progress, 115689301:0Y.@def)
+aoj:02(300302761:5D, 109217230:5O.@indef)
+man:02(201830307:34.@entry.@may, 115689301:4C.@indef)
+obj(200055539:0D.@progress, 100346095:07.@topic.@indef)
+obj:02(600000025:53, 106831926:54)
+agt(:02.@entry, 100346095:07.@topic.@indef)
+mod:02(109376198:2F.@def, 500005690:27)
+qua:02(115689301:4C.@indef, 115669024:51)
+mod:02(104546855:3H.@indef, 107935504:3P)
+man(200055539:0D.@progress, 115689301:0Y.@def)
+aoj:02(300302761:5D, 109217230:5O.@indef)
+man:02(201830307:34.@entry.@may, 115689301:4C.@indef)
+obj(200055539:0D.@progress, 100346095:07.@topic.@indef)
+obj:02(600000025:53, 106831926:54)
+qua:02(106832464:3Y, "10":3V)
+dur:02(201068380:1U.@may, 105131023:2U.@pl)
+obj:02(201830307:34.@entry.@may, 104546855:3H.@indef)
+fmt:01("12":2R.@entry, "10":2O)
+aoj:02(600000025:53, 115669024:51)
+man:02(300705498:40, 106832464:3Y)
+obj:02(201068380:1U.@may, 109376198:2F.@def)
+and:02(201830307:34.@entry.@may, 201068380:1U.@may)
+qua:02(105131023:2U.@pl, :01:01)
+qua:02(115669024:51, 400099341:4O)
+aoj:02(300705498:40, 104546855:3H.@indef)
+qua:02(105131023:2U.@pl, :01:01)
+qua:02(115669024:51, 400099341:4O)
+aoj:02(300705498:40, 104546855:3H.@indef)
+mod(115689301:0Y.@def, 102691156:1D.@indef)
+mod:02(109217230:5O.@indef, 109376198:5I)
+aoj:02(600000239:56, 104546855:3H.@indef)
+mod(100346095:07.@topic.@indef, 600001411:00)
+bas:02(400099341:4O, "70":4Y)
+obj:02(600000239:56, 109217230:5O.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10186]
+{org:en}
+The wave velocity is decreased near the coastline because of shallower water and the slowing of the wave by the roughness of the bottom.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200151689:0L.@entry, 115689301:09.@topic.@def)
+mod(115689301:09.@topic.@def, 100346095:04)
+agt:01(200440580:2G.@entry.@def, 100374446:37.@def)
+obj(600000139:0V, 108613000:14.@def)
+obj(200151689:0L.@entry, 115689301:09.@topic.@def)
+mod(115689301:09.@topic.@def, 100346095:04)
+agt:01(200440580:2G.@entry.@def, 100374446:37.@def)
+obj(600000139:0V, 108613000:14.@def)
+aoj:01(300691696:1S, 107935504:22)
+man(200151689:0L.@entry, 600000139:0V)
+mod:01(100374446:37.@def, 102878222:3O.@def)
+rsn(200151689:0L.@entry, :01:01)
+obj:01(200440580:2G.@entry.@def, 100346095:2V.@def)
+obj:01(200440580:2G.@entry.@def, 100346095:2V.@def)
+and:01(200440580:2G.@entry.@def, 107935504:22)
+man:01(300691696:1S, 400099341:3Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10187]
+{org:en}
+The steepness of the wave is increasing because the crest of the wave moves faster than the trough of the wave, whose motion is delayed by the bottom impact.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(200153263:0T.@entry.@progress, 200124442:1Y)
+agt(200459776:3K, 107338552:46.@def)
+bas(300323873:24, 104488427:2K.@def)
+obj(200124442:1Y, 101326015:1G.@topic.@def)
+rsn(200153263:0T.@entry.@progress, 200124442:1Y)
+agt(200459776:3K, 107338552:46.@def)
+bas(300323873:24, 104488427:2K.@def)
+obj(200124442:1Y, 101326015:1G.@topic.@def)
+mod(107163593:3A, 100346095:2Y.@def)
+mod(115692385:04.@topic.@def, 100346095:0L.@def)
+mod(101326015:1G.@topic.@def, 100346095:1T.@def)
+mod(104488427:2K.@def, 100346095:2Y.@def)
+obj(200153263:0T.@entry.@progress, 115692385:04.@topic.@def)
+mod(107338552:46.@def, 102878222:3Z)
+man(300323873:24, 400099341:4D)
+mod(107338552:46.@def, 102878222:3Z)
+man(300323873:24, 400099341:4D)
+man(200124442:1Y, 300323873:24)
+obj(200459776:3K, 107163593:3A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10188]
+{org:en}
+Causes of tsunamis
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100007347:03.@entry.@pl.@title, 107349299:0D.@pl)
+mod(100007347:03.@entry.@pl.@title, 107349299:0D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10189]
+{org:en}
+Generation of a tsunami by earthquake
+{/org}
+{unl}
+met(100849982:05.@entry.@title, 107428954:0W)
+met(100849982:05.@entry.@title, 107428954:0W)
+obj(100849982:05.@entry.@title, 107349299:0L.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10190]
+{org:en}
+Many large underwater earthquakes, whose epicenters are dislocated at the bottom of ocean or sea, are able to generate tsunami waves.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774243:31.@entry, 107428954:0M.@topic.@pl)
+mod(102878222:22.@def, :01)
+qua(107428954:0M.@topic.@pl, 600000028:00)
+mod(100346095:3Q.@pl, 107349299:3I)
+aoj(202774243:31.@entry, 107428954:0M.@topic.@pl)
+mod(102878222:22.@def, :01)
+qua(107428954:0M.@topic.@pl, 600000028:00)
+mod(100346095:3Q.@pl, 107349299:3I)
+obj(200414823:1K, 108578032:15.@pl)
+obj(201627355:39, 100346095:3Q.@pl)
+mod(107428954:0M.@topic.@pl, 303161918:0B)
+obj(202774243:31.@entry, 201627355:39)
+or:01(109426788:2O.@entry, 109376198:2F)
+aoj(300527870:05, 107428954:0M.@topic.@pl)
+or:01(109426788:2O.@entry, 109376198:2F)
+aoj(300527870:05, 107428954:0M.@topic.@pl)
+mod(108578032:15.@pl, 107428954:0M.@topic.@pl)
+plc(200414823:1K, 102878222:22.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10191]
+{org:en}
+These events, so-called tsunamigenic earthquakes (i.e. tsunami-making), are characterized by high energy, and the magnitude on the Richter scale are M>7.0.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and("m>7.0":45.@entry, 202697950:24)
+obj:01(115689159:1E.@entry, 103714899:1R)
+aoj(202697950:24, 104633197:2Q)
+obj(202697950:24, 100029378:06.@pl)
+and("m>7.0":45.@entry, 202697950:24)
+obj:01(115689159:1E.@entry, 103714899:1R)
+aoj(202697950:24, 104633197:2Q)
+obj(202697950:24, 100029378:06.@pl)
+mod(107428954:11.@topic.@pl, 303161064:0E)
+mod(105090441:36.@topic.@def, 113851865:3N.@def)
+mod(100029378:06.@pl, 600000017:00)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 107428954:11.@topic.@pl)
+aoj("m>7.0":45.@entry, 105090441:36.@topic.@def)
+obj:01(103714899:1R, 107349299:1J)
+aoj(300705498:2L, 104633197:2Q)
+obj:01(103714899:1R, 107349299:1J)
+aoj(300705498:2L, 104633197:2Q)
+cnt(100029378:06.@pl, 107428954:11.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(115692423:0O, 107428954:11.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10192]
+{org:en}
+The horizontal size of the zone of the strongest bottom oscillations for such an event may be as great as 100 km or more.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301278818:2P.@entry.@may, 105095691:0F.@topic.@def)
+man(301068609:13, 400536271:3D)
+rsn(107345166:1K.@def.@pl, 100029378:29.@indef)
+qua:01(115669024:32, "100":2Y)
+aoj(301278818:2P.@entry.@may, 105095691:0F.@topic.@def)
+man(301068609:13, 400536271:3D)
+rsn(107345166:1K.@def.@pl, 100029378:29.@indef)
+qua:01(115669024:32, "100":2Y)
+aoj(301068609:13, 107345166:1K.@def.@pl)
+or:01(600000124:38.@entry, 115669024:32)
+aoj(301232635:04, 105095691:0F.@topic.@def)
+bas(301278818:2P.@entry.@may, :01)
+mod(100029378:29.@indef, 600001411:21)
+mod(105611062:0R.@def, 107345166:1K.@def.@pl)
+mod(100029378:29.@indef, 600001411:21)
+mod(105611062:0R.@def, 107345166:1K.@def.@pl)
+mod(105095691:0F.@topic.@def, 105611062:0R.@def)
+mod(107345166:1K.@def.@pl, 102878222:1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10193]
+{org:en}
+The oscillating motions of the bottom during the tsunamigenic event are noted for the following parameters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301287972:20.@entry, 107163593:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(201878063:04.@progress, 107163593:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+dur(107163593:0G.@topic.@def.@pl, 100029378:1Q.@def)
+aoj(301287972:20.@entry, 107163593:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(201878063:04.@progress, 107163593:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+dur(107163593:0G.@topic.@def.@pl, 100029378:1Q.@def)
+mod(105859071:2O.@def.@pl, 300127815:2E)
+rsn(301287972:20.@entry, 105859071:2O.@def.@pl)
+aoj(115692423:1D, 100029378:1Q.@def)
+aoj(115692423:1D, 100029378:1Q.@def)
+mod(107163593:0G.@topic.@def.@pl, 102878222:0V.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10194]
+{org:en}
+;vertical oscillation amplitude HTM1 , particular velocity HTM2 , acceleration due to gravity is around 0.5 g.vertical oscillation amplitude ~ 1 - 100 cm, particular velocity ~ 10 - 100 cm/s, acceleration due to gravity is around 0.5 g.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(106831819:6G.@entry, 115693473:54)
+qua(115669285:54, 600000076:4T)
+qua(115669285:45, 600000076:3V)
+qua(106831819:6G.@entry, 600000197:65)
+mod(105098311:3L.@topic, 107345166:39)
+qua(100330457:5A.@topic, 106831819:6G.@entry)
+and(106831819:6G.@entry, 115693473:54)
+qua(115669285:54, 600000076:4T)
+qua(115669285:45, 600000076:3V)
+qua(106831819:6G.@entry, 600000197:65)
+mod(105098311:3L.@topic, 107345166:39)
+qua(100330457:5A.@topic, 106831819:6G.@entry)
+qua(115689301:4K.@topic, 115693473:54)
+aoj(301204142:30, 105098311:3L.@topic)
+fmt:02("100":50.@entry, "10":4V)
+fmt:01("100":41.@entry, "1":3X)
+obj(300137725:5T, 107512147:5U)
+and(115669285:54, 115669285:45)
+bas(600000076:4T, :02)
+bas(600000076:3V, :01)
+bas(600000076:4T, :02)
+bas(600000076:3V, :01)
+aoj(300137725:5T, 100330457:5A.@topic)
+qua(105098311:3L.@topic, 115669285:45)
+bas(600000197:65, "0.5":6C)
+mod(115689301:4K.@topic, 300311044:49)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10195]
+{org:en}
+;Such a velocity on the bottom of HTM1 leads to the occurrence of an acoustic wave with a pressure amplitude equal to P=15 atmospheresSuch a velocity on the bottom of U=1 m/s leads to the occurrence of an acoustic wave with a pressure amplitude equal to P=15 atmospheres
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774203:15.@entry, 115689301:07.@topic.@indef)
+plc(115689301:07.@topic.@indef, 102878222:0N.@def)
+obj(600000018:2D, 105098311:2T.@indef)
+mod(113959069:1I.@def, 100346095:28.@indef)
+qua(115690699:11, 500324326:0X)
+aoj(202774203:15.@entry, 115689301:07.@topic.@indef)
+plc(115689301:07.@topic.@indef, 102878222:0N.@def)
+obj(600000018:2D, 105098311:2T.@indef)
+mod(113959069:1I.@def, 100346095:28.@indef)
+qua(115690699:11, 500324326:0X)
+obj(300889831:33, 108499057:3H.@pl)
+man(113959069:1I.@def, 600000018:2D)
+qua(115689301:07.@topic.@indef, 115690699:11)
+mod(105098311:2T.@indef, 100113113:2K)
+obj(202774203:15.@entry, 113959069:1I.@def)
+mod(115689301:07.@topic.@indef, 600001411:00)
+aoj(300889831:33, 105098311:2T.@indef)
+mod(115689301:07.@topic.@indef, 600001411:00)
+aoj(300889831:33, 105098311:2T.@indef)
+aoj(302868489:1Z, 100346095:28.@indef)
+qua(108499057:3H.@pl, 500324226:3C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10196]
+{org:en}
+atmosphere
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+108499057:3H.@pl.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+108499057:3H.@pl.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10197]
+{org:en}
+;here HTM1 is the density of water, HTM2 sound velocityhere p is the density of water, c - sound velocity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115689301:78.@entry, 104941453:6F.@def)
+mod(104941453:6F.@def, 107935504:6Q)
+man(104941453:6F.@def, 400108479:61)
+and(115689301:78.@entry, 104941453:6F.@def)
+mod(104941453:6F.@def, 107935504:6Q)
+man(104941453:6F.@def, 400108479:61)
+mod(115689301:78.@entry, 104981139:72)
+aoj(115689301:78.@entry, 106831391:6X.@topic)
+aoj(104941453:6F.@def, 106832788:66.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10198]
+{org:en}
+In some instances, the earthquake may initiate faults and fractures in bottom rock.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(201641914:12.@may.@entry, 115691493:08.@pl)
+qua(115691493:08.@pl, 600000034:03)
+plc(201641914:12.@may.@entry, 100348008:26)
+scn(201641914:12.@may.@entry, 115691493:08.@pl)
+qua(115691493:08.@pl, 600000034:03)
+plc(201641914:12.@may.@entry, 100348008:26)
+obj(201641914:12.@may.@entry, :01:01)
+agt(201641914:12.@may.@entry, 107428954:0N.@topic.@def)
+mod(100348008:26, 102878222:1Z)
+mod(100348008:26, 102878222:1Z)
+and:01(100376994:1M.@pl.@entry, 100568813:1B.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10199]
+{org:en}
+The blocks of crust are displaced up/down relative to each other and along the direction of the fault plane horizontal.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100562398:04.@def.@pl.@topic, 109260218:0E)
+mod(103954731:2U.@def, 100568813:2O)
+man(303161671:16, 600000227:1I)
+man(202013571:0O.@entry, 303161671:16)
+mod(100562398:04.@def.@pl.@topic, 109260218:0E)
+mod(103954731:2U.@def, 100568813:2O)
+man(303161671:16, 600000227:1I)
+man(202013571:0O.@entry, 303161671:16)
+mod(106197215:27.@def, 103954731:2U.@def)
+man(202013571:0O.@entry, :01)
+obj(600000105:1X, 106197215:27.@def)
+obj(202013571:0O.@entry, 100562398:04.@def.@pl.@topic)
+or:01(600000183:11.@entry, 600000238:0Y)
+or:01(600000183:11.@entry, 600000238:0Y)
+man(202013571:0O.@entry, 600000105:1X)
+aoj(301232635:30, 103954731:2U.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10200]
+{org:en}
+The dimension of vertical displacement may reach 5 meters, and horizontal displacement may reach 20 meters or more.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200743344:2J.@entry.@may, 200743344:17.@may)
+aoj(301204142:0H, 100209446:0Q)
+aoj(301232635:1R, 100209446:22.@topic)
+or:01(400099341:32.@entry, 103753077:2S.@pl)
+and(200743344:2J.@entry.@may, 200743344:17.@may)
+aoj(301204142:0H, 100209446:0Q)
+aoj(301232635:1R, 100209446:22.@topic)
+or:01(400099341:32.@entry, 103753077:2S.@pl)
+qua(103753077:1F.@pl, "5":1D)
+gol(200743344:2J.@entry.@may, :01)
+gol(200743344:17.@may, 103753077:1F.@pl)
+obj(200743344:2J.@entry.@may, 100209446:22.@topic)
+obj(200743344:17.@may, 105093581:04.@topic.@def)
+obj(200743344:17.@may, 105093581:04.@topic.@def)
+qua:01(103753077:2S.@pl, "20":2P)
+mod(105093581:04.@topic.@def, 100209446:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10201]
+{org:en}
+Finite displacement of the crust blocks, combined with bottom oscillating motion, often leads to generation of submarine landslides, revival of active faults, intensive emission of fluids transporting matter out of the Earth`s interior.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774203:2G.@entry, 100209446:07.@topic)
+mod(100562398:0X.@def.@pl, 109260218:0R)
+man:01(201449974:5B.@progress, 600000096:5V)
+and:01(101047338:3S, 100849982:2S)
+aoj:01(302472137:36, 107405411:3G.@pl)
+and:01(101253060:4S.@entry, 101047338:3S)
+obj(201878063:1Q.@progress, 107163593:22)
+mod:01(108588294:6E.@def, 108562067:66)
+aoj(202774203:2G.@entry, 100209446:07.@topic)
+mod(100562398:0X.@def.@pl, 109260218:0R)
+man:01(201449974:5B.@progress, 600000096:5V)
+and:01(101047338:3S, 100849982:2S)
+aoj:01(302472137:36, 107405411:3G.@pl)
+and:01(101253060:4S.@entry, 101047338:3S)
+obj(201878063:1Q.@progress, 107163593:22)
+mod:01(108588294:6E.@def, 108562067:66)
+aoj:01(301512275:4I, 101253060:4S)
+obj(202309008:15.@past, 100562398:0X.@def.@pl)
+man(202774203:2G.@entry, 400059547:2A)
+mod(107163593:22, 102878222:1J)
+obj:01(600000096:5V, 108588294:6E.@def)
+aoj:01(300031974:43, 100568813:4A.@pl)
+aoj(301006566:00, 100209446:07.@topic)
+obj(202774203:2G.@entry, :01:01)
+gol(202309008:15.@past, 107163593:22)
+obj:01(201449974:5B.@progress, 100020827:5O)
+mod:01(101047338:3S, 100568813:4A.@pl)
+gol(202309008:15.@past, 107163593:22)
+obj:01(201449974:5B.@progress, 100020827:5O)
+mod:01(101047338:3S, 100568813:4A.@pl)
+mod(100209446:07.@topic, 100562398:0X.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(101253060:4S.@entry, 114939445:54.@pl)
+mod:01(100849982:2S, 107405411:3G.@pl)
+agt:01(201449974:5B.@progress, 114939445:54.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10202]
+{org:en}
+As the intensive oscillating motion of the bottom takes place in an area whose size is much greater than the thickness of the water layer, in certain situations, a rise or elevation is formed at the water surface (Figure 2).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(200144850:55.@entry, 202774213:1E)
+aoj(301512275:07, 107163593:0T.@topic.@def)
+mod(105095691:27, 102735688:1W.@indef)
+mod(104362025:5P.@def, 107935504:5J)
+mod(104936403:31.@def, 101463259:3O.@def)
+scn(200144850:55.@entry, 113925752:46.@pl)
+man(301278818:2K, 400099341:68)
+rsn(200144850:55.@entry, 202774213:1E)
+aoj(301512275:07, 107163593:0T.@topic.@def)
+mod(105095691:27, 102735688:1W.@indef)
+mod(104362025:5P.@def, 107935504:5J)
+mod(104936403:31.@def, 101463259:3O.@def)
+scn(200144850:55.@entry, 113925752:46.@pl)
+man(301278818:2K, 400099341:68)
+obj(202774213:1E, 107163593:0T.@topic.@def)
+mod(107163593:0T.@topic.@def, 102878222:17.@def)
+plc(200144850:55.@entry, 104362025:5P.@def)
+bas(301278818:2K, 104936403:31.@def)
+or:02(103281052:4S.@entry.@topic.@indef, 100324384:4K.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(300309740:3Y, 113925752:46.@pl)
+obj(200144850:55.@entry, :02:02)
+obj(201878063:0H.@progress, 107163593:0T.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301278818:2K, 105095691:27)
+mod:01(100556992:5Y.@entry, "2":65)
+obj(201878063:0H.@progress, 107163593:0T.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301278818:2K, 105095691:27)
+mod:01(100556992:5Y.@entry, "2":65)
+mod(101463259:3O.@def, 107935504:3I)
+plc(104362025:5P.@def, :01:01.@parenthesis)
+man(301278818:2K, 400053744:2F)
+plc(202774213:1E, 102735688:1W.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10203]
+{org:en}
+Figure 2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:00.@entry, "2.":07)
+mod(100556992:00.@entry, "2.":07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10204]
+{org:en}
+Schematic drawing of the tsunami generation by the bottom oscillating motion
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303162082:0K, 100392093:0A.@entry)
+obj(201878063:1W.@progress, 107163593:28)
+obj(100849982:17.@def, 107349299:0Z)
+aoj(303162082:0K, 100392093:0A.@entry)
+obj(201878063:1W.@progress, 107163593:28)
+obj(100849982:17.@def, 107349299:0Z)
+ins(100849982:17.@def, 107163593:28)
+mod(100392093:0A.@entry, 100849982:17.@def)
+mod(107163593:28, 102878222:1P.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10205]
+{org:en}
+The rise continues for the whole oscillation period, which is approximately 100 seconds for a large earthquake.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200118523:09.@entry, 100324384:04.@topic.@def)
+man(107180372:28.@pl, 400007015:1Q)
+aoj(300514884:0R, 106843520:19.@def)
+obj(200118523:09.@entry, 100324384:04.@topic.@def)
+man(107180372:28.@pl, 400007015:1Q)
+aoj(300514884:0R, 106843520:19.@def)
+aoj(107180372:28.@pl, 106843520:19.@def)
+qua(107180372:28.@pl, "100":24)
+dur(200118523:09.@entry, 106843520:19.@def)
+per(107180372:28.@pl, 115695533:2M.@indef)
+per(107180372:28.@pl, 115695533:2M.@indef)
+mod(106843520:19.@def, 107345166:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10206]
+{org:en}
+When the bottom trembling stops, the sea surface elevation that was induced by seismic energy begins to spread over the surface with the release of gravity water waves from the source.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200348746:2M.@entry, 201859221:0Q)
+mod(103281052:1D.@topic.@def, 115691587:11)
+obj(600000040:33, 104362025:3C.@def)
+obj(115694549:0G.@def, 102878222:09)
+man(301844858:2W.@past, 600000018:3K)
+aoj(302293230:27, 104633197:2F)
+tim(200348746:2M.@entry, 201859221:0Q)
+mod(103281052:1D.@topic.@def, 115691587:11)
+obj(600000040:33, 104362025:3C.@def)
+obj(115694549:0G.@def, 102878222:09)
+man(301844858:2W.@past, 600000018:3K)
+aoj(302293230:27, 104633197:2F)
+obj(100210940:3T.@def, 100346095:4I.@pl)
+obj(200348746:2M.@entry, 301844858:2W.@past)
+agt(200636441:1W.@past, 104633197:2F)
+frm(100210940:3T.@def, 104263614:4X.@def)
+agt(200348746:2M.@entry, 103281052:1D.@topic.@def)
+obj(200636441:1W.@past, 103281052:1D.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000018:3K, 100210940:3T.@def)
+obj(200636441:1W.@past, 103281052:1D.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000018:3K, 100210940:3T.@def)
+man(301844858:2W.@past, 600000040:33)
+obj(201859221:0Q, 115694549:0G.@def)
+mod(100346095:4I.@pl, 115692780:44)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10207]
+{org:en}
+The directional diagram of generated waves depends on the form of the source and the relief of the bottom.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202664234:17.@entry, 103186399:0G.@topic.@def)
+mod(103186399:0G.@topic.@def, 100346095:11.@pl)
+mod:01(100354884:2G.@entry.@def, 102878222:2U.@def)
+aoj(202664234:17.@entry, 103186399:0G.@topic.@def)
+mod(103186399:0G.@topic.@def, 100346095:11.@pl)
+mod:01(100354884:2G.@entry.@def, 102878222:2U.@def)
+and:01(100354884:2G.@entry.@def, 103384535:1P.@def)
+obj(201627355:0R.@past, 100346095:11.@pl)
+obj(202664234:17.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj(302713974:04, 103186399:0G.@topic.@def)
+aoj(302713974:04, 103186399:0G.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(103384535:1P.@def, 104263614:21.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10208]
+{org:en}
+;The length of the wave comprises about 50-100 km in the open ocean, the period of wave is close to 10-20 minutes, and the maximum trough-to crest wave height is HTM1 meters.the length of the wave comprises about 50-100 km in the open ocean, the period of wave is close to 10-20 minutes, and the maximum from trough to crest wave height is ~ 10 meters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(103753077:4Y.@pl.@entry, 600000279:2I)
+aoj(300036254:1K, 109376198:1P.@def)
+qua(106506315:2X.@pl, :02:02)
+mod(:01, 303161017:3E)
+man(202774449:0N, 115669024:1A)
+bas(600000076:4T, "10":4V)
+aoj(202774449:0N, 103656231:04.@topic.@def)
+and(103753077:4Y.@pl.@entry, 600000279:2I)
+aoj(300036254:1K, 109376198:1P.@def)
+qua(106506315:2X.@pl, :02:02)
+mod(:01, 303161017:3E)
+man(202774449:0N, 115669024:1A)
+bas(600000076:4T, "10":4V)
+aoj(202774449:0N, 103656231:04.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000279:2I, 106843520:20.@topic.@def)
+fmt:03("100":16.@entry, "50":13)
+qua(103753077:4Y.@pl.@entry, 600000076:4T)
+mod(106843520:20.@topic.@def, 100346095:2A)
+and(600000279:2I, 202774449:0N)
+bas(600000076:0X, :03)
+qua(115690417:4E.@topic.@def, 103753077:4Y.@pl.@entry)
+mod(103656231:04.@topic.@def, 100346095:0I.@def)
+fmt:02("20":2U.@entry, "10":2R)
+fmt:01(101326015:44.@entry, 104488427:3U)
+mod(103656231:04.@topic.@def, 100346095:0I.@def)
+fmt:02("20":2U.@entry, "10":2R)
+fmt:01(101326015:44.@entry, 104488427:3U)
+qua(115669024:1A, 600000076:0X)
+mod(115690417:4E.@topic.@def, :01)
+plc(202774449:0N, 109376198:1P.@def)
+obj(600000279:2I, 106506315:2X.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10209]
+{org:en}
+Such a wave characterized by steepness of less than 1/1000 (ratio of amplitude to the length of the wave) will be practically unnoticed in the open ocean.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301608264:3I.@entry, 100346095:07.@topic.@indef)
+to:01(113819207:1O.@entry, 103656231:2E.@def)
+mod(100346095:07.@topic.@indef, 600001411:00)
+aoj(300036254:3Z, 109376198:44.@def)
+aoj:02(600000025:1H, "1":1G.@entry)
+aoj(301608264:3I.@entry, 100346095:07.@topic.@indef)
+to:01(113819207:1O.@entry, 103656231:2E.@def)
+mod(100346095:07.@topic.@indef, 600001411:00)
+aoj(300036254:3Z, 109376198:44.@def)
+aoj:02(600000025:1H, "1":1G.@entry)
+bas(400099868:16, :02)
+man(301608264:3I.@entry, 400053512:36)
+mod:01(103656231:2E.@def, 100346095:2S.@def)
+qua(115692385:0T, 400099868:16)
+plc(301608264:3I.@entry, 109376198:44.@def)
+mod:01(113819207:1O.@entry, 105098311:1X)
+aoj(202697950:0C.@past, 115692385:0T)
+mod:01(113819207:1O.@entry, 105098311:1X)
+aoj(202697950:0C.@past, 115692385:0T)
+obj(202697950:0C.@past, 100346095:07.@topic.@indef)
+obj:02(600000025:1H, "1000":1I)
+iof(:02, :01.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10210]
+{org:en}
+In the case of finite displacement of the ocean crust blocks due to earthquake, water elevation may occur over a large part of the ocean surface (at the overfault of bottom rocks) as well as the trough at the standard level of the ocean (after the strike-slip fault).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200723349:2S.@entry.@may, 102974697:07.@def)
+mod(103281052:2E.@topic, 107935504:28)
+mod:02(100348008:4T.@pl, 102878222:4M)
+cnt(103892891:3B.@indef, :02.@parenthesis)
+aoj(301006566:0F, 100209446:0M)
+mod(105093890:62.@def, 104301140:5T)
+obj(600000040:2Y, 103892891:3B.@indef)
+obj(300137725:1X, 107428954:1W)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 105093890:62.@def)
+man(200723349:2S.@entry.@may, 102974697:07.@def)
+mod(103281052:2E.@topic, 107935504:28)
+mod:02(100348008:4T.@pl, 102878222:4M)
+cnt(103892891:3B.@indef, :02.@parenthesis)
+aoj(301006566:0F, 100209446:0M)
+mod(105093890:62.@def, 104301140:5T)
+obj(600000040:2Y, 103892891:3B.@indef)
+obj(300137725:1X, 107428954:1W)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 105093890:62.@def)
+mod(104362025:3T.@def, 109376198:3N)
+mod:01(100059376:73, 100109414:6W)
+man(200723349:2S.@entry.@may, 600000040:2Y)
+aoj(300137725:1X, 100209446:0M)
+plc(104488427:5F.@def, 105093890:62.@def)
+aoj(300527870:35, 103892891:3B.@indef)
+mod(109260218:1C, 109376198:16)
+mod:01(100568813:78.@def, 100059376:73)
+obj(200723349:2S.@entry.@may, 103281052:2E.@topic)
+mod(102974697:07.@def, 100209446:0M)
+obj(600000014:50, 104488427:5F.@def)
+mod(103892891:3B.@indef, 104362025:3T.@def)
+mod(102974697:07.@def, 100209446:0M)
+obj(600000014:50, 104488427:5F.@def)
+mod(103892891:3B.@indef, 104362025:3T.@def)
+mod(100562398:1I.@def.@pl, 109260218:1C)
+obj:01(600000002:6M.@entry, 100568813:78.@def)
+aoj(600000014:50, 103892891:3B.@indef)
+obj(100209446:0M, 100562398:1I.@def.@pl)
+mod(105093890:62.@def, 109376198:6F.@def)
+mod:02(115695781:49.@entry.@def, 100348008:4T.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10211]
+{org:en}
+After discontinuance of bottom motion, the generated disturbance of the water level (Figure 3) spreads over the surface in accordance with hydrodynamics laws radiating the gravity waves, much like the previous scheme (see Figure 2).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201378556:2N.@entry, 600000002:00)
+mod(100333829:1H.@topic.@def, 104561010:20.@def)
+mod(100611143:49.@pl, 106113914:3V)
+mod(101022483:06, 107163593:0V)
+pur(:01.@parenthesis, 105905348:5U.@def)
+man(201378556:2N.@entry, 600000040:2V)
+mod:02(100556992:2D.@entry, "3":2K)
+man(600000058:5C, 400053744:57)
+man(201378556:2N.@entry, 600000002:00)
+mod(100333829:1H.@topic.@def, 104561010:20.@def)
+mod(100611143:49.@pl, 106113914:3V)
+mod(101022483:06, 107163593:0V)
+pur(:01.@parenthesis, 105905348:5U.@def)
+man(201378556:2N.@entry, 600000040:2V)
+mod:02(100556992:2D.@entry, "3":2K)
+man(600000058:5C, 400053744:57)
+obj(600000133:3C, 100611143:49.@pl)
+mod:01(100556992:66, "2":6D)
+man(201378556:2N.@entry, 600000133:3C)
+obj(201627355:17.@past, 100333829:1H.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000058:5C, 107344875:4S.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000040:2V, 104362025:34.@def)
+obj:01(200662589:62.@entry, 100556992:66)
+aoj(201378556:2N.@entry, 100333829:1H.@topic.@def)
+plc(100333829:1H.@topic.@def, :02:02.@parenthesis)
+obj(200291163:4E.@progress, 107344875:4S.@def.@pl)
+mod(107163593:0V, 102878222:0O)
+plc(100333829:1H.@topic.@def, :02:02.@parenthesis)
+obj(200291163:4E.@progress, 107344875:4S.@def.@pl)
+mod(107163593:0V, 102878222:0O)
+mod(105905348:5U.@def, 300127137:5L)
+obj(600000002:00, 101022483:06)
+obj(600000058:5C, 105905348:5U.@def)
+agt(200291163:4E.@progress, 100611143:49.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10212]
+{org:en}
+Figure 3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:00.@entry, "3.":07)
+mod(100556992:00.@entry, "3.":07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10213]
+{org:en}
+Schematic drawing of the tsunami generation by the bottom block displacement.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100392093:0K.@entry, 100849982:17.@def)
+mod(100849982:17.@def, 107349299:0Z)
+mod(100392093:0K.@entry, 100849982:17.@def)
+mod(100849982:17.@def, 107349299:0Z)
+ins(100849982:17.@def, 115693374:1W.@def)
+aoj(303162082:0A, 100392093:0K.@entry)
+mod(115693374:1W.@def, 102878222:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10214]
+{org:en}
+When a tsunami wave propagates in the ocean and arrives at the coastline, it is transformed due to non-linear and dispersion effects.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200381601:2F.@entry, :02:02)
+mod(100346095:0F.@topic.@indef, 107349299:07)
+and:01(100368592:3G.@entry, 300658259:35.@not)
+obj(600000001:2Q, 104809642:3V.@pl)
+tim(200381601:2F.@entry, :02:02)
+mod(100346095:0F.@topic.@indef, 107349299:07)
+and:01(100368592:3G.@entry, 300658259:35.@not)
+obj(600000001:2Q, 104809642:3V.@pl)
+gol:02(202005948:1F.@entry, 108613000:1U.@def)
+man(200381601:2F.@entry, 600000001:2Q)
+and:02(202005948:1F.@entry, 200055539:0N)
+obj(200381601:2F.@entry, 600000016:29.@topic)
+obj(:02, 100346095:0F.@topic.@indef)
+obj(:02, 100346095:0F.@topic.@indef)
+mod(104809642:3V.@pl, :01)
+plc:02(200055539:0N, 109376198:15.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10215]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the same wave may reach one section of the coast as a crest but reach another as a leading trough.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200743344:1Y.@entry, 200743344:0O.@may)
+man(200743344:1Y.@entry, 600000023:2C)
+mod(104164989:0Y, 105934029:1D.@def)
+man(200743344:0O.@may, 600000023:1J)
+mod(104488427:2P.@indef, 300198904:2H)
+and(200743344:1Y.@entry, 200743344:0O.@may)
+man(200743344:1Y.@entry, 600000023:2C)
+mod(104164989:0Y, 105934029:1D.@def)
+man(200743344:0O.@may, 600000023:1J)
+mod(104488427:2P.@indef, 300198904:2H)
+aoj(300355611:0A, 100346095:0F.@topic.@def)
+obj(200743344:0O.@may, 100346095:0F.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000023:2C, 104488427:2P.@indef)
+obj(600000023:1J, 101326015:1O.@indef)
+man(200743344:0O.@may, 400121135:00)
+gol(200743344:1Y.@entry, 600000116:24)
+mod(104164989:0Y, 600000089:0U)
+gol(200743344:1Y.@entry, 600000116:24)
+mod(104164989:0Y, 600000089:0U)
+gol(200743344:0O.@may, 104164989:0Y)
+obj(200743344:1Y.@entry, 100346095:0F.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10216]
+{org:en}
+In reality, the tsunami usually arrives at the coastline as a wave train whose parameters depend on many factors.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202005948:0W.@entry, 400535374:00)
+obj(600000023:1L, 108461875:1Q.@indef)
+gol(202005948:0W.@entry, 108613000:1B.@def)
+man(202005948:0W.@entry, 400535374:00)
+obj(600000023:1L, 108461875:1Q.@indef)
+gol(202005948:0W.@entry, 108613000:1B.@def)
+obj(202664234:2I, 105858317:2X.@pl)
+man(202005948:0W.@entry, 600000023:1L)
+aoj(202664234:2I, 105859071:27.@pl)
+obj(202005948:0W.@entry, 107349299:0G.@topic.@def)
+mod(105859071:27.@pl, 108461875:1Q.@indef)
+mod(105859071:27.@pl, 108461875:1Q.@indef)
+man(202005948:0W.@entry, 400535718:0O)
+qua(105858317:2X.@pl, 600000028:2S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10217]
+{org:en}
+Sometimes the reflux appears as the first event before a tsunami wave, and the ocean bottom is uncovered far from the coastline (up to 1 km!).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(303162371:2N.@entry, 200422090:0L)
+man(200422090:0L, 600000023:0T)
+obj:01(600000047:3L.@entry, 115669024:3T)
+man(115691764:2X, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000062:1C, 100346095:1T.@indef)
+and(303162371:2N.@entry, 200422090:0L)
+man(200422090:0L, 600000023:0T)
+obj:01(600000047:3L.@entry, 115669024:3T)
+man(115691764:2X, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000062:1C, 100346095:1T.@indef)
+obj(200422090:0L, 114336004:0E.@topic.@def)
+man(303162371:2N.@entry, 115691764:2X)
+aoj(300228294:10, 100029378:16.@def)
+man(200422090:0L, 400021878:00)
+aoj(303162371:2N.@entry, 115694137:27.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000023:0T, 100029378:16.@def)
+qua:01(115669024:3T, "1":3R)
+obj(600000023:0T, 100029378:16.@def)
+qua:01(115669024:3T, "1":3R)
+src(115691764:2X, 108613000:3A.@def)
+mod(100346095:1T.@indef, 107349299:1L)
+man(200422090:0L, 600000062:1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10218]
+{org:en}
+After some time, the reflux is converted into a distant wave that occupies the whole horizon and moves to the coast with a deafening roar.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200114837:0V.@entry, 600000002:00)
+obj:01(202648639:1U, 105127782:2D.@def)
+and:01(200124442:2P.@entry, 202648639:1U)
+agt(:01, 100346095:1K.@indef)
+qua(100028270:06, 600000034:01)
+man(200114837:0V.@entry, 600000002:00)
+obj:01(202648639:1U, 105127782:2D.@def)
+and:01(200124442:2P.@entry, 202648639:1U)
+agt(:01, 100346095:1K.@indef)
+qua(100028270:06, 600000034:01)
+obj:01(600000018:38, 107377682:3P.@indef)
+gol(200114837:0V.@entry, 100346095:1K.@indef)
+obj(600000002:00, 100028270:06)
+gol:01(200124442:2P.@entry, 105934029:32.@def)
+obj(200114837:0V.@entry, 114336004:0L.@topic.@def)
+aoj:01(300514884:27, 105127782:2D.@def)
+man:01(200124442:2P.@entry, 600000018:38)
+aoj:01(300514884:27, 105127782:2D.@def)
+man:01(200124442:2P.@entry, 600000018:38)
+aoj(300442917:1C, 100346095:1K.@indef)
+aoj:01(301453467:3F, 107377682:3P.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10219]
+{org:en}
+When the first wave of a tsunami passes into shallow water, the wave front becomes very steep (nearly vertical) due to slowing of the bottom water layer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200149583:23.@entry, 202049696:0X)
+obj(202049696:0X, 100346095:0F.@topic.@def)
+man(301144887:2G, 400031899:2B)
+obj(600000001:3A, 200440580:3B)
+aoj(300228294:09, 100346095:0F.@topic.@def)
+tim(200149583:23.@entry, 202049696:0X)
+obj(202049696:0X, 100346095:0F.@topic.@def)
+man(301144887:2G, 400031899:2B)
+obj(600000001:3A, 200440580:3B)
+aoj(300228294:09, 100346095:0F.@topic.@def)
+obj(200440580:3B, 101463259:43.@def)
+man(200149583:23.@entry, 600000001:3A)
+mod(100346095:0F.@topic.@def, 107349299:0P.@indef)
+man:01(301204142:2U.@entry, 400535354:2N)
+obj(200149583:23.@entry, 108681966:1S.@topic.@def)
+gol(202049696:0X, 115696057:19)
+cnt(301144887:2G, :01.@parenthesis)
+gol(202049696:0X, 115696057:19)
+cnt(301144887:2G, :01.@parenthesis)
+gol(200149583:23.@entry, 301144887:2G)
+mod(101463259:43.@def, 115694847:3Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10220]
+{org:en}
+;The velocity of the tsunami run-up becomes close to 70 HTM1 , and its height may reach more than 10-15 meters.the velocity of the tsunami run-up becomes close to 70 km/h, and its height may reach more than 10-15 meters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200743344:2A.@entry.@may, 200149583:0Z)
+qua(115692211:1J, "70":1G)
+fmt:01("15":2T.@entry, "10":2Q)
+qua(103753077:2W.@pl, 400099341:2G)
+and(200743344:2A.@entry.@may, 200149583:0Z)
+qua(115692211:1J, "70":1G)
+fmt:01("15":2T.@entry, "10":2Q)
+qua(103753077:2W.@pl, 400099341:2G)
+gol(200149583:0Z, 600000279:17)
+gol(200743344:2A.@entry.@may, 103753077:2W.@pl)
+mod(100476788:0S.@def, 107349299:0K)
+obj(200149583:0Z, 115689301:04.@topic.@def)
+obj(200743344:2A.@entry.@may, 105137165:1Z.@topic)
+mod(115689301:04.@topic.@def, 100476788:0S.@def)
+mod(105137165:1Z.@topic, 600000016:1V)
+mod(115689301:04.@topic.@def, 100476788:0S.@def)
+mod(105137165:1Z.@topic, 600000016:1V)
+bas(400099341:2G, :01)
+obj(600000279:17, 115692211:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10221]
+{org:en}
+After the first wave, a second wave and following waves may come to the coastline.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200341917:1O.@entry.@may, 600000002:00)
+aoj:01(301016436:0O, 100346095:0V.@indef)
+obj(600000002:00, 100346095:0G.@def)
+man(200341917:1O.@entry.@may, 600000002:00)
+aoj:01(301016436:0O, 100346095:0V.@indef)
+obj(600000002:00, 100346095:0G.@def)
+gol(200341917:1O.@entry.@may, 108613000:20.@def)
+mod:01(100346095:2E.@pl.@entry, 300127815:14)
+agt(200341917:1O.@entry.@may, :01)
+and:01(100346095:2E.@pl.@entry, 100346095:0V.@indef)
+and:01(100346095:2E.@pl.@entry, 100346095:0V.@indef)
+aoj(300228294:0A, 100346095:0G.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10222]
+{org:en}
+The period between arrivals of following waves may be of the order of 20 minutes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(106506315:21.@pl.@entry.@may, 106843520:04.@topic.@def)
+qua(106506315:21.@pl, 600000133:1P)
+obj(100048225:0J.@pl, 100346095:0W.@pl)
+aoj(106506315:21.@pl.@entry.@may, 106843520:04.@topic.@def)
+qua(106506315:21.@pl, 600000133:1P)
+obj(100048225:0J.@pl, 100346095:0W.@pl)
+obj(600000024:0B, 100048225:0J.@pl)
+aoj(600000024:0B, 106843520:04.@topic.@def)
+bas(600000133:1P, "20":1Y)
+bas(600000133:1P, "20":1Y)
+mod(100346095:0W.@pl, 300127815:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10223]
+{org:en}
+Tsunamis induced by submarine landslide and landfall.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200636441:0E.@past, 107349299:05.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(302472137:0P, 107405411:0Z)
+obj(200636441:0E.@past, 107349299:05.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(302472137:0P, 107405411:0Z)
+and:01(100880431:1D.@entry, 107405411:0Z)
+agt(200636441:0E.@past, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10224]
+{org:en}
+A landslide-created tsunami, as a rule, has a local character.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:14.@entry, 107349299:0K.@topic.@def)
+agt(201640207:0C.@past, 107405411:02)
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+obj(201640207:0C.@past, 107349299:0K.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10225]
+{org:en}
+However, in the case of an extensive landslide involving the bottom sediments of the continental shelf or at the fall of a marine glacier into sea, the tsunami source may reach a size of several kilometers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200743344:4R.@may.@entry, :01:01)
+mod:01(109289331:3M.@indef, 300124353:3F)
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+mod:01(102974697:0G.@def, 107405411:11.@indef)
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+obj:01(200401538:1B.@progress, 115691671:1P.@def.@pl)
+to:01(109289331:3M.@indef, 109426788:3Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10226]
+{org:en}
+These tsunami waves have a huge height and present a real hazard to the coastal population.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200772967:17.@entry, 200065370:0K)
+mod(100346095:0E.@topic.@pl, 600000017:00)
+mod(101257969:28.@def, 300462909:20)
+obj(200772967:17.@entry, 103501152:1M.@indef)
+and(200772967:17.@entry, 200065370:0K)
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+aoj(303161154:0R, 105137165:0W.@indef)
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+aoj(200065370:0K, 100346095:0E.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300013662:1H, 103501152:1M.@indef)
+mod(100346095:0E.@topic.@pl, 107349299:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10227]
+{org:en}
+;The large landslide containing a mixture of rock debris and ice blocks with a volume of HTM1 that occurred in the Lituya Bay, Alaska because of the earthquake in Alaska on July 9, 1958 generated a tsunami wave with maximum trough-to-crest wave heights of HTM2 meters.the large landslide containing a mixture of rock debris and ice blocks with a volume of HTM1 that occurred in the Lituya Bay, Alaska because of the earthquake in Alaska on July 9, 1958 generated a tsunami wave with maximum trough-to-crest wave heights of ~ 60 meters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201627355:5J.@past.@entry, 107405411:0A.@def)
+mod(115690417:71.@pl, :02)
+obj(600000018:26, 104990220:2D.@indef)
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+aoj(202701210:0K.@progress, 107405411:0A.@def)
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+and:01(115693861:1R.@entry.@pl, 114857897:1G)
+tim("9":5B, 115212167:56)
+qua(115690417:71.@pl, 103753077:7M.@pl)
+obj(201627355:5J.@past.@entry, 100346095:63.@indef)
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+tim(115212167:56, "1958":5E)
+obj(600000018:68, 115690417:71.@pl)
+man(201627355:5J.@past.@entry, 600000018:68)
+mod(:02, 303161017:6D)
+qua(104990220:2D.@indef, HTM1:2W)
+obj(202701210:0K.@progress, 100380083:0X.@indef)
+mod(:02, 303161017:6D)
+qua(104990220:2D.@indef, HTM1:2W)
+obj(202701210:0K.@progress, 100380083:0X.@indef)
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+rsn(200723349:34.@past, 107428954:4I.@def)
+mod:01(114857897:1G, 100348008:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10228]
+{org:en}
+And believe it or not, an enormous run-up of the mega-tsunami washed out trees to a maximum altitude of 525 meters at the entrance of Gilbert Inlet!
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200280112:1Q.@past.@entry, :01)
+qua(103753077:30.@pl, "525":2W)
+obj(100476788:0Z.@indef, 107349299:1I.@def)
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+obj(100476788:0Z.@indef, 107349299:1I.@def)
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+mod(100049003:3E.@def, 500324086:3Q)
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+mod(100049003:3E.@def, 500324086:3Q)
+aoj(301385255:0Q, 100476788:0Z.@indef)
+plc(200280112:1Q.@past.@entry, 100049003:3E.@def)
+obj:01(200683280:04, 600000016:0C)
+mod(105131647:2K.@indef, 303161017:2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10229]
+{org:en}
+Much of the rest of the shoreline of the Lituya Bay was denuded by the tsunami from 30 to 200 meters altitude.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200194912:1K.@past.@entry, 600000224:00.@topic)
+fmt:01("200":2I.@entry, "30":2C)
+qua(105131647:2T.@entry, 103753077:2M.@pl)
+obj(200194912:1K.@past.@entry, 600000224:00.@topic)
+fmt:01("200":2I.@entry, "30":2C)
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+man(200194912:1K.@past.@entry, 105131647:2T)
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+plc(109433839:0O.@def, 500323604:15.@def)
+qua(103753077:2M.@pl, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10230]
+{org:en}
+An landfall of caving coast, a break-away and the sliding of rock/ice blocks into the sea, occurrence of the bottom landslide and turbid flows, snow avalanches, or failure of harbor constructions may be responsible for tsunami generation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300324878:61.@entry.@may, :04.@topic)
+aoj:03(303161434:3W, 100329227:43.@entry.@pl)
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+obj:04(:02, :01:01)
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+obj(300324878:61.@entry.@may, 100849982:6P)
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+mod:04(107285036:4F.@pl.@topic, 111508382:4A)
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+mod:04(107285036:4F.@pl.@topic, 111508382:4A)
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+mod:04(100066397:4U.@entry.@topic, 115695340:55.@pl)
+and:02(202090990:1K.@entry.@def, 100385266:11.@indef)
+and:03(100329227:43.@entry.@pl, 107405411:3I.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10231]
+{org:en}
+Quite a number of tsunamis generated by landslides and/or landfalls have been observed on the shelf off the south-eastern Alaska coast, near the coast of Canada (iof>country), as well as in Norway, France, Italy.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200732552:26.@complete.@entry, 107349299:0I.@pl.@entry)
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+aoj(600000081:2S, 104190052:2M.@def)
+agt(201627355:0R.@past, :01.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300827743:30, 105934029:3L.@def)
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+aoj(600000014:4I, 500003493:4A)
+a/o:01(100880431:1M.@entry.@pl, 107405411:14.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10232]
+{org:en}
+A landslide motion process is usually caused by long-term accumulation of sediments at some ocean bottom areas, submarine slopes of basins, into the river deltas.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201645601:12.@entry, 100029677:0J.@topic.@def)
+mod(109437454:3E.@pl, 102801525:3O.@pl)
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+mod(100029677:0J.@topic.@def, 107163593:0C)
+mod(102735688:2X.@pl, 115694137:2K)
+agt(201645601:12.@entry, 100372013:1M)
+mod(106834458:4B.@def.@pl, 109411430:45)
+aoj(109437454:3E.@pl, 102735688:2X.@pl)
+man(201645601:12.@entry, 400535718:0U)
+aoj(302472137:34, 109437454:3E.@pl)
+aoj(303161456:1C, 100372013:1M)
+aoj(302472137:34, 109437454:3E.@pl)
+aoj(303161456:1C, 100372013:1M)
+mod(100372013:1M, 109428967:22.@pl)
+mod(107163593:0C, 107405411:02)
+qua(102735688:2X.@pl, 600000034:2F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10233]
+{org:en}
+The accumulated sediments are subjected to streams, storms, wind waves, tides, hurricanes, tectonic processes, and after this the landslide body comes into non-equilibrium.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202774761:48.@entry, 201118292:0U)
+and:01(111467018:2A.@pl, 107402519:23.@pl)
+mod(102861886:43.@topic.@def, 107405411:3T)
+gol(202774761:48.@entry, 105659365:4N)
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+and(202774761:48.@entry, 201118292:0U)
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+gol(202774761:48.@entry, 105659365:4N)
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+and:01(100029677:2V.@entry.@pl, 111467018:2A.@pl)
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+and:01(115669712:1R.@pl, 100974630:1J.@pl)
+gol(201118292:0U, :01)
+tim(202774761:48.@entry, 600000436:3E)
+and:01(107402519:23.@pl, 115669712:1R.@pl)
+obj(201118292:0U, 109428967:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(107402519:23.@pl, 115669712:1R.@pl)
+obj(201118292:0U, 109428967:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(105659365:4N, 303161142:4J)
+obj(200158804:04.@past, 109428967:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(302898121:2M, 100029677:2V.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10234]
+{org:en}
+In this case, any weak perturbation action (micro-earthquake, meteorological disturbance, tide, etc.) plays a leading role as a trigger mechanism for failure of the unstable slide body.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(200013328:2U.@entry, 102974697:08)
+cnt(100037396:10.@topic, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000023:3F, 115694555:3K.@indef)
+and:01(107402519:2I, 100333829:25)
+obj(200013328:2U.@entry, 100722061:3A.@indef)
+mod(100037396:10.@topic, 104904996:0N)
+scn(200013328:2U.@entry, 102974697:08)
+cnt(100037396:10.@topic, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000023:3F, 115694555:3K.@indef)
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+mod(100037396:10.@topic, 104904996:0N)
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+mod(102974697:08, 600000022:03)
+man(200013328:2U.@entry, 600000023:3F)
+aoj(300441523:0I, 100037396:10.@topic)
+mod(100066397:46, 102861886:50.@def)
+aoj:01(303161104:1Q, 100333829:25)
+agt(200013328:2U.@entry, 100037396:10.@topic)
+mod(100037396:10.@topic, 600000052:0E)
+pur(115694555:3K.@indef, 100066397:46)
+mod(100037396:10.@topic, 600000052:0E)
+pur(115694555:3K.@indef, 100066397:46)
+and:01(100333829:25, 115694050:18)
+mod(100722061:3A.@indef, 300198904:32)
+and:01(115689145:2O.@entry, 107402519:2I)
+mod(102861886:50.@def, 100328502:4U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10235]
+{org:en}
+It is known that long-term rain, snow fall, and river inundation may provoke a landslide motion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200594337:06.@entry, 200794079:24.@topic.@may)
+mod:01(115691092:1L.@entry, 109411430:1F)
+mod(107163593:2O.@indef, 107405411:2E)
+obj(200594337:06.@entry, 200794079:24.@topic.@may)
+mod:01(115691092:1L.@entry, 109411430:1F)
+mod(107163593:2O.@indef, 107405411:2E)
+obj(200794079:24.@topic.@may, 107163593:2O.@indef)
+aoj:01(303161456:0K, 105045208:0U)
+agt(200794079:24.@topic.@may, :01.@topic)
+and:01(115694427:10, 105045208:0U)
+and:01(115694427:10, 105045208:0U)
+and:01(115691092:1L.@entry, 115694427:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10236]
+{org:en}
+The displacement of the landslide downwards leads to the local rise of the sea level above the landslide (Figure 4).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(202774203:18.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj(600000072:2D, 105132340:23.@def)
+man(100209446:04.@def, 115695097:0Y)
+cnt(202774203:18.@entry, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj(600000072:2D, 105132340:23.@def)
+man(100209446:04.@def, 115695097:0Y)
+bas(600000072:2D, 107405411:2N.@def)
+obj(202774203:18.@entry, 100324384:1R.@def)
+aoj(301106405:1L, 100324384:1R.@def)
+aoj(202774203:18.@entry, 100209446:04.@def)
+mod(100324384:1R.@def, 105132340:23.@def)
+mod(100324384:1R.@def, 105132340:23.@def)
+obj(100209446:04.@def, 107405411:0O.@def)
+mod:01(100556992:2Y.@entry.@def, "4":35)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10237]
+{org:en}
+Figure 4.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:00.@entry, "4.":07)
+mod(100556992:00.@entry, "4.":07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10238]
+{org:en}
+Schematic picture of the tsunami generation by the landslide motion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{org:en}
+In the last few years, landslide tsunamis induced by the failure of coastal constructions has assumed great importance.
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+So, the tsunami in the harbor of Nice, France on October 16, 1979 generated by the sliding and failure of the sea-wall initiated waves several meters in height and caused fatalities.
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+The submarine landslide associated with the dock failure in Skagway Harbor, Alaska on November 3, 1994 gave rise to a series of large-amplitude tsunami waves with maximum wave heights of 9-11 meters at the shoreline.
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+The tsunami killed one person and destroyed many harbor structures.
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+As shown in the recent studies, the influence of landslides in some catastrophic tsunamis induced by earthquakes is much greater than was believed before.
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+In specific cases, a landslide induced by an earthquake may amplify action of the tsunami wave.
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+For this reason, the July 17, 1998 tsunami near Papua New Guinea (wave height: 10 meters, fatalities: 2182) proved to be more damaging than could be expected from an earthquake with a magnitude of HTM1.
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+This paradox was explained by amplification of the tsunami due to a submarine landslide just after the earthquake.
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+{org:en}
+A connection has recently been revealed between submarine landslides and the tide.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The majority of landslide tsunamis occur at a time of extreme low tide.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Eruption of a submarine volcano as a cause of tsunamis
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+The explosions of volcanic islands and explosive eruptions of submarine volcanoes may give rise to great disturbances of the ocean's surface.
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+The explosion of Krakatau in Indonesia on August 26, 1883 induced a tsunami wave that was estimated to be 30 meters high in the Zond strait and 0.5-1.0 meters at the South American shoreline (fatalities nearly reached 36 000).
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+The explosion of Tire Island 36 centuries ago has been attributed to the rise of a destructive tsunami that ruined and killed the mythical Atlantis.
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10255]
+{org:en}
+Of a list of 933 active burning volcanoes around the world, 195 are submarine volcanoes.
+{/org}
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+[S:10256]
+{org:en}
+During a submarine volcanic eruption, gaseous products form a gas bubble in the water.
+{/org}
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+mod(102909053:1U.@indef, 114481080:1Q)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10257]
+{org:en}
+This bubble, containing high-temperature volcanic fumes and steam at high pressure, expands and rises to the water surface to cause local elevation of the sea level.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:10258]
+{org:en}
+This formation is similar to the dome or the plume of an underwater explosion.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10259]
+{org:en}
+The energy accumulated in the gas bubble changes into kinetic energy of the water, and then it gives rise to the tsunami wave.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10260]
+{org:en}
+The gas bubble may take the form of a sphere (central volcano eruption) or of a cylinder (fissure eruption).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10261]
+{org:en}
+The estimations of some volcano eruption parameters (Miyodzin, Japan, 1952; Mt. St. Augustine Volcano, Alaska, 1883) and developed calculation techniques showed that intense eruption (with energy of the order of HTM1 ) at a depth of 600 meters may create a dome with a diameter of 20 km.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10262]
+{org:en}
+An elevation of such size is able to generate only a local tsunami, but the danger of volcano-created tsunamis for neighboring populated areas and for navigation should be taken into account.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10263]
+{org:en}
+Tsunamis created by atmospheric disturbances.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10264]
+{org:en}
+The intensive long wave oscillations of the ocean level caused by meteorological perturbation are known as meteotsunami.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10265]
+{org:en}
+The occurrence of such tsunamis is due to the propagation of great atmospheric waves, with the passing of a cold atmospheric front (squall) and also with a deep cyclone, typhoon, or a hurricane.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10266]
+{org:en}
+The resonance conditions of generation of the long waves or the coincidence of the atmospheric disturbance velocity with the velocity of the long gravity water wave (see formula (1) in 1.1) are responsible to the formation of a meteotsunami.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10267]
+{org:en}
+;From observations it follows that propagation of abrupt change in atmospheric pressure with a velocity of 70-140 HTM1 gave rise meteotsunamis with the wave height of more than 1 meter and a period of 30-60 minutes.from observations it follows that propagation of abrupt change in atmospheric pressure with a velocity of 70-140 km/h gave rise to meteotsunamis with the wave height of more than 1 meter and a period of 30-60 minutes.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10268]
+{org:en}
+In Nagasaki bay, the sudden oscillations of the water level with amplitude of 2 meters caused by oscillations in atmospheric pressure with a 35-minute period have the local name "abiki," and are believed to be dangerous.
+{/org}
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+obj(201645601:2F.@past, 105098311:1T)
+cnt(101139636:4T.@def, 500323972:4Z.@double_quote)
+aoj(600000019:3Q, 111429458:35)
+obj(200683280:5F.@entry, 300651039:5U)
+qua(106506315:40, "35":3X)
+obj(600000019:1O, 105098311:1T)
+aoj(301106405:4N, 101139636:4T.@def)
+qua(106506315:40, "35":3X)
+obj(600000019:1O, 105098311:1T)
+aoj(301106405:4N, 101139636:4T.@def)
+plc(107345166:2P.@pl, 111429458:35)
+aoj(200065370:4E, 107345166:0S.@topic.@def.@pl)
+qua(103753077:28.@pl, "2":26)
+aoj(301143279:0L, 107345166:0S.@topic.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10269]
+{org:en}
+The typical length of low-frequency acoustic waves in the atmosphere is several kilometers and may sometimes reach 1000 km (the Krakatau explosion or Tungusska meteorite fall).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200743344:31.@entry.@may, 113659760:28.@pl)
+aoj(113659760:28.@pl, 103656231:0C.@topic.@def)
+qua(115669024:3C, "1000":37)
+mod(115690753:10.@pl, 113598237:0Q)
+man(200743344:31.@entry.@may, 400021878:2R)
+aoj(301595440:04, 103656231:0C.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(109352849:4G, 500323938:46)
+aoj(113659760:28.@pl, 103656231:0C.@topic.@def)
+qua(115669024:3C, "1000":37)
+mod(115690753:10.@pl, 113598237:0Q)
+man(200743344:31.@entry.@may, 400021878:2R)
+aoj(301595440:04, 103656231:0C.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(109352849:4G, 500323938:46)
+gol(200743344:31.@entry.@may, 115669024:3C)
+mod(103656231:0C.@topic.@def, 115690753:10.@pl)
+mod:01(100076884:4Q.@entry.@def, 109352849:4G)
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+qua(113659760:28.@pl, 600000059:20)
+or:01(100076884:4Q.@entry.@def, 100377364:3T)
+qua(113659760:28.@pl, 600000059:20)
+or:01(100076884:4Q.@entry.@def, 100377364:3T)
+aoj(301206474:0M, 113598237:0Q)
+cnt(200743344:31.@entry.@may, :01.@parenthesis)
+plc(115690753:10.@pl, 108499057:1M.@def)
+mod:01(100377364:3T, 500005149:3K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10270]
+{org:en}
+Similar waves are activated by resonance conditions of generation of long gravity water waves and may create a tsunami propagating to a long distance.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201640207:2U.@entry.@may, 200190682:0I)
+aoj(300015589:1X, 100346095:2G.@pl)
+obj(200190682:0I, 100346095:08.@topic.@pl)
+agt(200055539:3B.@progress, 107349299:33.@indef)
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+aoj(300015589:1X, 100346095:2G.@pl)
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+mod(105798863:15.@pl, 104988258:0V)
+gol(201640207:2U.@entry.@may, 107349299:33.@indef)
+aoj(301409581:00, 100346095:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105798863:15.@pl, 100849982:1J)
+agt(201640207:2U.@entry.@may, 100346095:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100346095:2G.@pl, 115692780:22)
+agt(200190682:0I, 105798863:15.@pl)
+mod(100346095:2G.@pl, 115692780:22)
+agt(200190682:0I, 105798863:15.@pl)
+gol(200055539:3B.@progress, 106274092:3S.@indef)
+mod(100849982:1J, 100346095:2G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10271]
+{org:en}
+Tsunami generated by the impact of a cosmic body into the ocean.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201627355:0D.@past, 107349299:05.@entry)
+to(102861886:1D.@indef, 109376198:1R.@def)
+to(102861886:1D.@indef, 109376198:1R.@def)
+mod(107338552:0U.@def, 102861886:1D.@indef)
+agt(201627355:0D.@past, 107338552:0U.@def)
+aoj(115691701:16, 102861886:1D.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10272]
+{org:en}
+The possibility of a destructive tsunami occurring due to the impact of a large meteorite, asteroids and bolides into the ocean has been discussed recently and is of special interest in society.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100431552:4U.@entry, 202774210:3T.@complete)
+mod(107338552:1Q.@def, :01)
+man(202774210:3T.@complete, 400107416:43)
+aoj(301678729:4M, 100431552:4U.@entry)
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+aoj(300586183:0L, 107349299:0X.@indef)
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+aoj(301678729:4M, 100431552:4U.@entry)
+and:01(109208702:2J.@pl, 109352849:28.@indef)
+aoj(300586183:0L, 107349299:0X.@indef)
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+mod(105792010:04.@topic.@def, 107349299:0X.@indef)
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+mod(105792010:04.@topic.@def, 107349299:0X.@indef)
+obj(202774210:3T.@complete, 105792010:04.@topic.@def)
+aoj:01(300527870:22, 109352849:28.@indef)
+rsn(200723349:15.@progress, 107338552:1Q.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10273]
+{org:en}
+Many geological structures in the shape of rings and circles discovered on all continents have been explained only in the last 30-40 years as traces of a crater from the impact of celestial body with the Earth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200939277:2S.@entry.@complete, 104931965:0G.@topic.@pl)
+plc(200721437:1P.@past, 109254614:27.@pl)
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+qua(115201505:3P.@def.@pl, :01:01)
+aoj(302905591:05, 104931965:0G.@topic.@pl)
+man(200939277:2S.@entry.@complete, 600000061:3V)
+aoj(600000261:0Y, 104931965:0G.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104462407:3Y.@pl, 109259219:4A.@indef)
+plc(200721437:1P.@past, 109254614:27.@pl)
+mod(107338552:4Q.@def, 109239740:50)
+qua(115201505:3P.@def.@pl, :01:01)
+aoj(302905591:05, 104931965:0G.@topic.@pl)
+man(200939277:2S.@entry.@complete, 600000061:3V)
+aoj(600000261:0Y, 104931965:0G.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104462407:3Y.@pl, 109259219:4A.@indef)
+and:02(103032811:1H.@entry.@pl, 104092609:17.@pl)
+man(200939277:2S.@entry.@complete, 400535197:32)
+obj(600000019:5F, 108562067:5O.@def)
+obj(600000061:3V, 104462407:3Y.@pl)
+obj(200721437:1P.@past, :02:02)
+tim(200939277:2S.@entry.@complete, 115201505:3P.@def.@pl)
+mod(109254614:27.@pl, 300521584:23)
+aoj(600000019:5F, 109239740:50)
+fmt:01("40":3M.@entry, "30":3J)
+mod(109254614:27.@pl, 300521584:23)
+aoj(600000019:5F, 109239740:50)
+fmt:01("40":3M.@entry, "30":3J)
+obj(600000261:0Y, :02)
+mod(115201505:3P.@def.@pl, 300004296:3E)
+qua(104931965:0G.@topic.@pl, 600000028:00)
+frm(109259219:4A.@indef, 107338552:4Q.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10274]
+{org:en}
+Such structures are called " HTM1 astroblema HTM2 " - the starry wound - and contain shock-metamorphosed rock (the traces of 1 million atmosphere of pressure!) and connected with diamond content deposits.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201069190:48.@past.@entry, 104931965:05.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104931965:05.@topic.@pl, 600001411:00)
+agt(200384055:27.@past, 101172252:21)
+obj(202701210:1T, 100348008:2L)
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+and(201069190:48.@past.@entry, 202701210:1T)
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+mod(100372448:53.@pl, 105809192:4V)
+mod:01(104462407:2V.@entry.@def.@pl, 108499057:3F)
+mod(100372448:53.@pl, 105809192:4V)
+gol(200107231:0K, 115691995:0S.@double_quote)
+aoj(202701210:1T, 104931965:05.@topic.@pl)
+qua:01("1000000":37, "1":35)
+obj(200384055:27.@past, 100348008:2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10275]
+{org:en}
+Over 150 similar crater-like objects with a size from 1.2 km (Arizona crater, USA) to 100 km (Popiguy astroblema, East Siberia, Russia) have been found on the Earth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200715239:42.@entry.@complete, 100002684:0T.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(115691995:2U, 500324242:2M)
+frm(105095691:18.@indef, 115669024:1M)
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+and:02(500323518:26.@entry, 109259219:1Y)
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+and:02(500323518:26.@entry, 109259219:1Y)
+obj(600000019:11, 105095691:18.@indef)
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+qua(115669024:1M, "1.2":1I)
+bas(600000082:00, "150":05)
+and:01(500004285:3K.@entry, 500323809:36)
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+cnt(115669024:1M, :02.@parenthesis)
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+cnt(115669024:1M, :02.@parenthesis)
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+qua(115669024:2I, "100":2E)
+aoj(301409581:09, 100002684:0T.@topic.@pl)
+mod:02(109259219:1Y, 101733346:1Q)
+to(105095691:18.@indef, 115669024:2I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10276]
+{org:en}
+As around 70 percent of meteorites impact into ocean, the bottom of the world ocean apparently retains the traces of hundreds of shocks created by catastrophes of a planetary scale.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(200610010:2N.@entry, 201343482:0Z)
+mod(109376198:26.@def, 105670972:20)
+obj(201640207:3S.@past, 101172252:3L.@pl)
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+obj(201640207:3S.@past, 101172252:3L.@pl)
+bas(600000197:03, "70":0A)
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+mod(111434016:43.@pl, 115695849:4L.@indef)
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+obj(201343482:0Z, 109376198:1B)
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+agt(200610010:2N.@entry, 102878222:1M.@topic.@def)
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+mod(101172252:3L.@pl, 115695372:39)
+agt(201343482:0Z, 109352849:0O.@topic.@pl)
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+mod(104462407:2Z.@def.@pl, 101172252:3L.@pl)
+qua(115689109:0D, 600000197:03)
+mod(102878222:1M.@topic.@def, 109376198:26.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10277]
+{org:en}
+Specialists believe that a cosmic body between 50 - 100 meters (such as the Tungusska meteorite, 1908) fall to the Earth once every 50 - 100 years.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200683280:0C.@entry, 200147815:2V)
+aoj(600000024:13, 102861886:0Y.@topic.@indef)
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+mod:03(109352849:2E.@def, 500323938:24)
+agt(200683280:0C.@entry, 110631941:00.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(115691701:0R, 102861886:0Y.@topic.@indef)
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+aoj(115691701:0R, 102861886:0Y.@topic.@indef)
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+gol(200147815:2V, 108562067:37.@def)
+fmt:01("100":1G.@entry, "50":1B)
+aoj(:03.@parenthesis, 102861886:0Y.@topic.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10278]
+{org:en}
+Events like Revelstoke bolide (1965) with a diameter of 10-20 meters may occur annually.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200723349:21.@entry.@may, 100029378:00.@topic.@pl)
+fmt:01("20":1N.@entry, "10":1K)
+tim(111484260:0N, "1965":0V.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000058:07, 111484260:0N)
+qua(105101815:18.@indef, 103753077:1Q.@pl)
+fmt:01("20":1N.@entry, "10":1K)
+tim(111484260:0N, "1965":0V.@parenthesis)
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+aoj(600000058:07, 100029378:00.@topic.@pl)
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+man(200723349:21.@entry.@may, 400081737:27)
+mod(111484260:0N, 500324260:0C)
+mod(111484260:0N, 500324260:0C)
+aoj(600000019:11, 111484260:0N)
+qua(103753077:1Q.@pl, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10279]
+{org:en}
+;According to hydrodynamic evaluations, the fall of an asteroid with a diameter of 100 meters and a velocity of 20 km HTM1 into the ocean gives rise to tsunami waves over 8 meters high at 1000 km from the source.according to hydrodynamic evaluations, the fall of an asteroid with a diameter of 100 meters and a velocity of 20 km/s into the ocean gives rise to tsunami waves over 8 meters high at 1000 km from the source.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774441:3S.@entry, 600000046:00)
+qua:01(115692212:36, "20":33)
+qua(115669024:5B, "1000":56)
+plf(300705498:4Y, 104263614:5N.@def)
+qua:01(115689301:2R.@entry.@indef, 115692212:36)
+aoj(300705498:4Y, 100346095:4E.@pl)
+obj(600000019:1R, :01)
+qua(103753077:4R.@pl, 600000082:4K)
+qua:01(115692212:36, "20":33)
+qua(115669024:5B, "1000":56)
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+qua:01(103753077:2E.@pl, "100":2A)
+obj(202774441:3S.@entry, 100346095:4E.@pl)
+aoj(302979995:0D, 100874806:0Q.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:1R, 109208702:1I.@indef)
+man(300705498:4Y, 103753077:4R.@pl)
+qua:01(105101815:1Y.@indef, 103753077:2E.@pl)
+agt(202774441:3S.@entry, 100076884:17.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000046:00, 100874806:0Q.@pl)
+mod(100076884:17.@topic.@def, 109208702:1I.@indef)
+plc(300705498:4Y, 115669024:5B)
+obj(600000046:00, 100874806:0Q.@pl)
+mod(100076884:17.@topic.@def, 109208702:1I.@indef)
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+and:01(115689301:2R.@entry.@indef, 105101815:1Y.@indef)
+mod(100346095:4E.@pl, 107349299:46)
+to(109208702:1I.@indef, 109376198:3M.@def)
+bas(600000082:4K, "8":4P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10280]
+{org:en}
+;The present-day concept of underwater explosion physics and the results of nuclear tests in the Pacific allow us to estimate the energy released due to fall of a meteorite (diameter 100 m, velocity 20 HTM1 ) into the ocean.the present-day concept of underwater explosion physics and the results of nuclear tests in the Pacific allow us to estimate the energy released due to fall of a meteorite (diameter 100 m, velocity 20 km/s) into the ocean.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200723545:2W.@entry, :02.@topic)
+mod:02(106090869:1C, 100377364:12)
+qua:01(115689301:59.@entry, 115692212:5L)
+rsn(201757994:3S.@past, 100076884:48)
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+obj(200672433:38, 104633197:3L.@def)
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+gol(200723545:2W.@entry, 600000005:32)
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+and:01(115689301:59.@entry, 105101815:4T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10281]
+{org:en}
+The energy of the impact is approximately equal to HTM1 , or one thousand megaton bombs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300889831:16.@entry, 104633197:04.@topic.@def)
+qua:01(113647353:23, "1000":1U)
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+qua:01(102866578:2B.@pl.@entry, 113647353:23)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10282]
+{org:en}
+The gaseous products of the explosion (or high-temperature products of melting and evaporating of matter after the impact) may form a bubble in the water with a radius of around 3 km.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10283]
+{org:en}
+Hence, it follows that because of the meteorite falling into a basin less than 3 km deep, a large volume of water is removed from the basin (by means of ejection and evaporation) that must lead to denudation of the bottom over an area of much larger than 1 km
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10284]
+{org:en}
+Figure 5
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:79.@entry, "5":7G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10285]
+{org:en}
+Figure 5.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:00.@entry, "5":07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10286]
+{org:en}
+Schematic drawing of tsunami generation by meteorite fall.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10287]
+{org:en}
+The surface water wave (or ring-shaped water plume) produced at the crater boundary may reach heights of 50 meters.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10288]
+{org:en}
+The process of filling the cavity with water is believed to take a few minutes and may create oscillations on the water surface for a long time.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10289]
+{org:en}
+It is well known that nuclear tests in the Pacific during the "Baker" and "Wigwam" projects (output of 20 kiloton and 30 kiloton) produced a wave 28 meters high at 1 km from the explosion point.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301376705:06.@entry, 201621555:3M.@topic.@past)
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+mod(103974215:58.@def, 100377364:4Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10290]
+{org:en}
+Estimations show that the fall of a meteorite into the ocean may lead to a very intensive and long-term disturbance of the water surface that is able to generate a tsunami wave on a global scale.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10291]
+{org:en}
+If a celestial body were to fall into the Mediterranean Sea, characterized by a populous shore and a vast shelf, the results of the impact could be comparable only with the great flood.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10292]
+{org:en}
+In the opinion of the author, the existence of a similar version of the biblical flood seems plausible.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10293]
+{org:en}
+Decomposition of a gas hydrate as the possible cause of a tsunami
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100007347:1G.@def, 107349299:1R.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10294]
+{org:en}
+The fast emission of a large volume of gas out of the shelf gas-hydrate deposit has been discussed in recent years as among the real causes of tsunami occurrence.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(101253060:09.@topic.@def, 114481080:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10295]
+{org:en}
+Many of the components of natural gas (methane, ethane, hydrogen sulfide) in combination with water form gas-hydrate - solid crystal-granular material, much like pressed snow or splintered ice matter.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(114913518:1K.@entry, 114850826:1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10296]
+{org:en}
+The zone of gas hydrate stability is situated in the area of low temperature and high pressure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10297]
+{org:en}
+The point of the system phase equilibrium, while temperature increase is displaced to the high pressure field.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(103974215:04.@def.@entry, 202013571:21)
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+mod(100363260:1P.@topic, 105011790:1D)
+gol(202013571:21, 101097119:2W.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10298]
+{org:en}
+Under normal pressure (1 atmosphere), the critical temperature of gas hydrate is equal to 80 HTM1 , and under pressure of 30 atmospheres the system does not decompose even at 30 HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200209174:4I.@entry.@not, 300889831:29)
+aoj(300889831:29, 105011790:1F.@topic.@def)
+qua(HTM2:53, "30":50)
+mod(114910440:1Y, 114481080:1U)
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+qua(HTM1:2L, "80":2I)
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+obj(300889831:29, HTM1:2L)
+obj(600000003:31, 100113113:37)
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+man(300889831:29, 600000003:00)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10299]
+{org:en}
+At the same time, the temperature increasing at the pressure of near 1 atmosphere leads to the stable decomposition of the gas hydrate body.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774203:2A.@entry, 105011790:0M.@topic.@def)
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+mod(102861886:3R.@def, 114910440:3J)
+qua(100113113:1G.@def, 400535955:1S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10300]
+{org:en}
+One volume of the gas hydrate may contain up to 30 volumes of gas.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:0Y.@entry.@may, 104990220:04.@topic)
+mod(104990220:04.@topic, 114910440:0M.@def)
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+qua(104990220:04.@topic, "1":00)
+qua(104990220:1F.@pl, "30":1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10301]
+{org:en}
+Gas hydrate deposits have been found in the shelf areas of all oceans of the Earth, as well as under interior seas and lakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(:01, 300463917:2T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10302]
+{org:en}
+In the polar regions the gases in bottom sediments pass into the gas hydrate system from depths of 100-250 meters, whereas in the Tropics this process begins at 400 - 700 meters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200348746:47.@entry, 202049696:1F)
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+fmt:02("250":2V.@entry, "100":2R)
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+qua(103753077:4R.@pl, :01:01)
+qua(103753077:2Z.@pl, :02:02)
+src(202049696:1F, 105094725:2H.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10303]
+{org:en}
+The gas hydrate deposits occupy large areas
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202648639:0P.@entry, 100372448:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+obj(202648639:0P.@entry, 102735688:12.@pl)
+mod(114910440:08, 114481080:04)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10304]
+{org:en}
+a foreshore belt 80 km wide, and a few hundred of kilometers in length was detected at the continent slope of Alaska
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202154508:3C.@entry.@past, 201366061:1L)
+qua(115669024:1T, "80":1Q)
+scn(113659760:2N.@topic.@pl, 103656231:31)
+mod(109437454:42.@def, 500004503:4B)
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+mod(109437454:42.@def, 109254614:3S)
+obj(201366061:1L, 115669024:1T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10305]
+{org:en}
+;a similar zone off the Atlantic coast of the USA covers an area of 80 000 HTM1 , and a strip of 3000 HTM2 was found in the region of Northern California.a similar zone off the Atlantic coast of the USA covers an area of 80 000 square kilometer , and a strip of 3000 square kilometer was found in the region of Northern California.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200715239:2Z.@entry.@past, 200048633:1D)
+qua(115690839:22, "80000":1Y)
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+mod(105934029:0W.@def, 500323518:19.@def)
+qua(102735688:1N.@indef, 115690839:22)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10306]
+{org:en}
+The gas hydrate deposit may reach non-equilibrium and begin to decompose in response to a quick rise in temperature or a drop in pressure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200348746:1I.@entry, 200743344:0S.@may)
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+obj(200743344:0S.@may, 100372448:0G.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10307]
+{org:en}
+A micro-earthquake or tectonic motion creating the revival of the fault near the gas hydrate can lead to decomposition of the material.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774203:2P.@ability.@entry, :01.@topic)
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+or:01(107163593:0V.@indef.@entry, 115694050:02.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10308]
+{org:en}
+Current estimates show that the velocities of gas hydrate decomposition and gas exhalation are not great enough for tsunami generation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(301278818:2Y.@not, 600000248:34)
+mod:01(100835267:2B.@entry, 114481080:27)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10309]
+{org:en}
+At the same time, such gas emission may be a significant link in the unstable process of releasing gas-containing sediments.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103673971:1L.@entry.@may.@indef, 115690916:0N.@topic)
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+mod(115690916:0N.@topic, 600001411:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10310]
+{org:en}
+Large areas of gas hydrate deposits and great reserves of gas that may create hydrodynamical disturbance in the water basin attract the attention of tsunami researchers as a possible source of tsunami generation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+agt(201640207:26.@may, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10311]
+{org:en}
+A volcanic eruption, a meteorite impact, or a nuclear explosion may induce the gas hydrate decomposition and may increase probability of the tsunami generation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(:01.@entry, :02)
+mod:02(107338552:10.@indef.@topic, 109352849:0Q)
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+or:02(107338552:10.@indef.@topic, 115693208:05.@indef.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10312]
+{org:en}
+Quite recently the presence of free gas was discovered just below the floor of the gas hydrate zone stability.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10313]
+{org:en}
+The free gas reserves, characterized by thickness of about 30 meters and pressure of around 100 atmospheres, in the event of gas breakthrough, may be a sizable object capable of generating a destructive tsunami.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10314]
+{org:en}
+Consequences of tsunamis and kindred phenomena
+{/org}
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+mod:01(100034213:14.@entry, 115692862:0W)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10315]
+{org:en}
+Over the course of history, tsunamis have been responsible for the deaths of millions of people.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10316]
+{org:en}
+Below are some of the most striking examples from ancient and recent history connected with tsunamis.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(300566099:2C, 600000018:2M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10317]
+{org:en}
+The explosion of Santorini Volcano and resulting tsunami destroyed the Crete-Mycenean civilization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:01(200340704:16.@progress, 107349299:1G.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10318]
+{org:en}
+The disappearance of Atlantis and the biblical flood are believed to be linked with a catastrophic tsunami in the Mediterranean Sea.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301161635:2L, 107349299:2Y.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10319]
+{org:en}
+The Kamchatka earthquake of October 6, 1737 produced a tsunami with a maximum height of inundation of around 60 meters and many were killed.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10320]
+{org:en}
+The results of the Kamchatka tsunami of November 5, 1952, when the city Severo-Kurilsk on Paramushir Island was destroyed totally and 1753 people were killed by tsunami waves of over 15 meters were first published by V. Kaistrenko and V. Sedaeva in 1999.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10321]
+{org:en}
+When a giant volume of ice-rock material crashed into the water of the Lituya Bay, Alaska on July 9, 1958, over wash or run-up of the enormous tsunami wave rose up to 525 meters!
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10322]
+{org:en}
+Waves of the recent Shikotan tsunami of October 4, 1994 reached 8-10 meters in several harbors of Shikotan and Kunashir Islands.
+{/org}
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+mod(100346095:00.@topic.@pl, 107349299:0T.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10323]
+{org:en}
+The ocean has always been a source of food for humankind, and quite possibly was its progenitor.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(110126806:2D.@entry.@past, 104263614:0S.@complete.@indef)
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+man(104263614:0S.@complete.@indef, 400019339:0E)
+man(400300247:1W, 400535312:1Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10324]
+{org:en}
+And yet, the ocean is a powerful force that demands understanding of and respect for the elements.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(105035353:0X.@entry.@indef, 400027795:04)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10325]
+{org:en}
+UNESCO declared 1998 the Year of Ocean, and held a festival in Lisbon.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10326]
+{org:en}
+If we remember the 1755 great earthquake and tsunami of Lisbon, we see that the ocean gave the population of the Portuguese capital a terrible lesson (casualties over 60 000).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10327]
+{org:en}
+A picture of complete destruction was stored in the people's memory for a long time (see Figure 1).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10328]
+{org:en}
+There is nothing to prevent tsunamis and their destructive motion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(113846708:09.@entry, 400109151:00)
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+pur(113846708:09.@entry, 202450505:0K)
+mod:01(107163593:1Q.@entry, 600000020:18.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10329]
+{org:en}
+Buildings, docks, railway bridges, coaches, tanks, bulldozers, and large trees may be washed away by such a wave.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200036178:2L.@entry.@may, :01:01)
+and:01(102916179:1I.@pl.@topic, 104388743:1B.@pl.@topic)
+mod(100346095:37.@indef, 600001411:30)
+and:01(115694274:0L.@pl.@topic, 102158972:0E.@pl.@topic)
+and:01(102916179:1I.@pl.@topic, 104388743:1B.@pl.@topic)
+mod(100346095:37.@indef, 600001411:30)
+and:01(115694274:0L.@pl.@topic, 102158972:0E.@pl.@topic)
+man(200036178:2L.@entry.@may, 600000246:2S)
+and:01(103055670:12.@pl.@topic, 115694274:0L.@pl.@topic)
+agt(200036178:2L.@entry.@may, 100346095:37.@indef)
+and:01(104388743:1B.@pl.@topic, 103055670:12.@pl.@topic)
+and:01(104388743:1B.@pl.@topic, 103055670:12.@pl.@topic)
+and:01(115695534:1Y.@entry.@pl.@topic, 102916179:1I.@pl.@topic)
+and:01(102158972:0E.@pl.@topic, 102913152:03.@pl.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10330]
+{org:en}
+When the first wave goes out from the coast, survivors go down to the sea to help the victims and save property.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(201099866:1J.@entry, 200352419:0K)
+obj:01(200549552:2T.@entry, 104012260:2Y)
+gol(201099866:1J.@entry, 109426788:1Y.@def)
+src(200352419:0K, 105934029:12.@def)
+obj:01(200549552:2T.@entry, 104012260:2Y)
+gol(201099866:1J.@entry, 109426788:1Y.@def)
+src(200352419:0K, 105934029:12.@def)
+pur(201099866:1J.@entry, :01:01)
+obj(200352419:0K, 100346095:0F.@topic.@def)
+obj(201099866:1J.@entry, 101324142:19.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(200082081:28, 110752093:2H.@def.@pl)
+obj:01(200082081:28, 110752093:2H.@def.@pl)
+and:01(200549552:2T.@entry, 200082081:28)
+aoj(300228294:09, 100346095:0F.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10331]
+{org:en}
+At that moment, the second giant wave comes to the coast, and the following waves strike a blow finishing the scene of destruction.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200143540:2A.@entry, 200341917:12)
+mod(100346095:0X.@topic.@def, "2":0K.@ordinal)
+mod(104144782:32.@def, 100217014:3B)
+agt(200351963:2O.@progress, 100835501:2J.@indef)
+agt(200341917:12, 100346095:0X.@topic.@def)
+mod(100346095:0X.@topic.@def, "2":0K.@ordinal)
+mod(104144782:32.@def, 100217014:3B)
+agt(200351963:2O.@progress, 100835501:2J.@indef)
+agt(200341917:12, 100346095:0X.@topic.@def)
+obj(200143540:2A.@entry, 100835501:2J.@indef)
+mod(106022509:08, 600000936:03)
+tim(200341917:12, 106022509:08)
+agt(200143540:2A.@entry, 100346095:24.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(100346095:0X.@topic.@def, 303158551:0R)
+mod(100346095:24.@topic.@def.@pl, 108223263:1U)
+mod(100346095:0X.@topic.@def, 303158551:0R)
+mod(100346095:24.@topic.@def.@pl, 108223263:1U)
+obj(200351963:2O.@progress, 104144782:32.@def)
+gol(200341917:12, 105934029:1F.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10332]
+{org:en}
+In half an hour the raging elements turn the populous shore into ruins.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(200125841:10.@entry, 115695336:03)
+aoj(301512804:0K, 105868954:0R.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200125841:10.@entry, 104204468:1I.@def)
+aoj(301512804:0K, 105868954:0R.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200125841:10.@entry, 104204468:1I.@def)
+gol(200125841:10.@entry, 104118635:1T.@pl)
+agt(200125841:10.@entry, 105868954:0R.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301312376:19, 104204468:1I.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10333]
+{org:en}
+Here are some examples of consequences of tsunamis.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:05.@entry, 105820620:0E.@pl)
+qua(105820620:0E.@pl, 600000034:09)
+qua(105820620:0E.@pl, 600000034:09)
+mod(105820620:0E.@pl, 105170574:0Q.@pl)
+man(202603699:05.@entry, 400108479:00)
+mod(105170574:0Q.@pl, 107349299:16.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10334]
+{org:en}
+The earthquake of June 18, 1780 at the Kurile Islands (with a magnitude of M=8.5) and resulting tsunami caused great damage to Ketoj Isl., Simushir Isl., and Urup Isl.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201645601:33.@entry.@past, :03)
+obj:03(200340704:2H.@progress, 107349299:2R.@entry)
+mod:01(500323572:4T.@entry, 500323950:4O)
+tim:03(115211806:0L, "1780":0U)
+gol(100403092:3G, :01)
+tim:03(107428954:07.@def.@topic, "18":0Q)
+mod:01(500323572:3Z, 500324142:3T)
+obj:03(200340704:2H.@progress, 107349299:2R.@entry)
+mod:01(500323572:4T.@entry, 500323950:4O)
+tim:03(115211806:0L, "1780":0U)
+gol(100403092:3G, :01)
+tim:03(107428954:07.@def.@topic, "18":0Q)
+mod:01(500323572:3Z, 500324142:3T)
+aoj(301278818:3A, 100403092:3G)
+plc:03(107428954:07.@def.@topic, 500323714:16.@def)
+mod:01(500323572:4E, 500324291:45)
+qua:02(106832464:26, 105090441:1T.@indef)
+obj(201645601:33.@entry.@past, 100403092:3G)
+aoj:03(:02.@parenthesis, 107428954:07.@def)
+and:01(500323572:4E, 500323572:3Z)
+aoj:03(:02.@parenthesis, 107428954:07.@def)
+and:01(500323572:4E, 500323572:3Z)
+obj:02(600000018:1M.@entry, 106832464:26)
+and:01(500323572:4T.@entry, 500323572:4E)
+tim:03("18":0Q, 115211806:0L)
+and:03(107349299:2R.@entry.@topic, 107428954:07.@def.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10335]
+{org:en}
+The maximum height of the tsunami in Aleutka Bay, Urup Island, was about 12 meters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(115691826:04.@topic.@def, 600000076:1V.@past.@entry)
+plc(500323768:11, 500324340:1E)
+mod(115691826:04.@topic.@def, 107349299:0Q.@def)
+plc(500323768:11, 500324340:1E)
+mod(115691826:04.@topic.@def, 107349299:0Q.@def)
+qua(103753077:24.@pl, "12":21)
+bas(600000076:1V.@past.@entry, 103753077:24.@pl)
+plc(107349299:0Q.@def, 500323768:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10336]
+{org:en}
+at other islands, the tsunami waves reached 3-10 meters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200743344:3C.@entry.@past, 115692201:2L)
+mod(100346095:36.@topic.@def.@pl, 107349299:2Y)
+qua(103753077:3P.@pl, :01:01)
+mod(100346095:36.@topic.@def.@pl, 107349299:2Y)
+qua(103753077:3P.@pl, :01:01)
+gol(200743344:3C.@entry.@past, 103753077:3P.@pl)
+obj(200743344:3C.@entry.@past, 100346095:36.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(115692201:2L, 600000031:2F)
+mod(115692201:2L, 600000031:2F)
+fmt:01("10":3M.@entry, "3":3K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10337]
+{org:en}
+All buildings were destroyed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201326528:0J.@entry.@past, 102913152:04.@topic.@pl)
+mod(102913152:04.@topic.@pl, 300521584:00)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10338]
+{org:en}
+The Russian ship "St. Natalia" was carried inland 400 meters from the coast.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200235110:0Z.@entry.@past, 104194289:0C.@topic.@def)
+aoj(302957276:04, 104194289:0C.@topic.@def)
+bas(400258360:17, 105934029:1Y.@def)
+aoj(302957276:04, 104194289:0C.@topic.@def)
+bas(400258360:17, 105934029:1Y.@def)
+man(400258360:17, 103753077:1I.@pl)
+man(200235110:0Z.@entry.@past, 400258360:17)
+nam(104194289:0C.@topic.@def, 500324298:0I.@double_quote)
+nam(104194289:0C.@topic.@def, 500324298:0I.@double_quote)
+qua(103753077:1I.@pl, "400":1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10339]
+{org:en}
+There were 12 deaths.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:00.@past.@entry, 100219575:0E.@pl)
+qua(100219575:0E.@pl, "12":0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10340]
+{org:en}
+The tsunami created by the Urup earthquake (M=8.25) of September 8, 1918 gave rise to a wave 12 meters high.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202774441:21.@entry.@past, 107349299:04.@topic.@def)
+tim("8":1T, 115212739:1J)
+obj(201640207:0C.@past, 107349299:04.@topic.@def)
+man(300705498:2V, 103753077:2O.@pl)
+cnt(107428954:0W.@def, 500324164:18.@parenthesis)
+tim("8":1T, 115212739:1J)
+obj(201640207:0C.@past, 107349299:04.@topic.@def)
+man(300705498:2V, 103753077:2O.@pl)
+cnt(107428954:0W.@def, 500324164:18.@parenthesis)
+aoj(300705498:2V, 100346095:2G.@indef)
+tim(107428954:0W.@def, "8":1T)
+obj(202774441:21.@entry.@past, 100346095:2G.@indef)
+tim(115212739:1J, "1918":1W)
+agt(201640207:0C.@past, 107428954:0W.@def)
+tim(115212739:1J, "1918":1W)
+agt(201640207:0C.@past, 107428954:0W.@def)
+qua(103753077:2O.@pl, "12":2L)
+plc(107428954:0W.@def, 500323950:0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10341]
+{org:en}
+Twenty three people were killed, and 7 seriously injured.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(301317954:1D.@past.@entry, 200355177:0P.@past)
+qua(107942152:0D.@topic, "23":00)
+qua(:13.@topic, "7":11)
+qua(107942152:0D.@topic, "23":00)
+qua(:13.@topic, "7":11)
+man(301317954:1D.@past.@entry, 115693092:13)
+aoj(301317954:1D.@past.@entry, :13.@topic)
+obj(200355177:0P.@past, 107942152:0D.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10342]
+{org:en}
+All buildings, ships and boats were swept away.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201100952:17.@entry.@past, :01:01.@topic)
+and:01(102858304:0S.@entry.@pl, 104194289:0I.@pl)
+and:01(102858304:0S.@entry.@pl, 104194289:0I.@pl)
+mod(:01.@topic, 300521584:00)
+man(201100952:17.@entry.@past, 600000246:1D)
+and:01(104194289:0I.@pl, 102913152:07.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10343]
+{org:en}
+At Iturup Island the tsunami's height was 6 meters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(103753077:18.@entry.@past.@pl, 115695451:03)
+mod(105137165:0V.@topic.@def, 107349299:0L)
+mod(105137165:0V.@topic.@def, 107349299:0L)
+qua(103753077:18.@entry.@past.@pl, "6":16)
+aoj(103753077:18.@entry.@past.@pl, 105137165:0V.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10344]
+{org:en}
+The tsunami of April 14, 1923 in Kamchatka Gulf propagated through the north-western coast and generated a maximum wave height of 20-30 meters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(:02.@entry, 107349299:04.@topic.@def)
+aoj:02(300824631:28, 105934029:2G)
+qua:02(103753077:3V.@pl, :01:01)
+nam(104753060:17, 500323574:0X)
+qua:02(105137165:3F.@indef, 103753077:3V.@pl)
+tim("14":0L, 115211189:0F)
+obj:02(600000026:1Q, 105934029:2G)
+aoj:02(300824631:28, 105934029:2G)
+qua:02(103753077:3V.@pl, :01:01)
+nam(104753060:17, 500323574:0X)
+qua:02(105137165:3F.@indef, 103753077:3V.@pl)
+tim("14":0L, 115211189:0F)
+obj:02(600000026:1Q, 105934029:2G)
+obj:02(201627355:2Q.@entry.@past, 105137165:3F.@indef)
+tim(107349299:04.@topic.@def, "14":0L)
+man:02(200055539:1F.@past, 600000026:1Q)
+and:02(201627355:2Q.@entry.@past, 200055539:1F.@past)
+plc(107349299:04.@topic.@def, 104753060:17)
+fmt:01("30":3S.@entry, "20":3P)
+plc(107349299:04.@topic.@def, 104753060:17)
+fmt:01("30":3S.@entry, "20":3P)
+mod:02(105137165:3F.@indef, 115694032:32)
+tim(115211189:0F, "1923":0P)
+mod:02(105934029:2G, 108561081:22.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10345]
+{org:en}
+The tsunami claimed 35 lives and caused damage worth an estimated 58 million gold rubles.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201645601:0X.@past.@entry, 200756076:0C.@past)
+qua("1000000":1X, "58":1U.@indef)
+qua(100006269:0N.@pl, "35":0K)
+agt(200756076:0C.@past, 107349299:04.@def)
+qua(113699076:2A.@pl, "1000000":1X)
+qua("1000000":1X, "58":1U.@indef)
+qua(100006269:0N.@pl, "35":0K)
+agt(200756076:0C.@past, 107349299:04.@def)
+qua(113699076:2A.@pl, "1000000":1X)
+obj(201645601:0X.@past.@entry, 100403092:14)
+obj(302502016:1B, 113699076:2A.@pl)
+agt(201645601:0X.@past.@entry, 107349299:04.@def)
+obj(200672433:1K.@past, 113699076:2A.@pl)
+aoj(302502016:1B, 100403092:14)
+obj(200672433:1K.@past, 113699076:2A.@pl)
+aoj(302502016:1B, 100403092:14)
+obj(200756076:0C.@past, 100006269:0N.@pl)
+aoj(301528730:25, 113699076:2A.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10346]
+{org:en}
+The earthquake and catastrophic tsunami of August 13, 1868 in the vicinity of Ariki, Peru turned the city of over 5000 residents into smooth sand and destroyed several neighboring cities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(:01.@entry, :02)
+aoj:01(300750926:40, 115019030:47)
+obj:01(200125841:2S.@past, 108226335:33.@def)
+tim("13":1L, 115212455:1E)
+qua:01(108226335:5A.@pl, 600000059:4Q)
+and:02(107349299:0Z.@entry.@topic.@def, 107428954:07.@topic.@def)
+qua:01(110523519:3L.@pl, 600000082:3B)
+aoj:01(300750926:40, 115019030:47)
+obj:01(200125841:2S.@past, 108226335:33.@def)
+tim("13":1L, 115212455:1E)
+qua:01(108226335:5A.@pl, 600000059:4Q)
+and:02(107349299:0Z.@entry.@topic.@def, 107428954:07.@topic.@def)
+qua:01(110523519:3L.@pl, 600000082:3B)
+plc(500323773:2D, 500004174:2K)
+obj:01(201326528:4G.@entry.@past, 108226335:5A.@pl)
+tim(:02, "13":1L)
+to:01(110523519:3L.@pl, 115019030:47)
+plc(115691948:21.@def, 500323773:2D)
+and:01(201326528:4G.@entry.@past, 200125841:2S.@past)
+plc(:02, 115691948:21.@def)
+mod:01(108226335:33.@def, 110523519:3L.@pl)
+plc(:02, 115691948:21.@def)
+mod:01(108226335:33.@def, 110523519:3L.@pl)
+tim(115212455:1E, "1868":1P)
+mod:01(108226335:5A.@pl, 303161866:4Y)
+aoj:02(301161635:0M, 107349299:0Z.@entry)
+bas:01(600000082:3B, "5000":3G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10347]
+{org:en}
+The US Navy ship "Wotery" was broken and adrift by a tsunami wave 14 meters high, and was carried inland 2 miles from the coast.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200235110:2I.@entry.@past, 200030463:0U.@past)
+aoj(300705498:24, 100346095:1P.@indef)
+qua(107469325:2Z.@pl, "2":2X)
+cnt(104194289:0C.@topic.@def, 500324361:0I.@double_quote)
+man(400258360:2Q, 107469325:2Z.@pl)
+qua(103753077:1X.@pl, "14":1U)
+aoj(300077059:15.@past, 104194289:0C.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300705498:24, 100346095:1P.@indef)
+qua(107469325:2Z.@pl, "2":2X)
+cnt(104194289:0C.@topic.@def, 500324361:0I.@double_quote)
+man(400258360:2Q, 107469325:2Z.@pl)
+qua(103753077:1X.@pl, "14":1U)
+aoj(300077059:15.@past, 104194289:0C.@topic.@def)
+man(200235110:2I.@entry.@past, 400258360:2Q)
+man(300705498:24, 103753077:1X.@pl)
+and(300077059:15.@past, 200030463:0U.@past)
+obj(200235110:2I.@entry.@past, 104194289:0C.@topic.@def)
+mod(100346095:1P.@indef, 107349299:1H)
+obj(200030463:0U.@past, 104194289:0C.@topic.@def)
+mod(100346095:1P.@indef, 107349299:1H)
+obj(200030463:0U.@past, 104194289:0C.@topic.@def)
+mod(108191701:07, 115689879:04)
+bas(400258360:2Q, 105934029:3E.@def)
+mod(104194289:0C.@topic.@def, 108191701:07)
+met(300077059:15.@past, 100346095:1P.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10348]
+{org:en}
+;Below, in Table 1, is a short summary of the last tsunamis of the HTM1 century.below, in table 1, is a short summary of the last tsunamis of the 20th century.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:27.@entry, 106467007:0U.@indef)
+aoj(300709021:0O, 106467007:0U.@indef)
+mod(104379243:0A, "1":0G)
+mod(115205532:1Z.@def, "20":1U.@ordinal)
+aoj(300709021:0O, 106467007:0U.@indef)
+mod(104379243:0A, "1":0G)
+mod(115205532:1Z.@def, "20":1U.@ordinal)
+plc(202603699:27.@entry, 104379243:0A)
+mod(107349299:1E.@def.@pl, 300004296:19)
+man(202603699:27.@entry, 400079866:00)
+tim(107349299:1E.@def.@pl, 115205532:1Z.@def)
+tim(107349299:1E.@def.@pl, 115205532:1Z.@def)
+mod(106467007:0U.@indef, 107349299:1E.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10349]
+{org:en}
+Table 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:00.@entry, "1.":06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10350]
+{org:en}
+;A short summary of the last tsunamis of the HTM1 century.a short summary of the last tsunamis of the 20th century.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106467007:0H.@indef.@entry, 107349299:11.@def.@pl)
+mod(107349299:11.@def.@pl, 300004296:0W)
+mod(107349299:11.@def.@pl, 300004296:0W)
+tim(107349299:11.@def.@pl, 115205532:1M.@def)
+aoj(300709021:0B, 106467007:0H.@indef.@entry)
+mod(115205532:1M.@def, "20":1H.@ordinal)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10351]
+{org:en}
+Tsunami catalogues and data bases number over 2300 events.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200235918:15.@entry, 100029378:1M.@pl)
+mod:01(115693427:0B.@pl, 107349299:03)
+bas(600000082:1C, "2300":1H)
+mod:01(115693427:0B.@pl, 107349299:03)
+bas(600000082:1C, "2300":1H)
+qua(100029378:1M.@pl, 600000082:1C)
+aoj(200235918:15.@entry, :01)
+and:01(106637824:0Q.@entry.@pl, 115693427:0B.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10352]
+{org:en}
+The consequences of tsunamis at coastline areas are well known.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301376705:1G.@entry, 105170574:04.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(102735688:16.@pl, 108613000:0W)
+mod(102735688:16.@pl, 108613000:0W)
+plc(107349299:0K.@pl, 102735688:16.@pl)
+mod(105170574:04.@topic.@def.@pl, 107349299:0K.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10353]
+{org:en}
+At the same time, phenomena that occur in the open ocean near the tsunami source or at the epicenter of a bottom earthquake are seldom described.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200987071:3Y.@entry.@past, 100034213:0I.@topic)
+mod:01(108578032:2M.@def.@entry, 107428954:38.@indef)
+or:01(108578032:2M.@def.@entry, 109376198:1I.@def)
+obj(200723349:0X, 100034213:0I.@topic)
+obj:01(600000081:1O, 104263614:25.@def)
+mod:01(108578032:2M.@def.@entry, 107428954:38.@indef)
+or:01(108578032:2M.@def.@entry, 109376198:1I.@def)
+obj(200723349:0X, 100034213:0I.@topic)
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+man(200987071:3Y.@entry.@past, 400535314:3R)
+mod:01(107428954:38.@indef, 102878222:31)
+aoj:01(600000081:1O, 109376198:1I.@def)
+mod:01(107428954:38.@indef, 102878222:31)
+aoj:01(600000081:1O, 109376198:1I.@def)
+plc(200723349:0X, :01:01)
+mod:01(104263614:25.@def, 107349299:1X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10354]
+{org:en}
+Mention should be made of rare natural phenomena in the open ocean caused by submarine earthquakes and qualified as phenomena kindred to the tsunami event.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200012267:0I.@should.@past.@entry, 201023071:00.@topic)
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+plc(111408559:0V, 109376198:1P.@def)
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+plc(111408559:0V, 109376198:1P.@def)
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+aoj(300017024:0Q, 111408559:0V)
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+ben:01(202775523:2Y.@entry, 100029378:48.@def)
+src(200012267:0I.@should.@past.@entry, 111408559:0V)
+agt:01(201645601:1Y.@past, 107428954:2I.@pl)
+and:01(202775523:2Y.@entry, 201645601:1Y.@past)
+agt:01(201645601:1Y.@past, 107428954:2I.@pl)
+and:01(202775523:2Y.@entry, 201645601:1Y.@past)
+obj(:01, 111408559:0V)
+mod:01(115692862:3L, 100034213:3B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10355]
+{org:en}
+Here is the list of these seismically created phenomena
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202603699:05.@entry, 400108479:00)
+mod(100034213:1A.@pl, 600000017:0K)
+obj(201640207:12.@past, 100034213:1A.@pl)
+mod(100034213:1A.@pl, 600000017:0K)
+obj(201640207:12.@past, 100034213:1A.@pl)
+mod(106481320:0C.@topic.@def, 100034213:1A.@pl)
+aoj(202603699:05.@entry, 106481320:0C.@topic.@def)
+man(201640207:12.@past, 400535631:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10356]
+{org:en}
+seaquakes
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+107429870:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10357]
+{org:en}
+acoustic waves in the water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(115690753:02.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0O.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10358]
+{org:en}
+acoustic cavitation into a sub-surface water layer
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(115668628:0B.@entry, 101463259:1B.@indef)
+mod(115689665:0X, 303161200:0T)
+mod(115689665:0X, 303161200:0T)
+mod(101463259:1B.@indef, 115689665:0X)
+aoj(302868489:02, 115668628:0B.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10359]
+{org:en}
+vertical mixing of water and occurrence of sea surface temperature anomalies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301204142:01, 200184117:02.@progress.@entry)
+mod(105011790:1L, 115691587:19)
+and:01(113959069:0V.@entry, 107935504:0L)
+mod(105011790:1L, 115691587:19)
+and:01(113959069:0V.@entry, 107935504:0L)
+obj(:01, 108622763:1X.@pl)
+obj(200184117:02.@progress.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(108622763:1X.@pl, 105011790:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10360]
+{org:en}
+In some instances, the seismic oscillations of the bottom give rise to a seaquake, an event that seafarers have long feared as a dangerous and mysterious phenomenon.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(202774441:1M.@entry, 115691493:08.@pl)
+and:01(300900071:42.@entry, 300651039:3O)
+agt(201780202:39.@complete, 115696038:2P.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(100029378:2E.@indef, 107429870:21.@indef)
+qua(115691493:08.@pl, 600000034:03)
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+aoj(100029378:2E.@indef, 107429870:21.@indef)
+qua(115691493:08.@pl, 600000034:03)
+obj(600000023:3G, 100034213:4H.@indef)
+obj(202774441:1M.@entry, 107429870:21.@indef)
+aoj(302293230:0N, 107345166:0V.@topic.@def.@pl)
+man(201780202:39.@complete, 600000419:34)
+agt(202774441:1M.@entry, 107345166:0V.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(107345166:0V.@topic.@def.@pl, 102878222:1F.@def)
+man(201780202:39.@complete, 600000023:3G)
+mod(107345166:0V.@topic.@def.@pl, 102878222:1F.@def)
+man(201780202:39.@complete, 600000023:3G)
+obj(201780202:39.@complete, 100029378:2E.@indef)
+aoj(:01, 100034213:4H.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10361]
+{org:en}
+A ship hit by a seaquake suffers a violent shake, strong shocks across the whole hull, vibration of the vessel, deafening roar out of the Earth`s interior, and is tossed by jumping standing waves and bubbling water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201418536:4Q.@entry, 200065070:0P)
+aoj:02(300514884:26, 103548626:2C.@def)
+aoj:02(301453467:37, 107377682:3H.@entry)
+agt:01(200155727:53.@progress, 107346772:5B.@pl)
+and:02(101172252:1O.@pl, 115694396:1A.@indef)
+and:01(107935504:63.@entry, 107346772:5B.@pl)
+agt(200781903:07.@past, 107429870:0G.@indef)
+and:02(100345926:2I, 101172252:1O.@pl)
+and:02(107377682:3H.@entry, 100345926:2I)
+aoj:02(300514884:26, 103548626:2C.@def)
+aoj:02(301453467:37, 107377682:3H.@entry)
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+and:02(101172252:1O.@pl, 115694396:1A.@indef)
+and:01(107935504:63.@entry, 107346772:5B.@pl)
+agt(200781903:07.@past, 107429870:0G.@indef)
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+agt(201418536:4Q.@entry, :01)
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+aoj:02(301514141:12, 115694396:1A.@indef)
+obj:02(600000235:3M, 108588294:45.@def)
+aoj(200065070:0P, 104194289:02.@topic.@indef)
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+obj:02(600000235:3M, 108588294:45.@def)
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+obj:01(200519056:5U.@progress, 107935504:63.@entry)
+mod:02(100345926:2I, 104530566:2Z.@def)
+aoj:02(600000235:3M, 107377682:3H.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10362]
+{org:en}
+A good number of vessels have been damaged by seaquakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200258857:0Z.@entry.@complete, 103835412:07.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(300523364:02, 103835412:07.@topic.@indef)
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+mod(103835412:07.@topic.@indef, 104530566:0H.@pl)
+agt(200258857:0Z.@entry.@complete, 107429870:1A.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10363]
+{org:en}
+Recent seaquakes partially destroyed the super-tankers "New Orleans" and "Exxon Boston" (Alaska, 1988) and damaged some fishing vessels (Kuril Islands, 1994).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(:04.@entry, 107429870:07.@topic.@pl)
+cnt:04(110690648:1E.@def.@pl, :01)
+qua:04(115693737:3M.@pl, 600000034:3H)
+plc:04(200258857:39.@entry.@past, :02:02.@parenthesis)
+aoj(301642477:00, 107429870:07.@topic.@pl)
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+plc:04(200258857:39.@entry.@past, :02:02.@parenthesis)
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+and:04(200258857:39.@entry.@past, 201326528:0U.@past)
+tim:03(500004503:2R.@entry, "1988":2Z)
+plc:04(201326528:0U.@past, :03:03.@parenthesis)
+man(:04.@entry, 400007703:0H)
+and:01(500324074:28.@entry.@double_quote, 500004698:1Q.@double_quote)
+tim:02(500323714:43.@entry, "1994":4I)
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+tim:02(500323714:43.@entry, "1994":4I)
+obj:04(200258857:39.@entry.@past, 115693737:3M.@pl)
+mod:04(110690648:1E.@def.@pl, 300528761:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10364]
+{org:en}
+Many fish and sea animals perish during seaquakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(115694193:0X.@entry, :01)
+and:01(115696037:0H.@entry.@pl.@topic, 102512053:08.@topic)
+and:01(115696037:0H.@entry.@pl.@topic, 102512053:08.@topic)
+qua(:01, 600000028:00)
+dur(115694193:0X.@entry, 107429870:1B.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10365]
+{org:en}
+This is connected with acoustic effects.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201069190:08.@entry, 600000022:00.@topic)
+aoj(302868489:0N, 104809642:0W.@pl)
+man(201069190:08.@entry, 104809642:0W.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10366]
+{org:en}
+;Seismic bottom oscillations with a mass velocity of 1 HTM1 generate a compression wave in the water with an amplitude of 1.5 MPa or 15 atmospheres.Seismic bottom oscillations with a mass velocity of 1 m/s generate a compression wave in the water with an amplitude of 1.5 MPa or 15 atmospheres.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201627355:1M.@entry, 107345166:0F.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302293230:00, 107345166:0F.@topic.@pl)
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+qua(115689301:14.@indef, 115690699:1I)
+qua:01(108499057:3T.@entry.@pl, "15":3Q)
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+man(201627355:1M.@entry, 600000018:2R)
+mod(107345166:0F.@topic.@pl, 102878222:08)
+qua:02(:01.@entry, "1.5":3F)
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+mod(115689301:14.@indef, 101042242:0Z)
+aoj(600000019:0S, 107345166:0F.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10367]
+{org:en}
+Such jumps of pressure represent real danger for inhabitants of the underwater world.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200825447:0N.@entry, 100119568:05.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105670972:27.@def, 115669423:1W)
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+mod(100119568:05.@topic.@pl, 100113113:0E)
+mod(109620078:1D.@pl, 105670972:27.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10368]
+{org:en}
+The impact of the acoustic wave on a ship hull are perceived as strong shocks and intensive vibration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(115692299:1F.@entry, 107338552:04.@topic.@def)
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+mod(107338552:04.@topic.@def, 115690753:0I.@def)
+aoj:01(301512275:2D, 100345926:2N.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10369]
+{org:en}
+The interaction of an acoustic wave with the sea surface leads to the occurrence of acoustic cavitation in the subsurface water layer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774203:1L.@entry, 100039021:04.@topic.@def)
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+mod(100039021:04.@topic.@def, 115690753:0M.@indef)
+aoj(302868489:2C, 115668628:2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10370]
+{org:en}
+This is reflected in the appearance of bubbles, foaming of water, water plumes, vertical jets, and even the break-away of water layers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200821580:08.@entry, 600000022:00.@topic)
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+and:01(100385266:33.@entry.@def, 103595860:2K.@pl)
+mod:02(:01.@entry, 101463259:3N.@pl)
+aoj:01(301204142:2B, 103595860:2K.@pl)
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+mod:02(:01.@entry, 101463259:3N.@pl)
+aoj:01(301204142:2B, 103595860:2K.@pl)
+and:02(:01.@entry, 100050195:0S.@def)
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+and:01(103595860:2K.@pl, 103969998:23.@pl)
+plc(200821580:08.@entry, :02:02)
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+mod:02(101463259:3N.@pl, 107935504:3H)
+man:01(100385266:33.@entry.@def, 400017639:2U)
+obj:02(200519363:1F.@progress, :01:01.@entry)
+and:01(103969998:23.@pl, 107935504:1Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10371]
+{org:en}
+The phenomenon is caused by the dilatation wave which occurs after reflection of the compression wave from the water surface.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201645601:0I.@entry, 100034213:04.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000002:1P, 104068976:1V)
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+man(200723349:1I, 600000002:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10372]
+{org:en}
+The area of acoustic cavitation at the ocean surface may be registered from a satellite monitoring submarine earthquake behavior.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200728224:1O.@entry.@may, 102735688:04.@topic.@def)
+mod(202163301:2G.@indef, 104137444:26)
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+mod(101220984:3C, 107428954:31)
+mod(104362025:19.@def, 109376198:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10373]
+{org:en}
+The standing waves and regular wave structures occurring at the ocean surface during seaquake are caused by the non-linear oscillating of the subsurface layer of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201645601:2X.@entry, :01:01)
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+mod(101463259:4G.@def, 107935504:4P)
+mod:01(104931965:13.@entry.@pl.@topic, 100346095:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10374]
+{org:en}
+Such waves, up to 10 meters high and arranged in the form of a lattice with square or hexagonal cells, provide an example of dynamic self-organization of the disturbing surface.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200406963:32.@entry, 100346095:05.@pl.@topic)
+obj(600000086:0C, 103753077:0L.@pl)
+mod(101008378:41, 600000287:3W)
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+obj(200259755:4L.@progress, 104362025:4W.@def)
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+aoj(300808191:3O, 101008378:41)
+obj(600000075:1H, 103646916:1R.@indef)
+man(300705498:0S, 600000086:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10375]
+{org:en}
+Physical modeling of a seaquake gives us insight into the nature of these unusual wave structures.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200108604:0W.@entry, 100937895:09.@topic)
+mod(104931965:2F.@pl, 600000017:1W)
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+obj(200108604:0W.@entry, 105708207:15)
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+aoj(300488857:22, 104931965:2F.@pl)
+aoj(300488857:22, 104931965:2F.@pl)
+mod(104623113:1M.@def, 104931965:2F.@pl)
+aoj(300627004:00, 100937895:09.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10376]
+{org:en}
+An example of oscillating wave structures created in the laboratory vibro-set 50 cm in diameter is shown in Figure 6.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200923307:2R.@entry, 105820620:03.@topic.@indef)
+plc(115669285:29, 105101815:2F)
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+mod(105820620:03.@topic.@indef, 104931965:0V.@pl)
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+plc(115669285:29, 105101815:2F)
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+qua(115693201:1W.@def, 115669285:29)
+mod(100556992:30, "6":37)
+plc(201640207:16.@past, 115693201:1W.@def)
+plc(200923307:2R.@entry, 100556992:30)
+qua(115669285:29, "50":26)
+mod(104931965:0V.@pl, 100346095:0Q)
+qua(115669285:29, "50":26)
+mod(104931965:0V.@pl, 100346095:0Q)
+obj(201640207:16.@past, 104931965:0V.@pl)
+mod(115693201:1W.@def, 103629986:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10377]
+{org:en}
+Figure 6.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:00.@entry, "6":07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10378]
+{org:en}
+Photograph of the wave structure on the oscillating water surface.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115698532:0A.@entry, 104931965:0X.@def)
+agt(201878063:1E.@progress, 104362025:1W.@def)
+agt(201878063:1E.@progress, 104362025:1W.@def)
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+plc(104931965:0X.@def, 104362025:1W.@def)
+mod(104362025:1W.@def, 107935504:1Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10379]
+{org:en}
+Hexagonal and square standing wave cells exist simultaneously.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:1C.@entry, 100006484:16.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100006484:16.@topic.@pl, 107346772:0S)
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+aoj(:01, 100006484:16.@topic.@pl)
+man(202603699:1C.@entry, 400120095:1I)
+and:01(300607857:0H.@entry, 303162228:03)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10380]
+{org:en}
+Near the tsunami source, as well as in the epicenter region of a strong submarine earthquake (without tsunami generation), unusual effects connected with vertical currents of water occur quite often.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200723349:51.@entry, 600000139:00)
+obj(600000139:00, 104263614:0H.@def)
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+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 107428954:2A.@indef)
+mod(115694601:4A.@pl, 107935504:4V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10381]
+{org:en}
+Spots of bright colored water, ocean organisms and biota activity, and sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies are observed in areas of intense oscillations on the bottom.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200732552:3E.@entry, :02:02)
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+aoj(300393683:3Z, 107345166:47.@pl)
+aoj:02(300176387:0C, 107935504:0R)
+and:02(:01, 104286128:03.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10382]
+{org:en}
+In the last few years, Russian researchers revealed that SST anomalies in the ocean can last up to two days.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(202144243:17.@entry.@past, 115201505:0G.@def.@pl)
+mod(115201505:0G.@def.@pl, 300004296:07)
+obj(600000047:2L, 114484516:2V.@pl)
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+qua(114484516:2V.@pl, "2":2R)
+man(101264667:2G.@ability, 600000047:2L)
+aoj(302957276:0N, 115670073:0V.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10383]
+{org:en}
+The size of the anomaly may be equal to 500 km, and the maximum temperature deviation reaches HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200743344:2E.@entry, 300889831:0V.@may)
+obj(300889831:0V.@may, 115669024:18)
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+qua(115669024:18, "500":14)
+qua(115669024:18, "500":14)
+aoj(300889831:0V.@may, 105095691:04.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10384]
+{org:en}
+This phenomenon may be explained as a result of a dramatic increase in the vertical exchange above the moving bottom.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200939277:0N.@entry.@may, 100034213:05.@topic)
+aoj(300794825:1E, 100363260:1N.@indef)
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+man(200939277:0N.@entry.@may, 600000056:0X)
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+aoj(301204142:23, 100167063:2C.@def)
+plc(100363260:1N.@indef, 100167063:2C.@def)
+mod(100034213:05.@topic, 600000017:00)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10385]
+{org:en}
+Satellite images of an anomaly near Bouganville Isles., Solomon Isles. after a series of earthquakes are shown in Figure 7.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200923307:2X.@entry, 104675777:0A.@pl.@topic)
+and:01(500004264:1K.@entry, 500323777:10)
+mod(100556992:36, "7":3D)
+obj(600000002:1Z, 107428954:2H.@pl)
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+mod(104675777:0A.@pl.@topic, 104137444:00)
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+mod(104675777:0A.@pl.@topic, 108622763:0N.@indef)
+mod(104675777:0A.@pl.@topic, 108622763:0N.@indef)
+mod(107428954:2H.@pl, 600000577:25)
+obj(600000081:0V, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10386]
+{org:en}
+Figure 7.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:00.@entry, "7":07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10387]
+{org:en}
+Time-history of SST variations and fragments of SST anomaly maps for the region of Bouganville Isles.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106155567:0F.@entry, :01)
+pur(103720163:1Y.@pl, 105221895:2B.@def)
+and:01(107008680:19.@entry.@pl, 500323612:0Q)
+mod(105221895:2B.@def, 500323777:2L)
+pur(103720163:1Y.@pl, 105221895:2B.@def)
+and:01(107008680:19.@entry.@pl, 500323612:0Q)
+mod(105221895:2B.@def, 500323777:2L)
+mod(:01, 103720163:1Y.@pl)
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+mod(106155567:0F.@entry, 100028270:0A)
+mod(103720163:1Y.@pl, 108622763:1Q)
+mod(103720163:1Y.@pl, 108622763:1Q)
+and:01(107008680:19.@entry.@pl, 100194969:0U.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10388]
+{org:en}
+;The dimension of each fragment is HTM1.the dimension of each fragment is 1500 x 1500 km.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115669024:1A.@entry, 105093581:04.@topic.@def)
+mod(107008680:0M, 600000848:0H)
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+mod(105093581:04.@topic.@def, 107008680:0M)
+qua(115669024:1A.@entry, "1500x1500":15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10389]
+{org:en}
+The red filled-in circle on the map denotes the location of the strongest earthquake epicenter.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200931467:10.@entry, 103032811:0I.@topic.@def)
+man(301068609:1S, 400536271:2N)
+aoj(301068609:1S, 108578032:2D.@def)
+aoj(303163247:08, 103032811:0I.@topic.@def)
+man(301068609:1S, 400536271:2N)
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+aoj(303163247:08, 103032811:0I.@topic.@def)
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+aoj(300381097:04, 103032811:0I.@topic.@def)
+obj(200931467:10.@entry, 100027167:1C.@def)
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+plc(103032811:0I.@topic.@def, 103720163:0W.@def)
+mod(108578032:2D.@def, 107428954:22)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10390]
+{org:en}
+The time axis is provided with instants of main seismic events (red arrows).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200406963:0H.@entry, 102764614:09.@topic.@def)
+mod(115691892:1C.@pl, 301512527:17)
+mod(115247110:0V.@pl, 115691892:1C.@pl)
+mod(115691892:1C.@pl, 301512527:17)
+mod(115247110:0V.@pl, 115691892:1C.@pl)
+obj(600000018:0Q, 115247110:0V.@pl)
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+man(200406963:0H.@entry, 600000018:0Q)
+aoj:01(300381097:1S, 102742753:1W.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(300381097:1S, 102742753:1W.@entry.@pl)
+cnt(115691892:1C.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10391]
+{org:en}
+Arrow length corresponds to earthquake magnitude.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201006810:0D.@entry, 103656231:06.@topic)
+mod(103656231:06.@topic, 102742753:00)
+mod(103656231:06.@topic, 102742753:00)
+mod(105090441:13, 107428954:0S)
+obj(201006810:0D.@entry, 105090441:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10392]
+{org:en}
+Temperature anomalies of such size and duration are able to influence the atmosphere and even to give rise to a cyclone.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774243:1N.@entry, 108622763:0C.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(202536557:1Y, 108499057:2C.@def)
+obj:01(202774441:2Z.@entry, 111443721:3E.@indef)
+mod(:02, 600001411:0P)
+obj:01(202536557:1Y, 108499057:2C.@def)
+obj:01(202774441:2Z.@entry, 111443721:3E.@indef)
+mod(:02, 600001411:0P)
+and:01(202774441:2Z.@entry, 202536557:1Y)
+mod(108622763:0C.@topic.@pl, 105011790:00)
+obj(202774243:1N.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(108622763:0C.@topic.@pl, :02)
+mod(108622763:0C.@topic.@pl, :02)
+man:01(202774441:2Z.@entry, 400017639:2R)
+and:02(105051249:16.@entry, 105095691:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10393]
+{org:en}
+Charles Darwin described in 1839 the phenomenon of sudden rainfall in the arid zones of Northern Chile just after an earthquake, noting the inexplicability of the event.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200987071:0F.@entry.@past, 500323083:00.@topic)
+obj(600000002:30, 107428954:39.@indef)
+aoj(301143279:1F, 115689316:1M)
+mod(100034213:11.@def, 115689316:1M)
+mod(115693890:3W.@def, 100029378:4J.@def)
+aoj(301604226:2G, 500003032:2P)
+obj(600000002:30, 107428954:39.@indef)
+aoj(301143279:1F, 115689316:1M)
+mod(100034213:11.@def, 115689316:1M)
+mod(115693890:3W.@def, 100029378:4J.@def)
+aoj(301604226:2G, 500003032:2P)
+tim(200987071:0F.@entry.@past, "1839":0S)
+obj(201020005:3L.@progress, 115693890:3W.@def)
+aoj(301369663:2V, 500003032:2P)
+obj(200987071:0F.@entry.@past, 100034213:11.@def)
+agt(201020005:3L.@progress, 107428954:39.@indef)
+mod(115693320:22.@def.@pl, 500003032:2P)
+agt(201020005:3L.@progress, 107428954:39.@indef)
+mod(115693320:22.@def.@pl, 500003032:2P)
+plc(115689316:1M, 115693320:22.@def.@pl)
+man(301369663:2V, 600000002:30)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10394]
+{org:en}
+Now the phenomenon mechanism is generally understood, but studies are being continued.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200118523:24.@progress, 200588888:16.@entry.@past)
+obj(200118523:24.@progress, 104345028:1M.@topic.@pl)
+man(200588888:16.@entry.@past, 400041954:0W)
+obj(200118523:24.@progress, 104345028:1M.@topic.@pl)
+man(200588888:16.@entry.@past, 400041954:0W)
+obj(200588888:16.@entry.@past, 100098385:0J.@topic.@def)
+man(200588888:16.@entry.@past, 115119919:00)
+mod(100098385:0J.@topic.@def, 100034213:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10395]
+{org:en}
+The contribution of oceanic seismic processes in a common energy balance to the hydrosphere-atmosphere system is found to be quite significant.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200715239:35.@entry, 100787465:04.@topic.@def)
+mod(108499057:2K, 109307902:28)
+aoj(301381196:0K, 100029677:10.@pl)
+mod(100787465:04.@topic.@def, 100029677:10.@pl)
+aoj(300485711:1F, 115669405:1M.@indef)
+mod(108499057:2K, 109307902:28)
+aoj(301381196:0K, 100029677:10.@pl)
+mod(100787465:04.@topic.@def, 100029677:10.@pl)
+aoj(300485711:1F, 115669405:1M.@indef)
+man(300625055:3N, 400535312:3H)
+to(115669405:1M.@indef, 104377057:2V.@def)
+gol(200715239:35.@entry, 300625055:3N)
+aoj(302293230:0S, 100029677:10.@pl)
+aoj(302293230:0S, 100029677:10.@pl)
+plc(100029677:10.@pl, 115669405:1M.@indef)
+mod(104377057:2V.@def, 108499057:2K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10396]
+{org:en}
+The effects of SST anomalies caused by bottom earthquakes may be very important for the fishing industry, navigators, and meteorologists.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301275562:1Y.@entry.@may, 104809642:04.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(104809642:04.@topic.@def.@pl, 108622763:0J.@pl)
+and:01(110312287:3H.@entry.@pl, 110347883:31.@pl)
+aoj(201645601:0T.@past, 107428954:1A.@pl)
+mod(104809642:04.@topic.@def.@pl, 108622763:0J.@pl)
+and:01(110312287:3H.@entry.@pl, 110347883:31.@pl)
+aoj(201645601:0T.@past, 107428954:1A.@pl)
+man(301275562:1Y.@entry.@may, 400031899:1T)
+mod(108622763:0J.@pl, 500323612:0F)
+pur(301275562:1Y.@entry.@may, :01:01)
+obj(201645601:0T.@past, 108622763:0J.@pl)
+obj(201645601:0T.@past, 108622763:0J.@pl)
+and:01(110347883:31.@pl, 115669595:2J.@def)
+mod(107428954:1A.@pl, 102878222:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10397]
+{org:en}
+Tsunami prediction and tsunami warning systems around the world
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(104377057:1D.@entry.@pl, 105670972:1W.@def)
+mod:01(105775081:0E, 107349299:06)
+mod:01(105775081:0E, 107349299:06)
+and:01(115691163:0T.@entry, 105775081:0E)
+mod(104377057:1D.@entry.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10398]
+{org:en}
+The problem of tsunami prediction is simpler than the problem of earthquake prediction.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301793812:11.@entry, 105687338:04.@topic.@def)
+mod(105775081:0N, 107349299:0F)
+mod(105687338:1I.@def, 115669313:1T)
+mod(105775081:0N, 107349299:0F)
+mod(105687338:1I.@def, 115669313:1T)
+man(301793812:11.@entry, 400099341:2F)
+bas(301793812:11.@entry, 105687338:1I.@def)
+mod(105687338:04.@topic.@def, 105775081:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10399]
+{org:en}
+The coordinates, time and energy of the event should be predicted for tsunamis as well as for earthquakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200917772:1R.@entry.@should.@past, :01:01)
+and:01(104633197:0T.@entry.@topic, 100028270:0K.@topic)
+obj(600000014:2E, 107428954:2T.@pl)
+and:01(104633197:0T.@entry.@topic, 100028270:0K.@topic)
+obj(600000014:2E, 107428954:2T.@pl)
+aoj(600000014:2E, 107349299:25.@pl)
+pur(200917772:1R.@entry.@should.@past, 107349299:25.@pl)
+and:01(100028270:0K.@topic, 106010930:07.@def.@pl.@topic)
+and:01(100028270:0K.@topic, 106010930:07.@def.@pl.@topic)
+mod(:01, 100029378:1B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10400]
+{org:en}
+However, tsunami prediction is based on the available record of a seismic event preceding a tsunami.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(600000136:0V.@entry, 600000070:00)
+agt(200901799:28.@progress, 115691892:1U.@indef)
+mod(100047745:1I.@def, 115691892:1U.@indef)
+agt(200901799:28.@progress, 115691892:1U.@indef)
+mod(100047745:1I.@def, 115691892:1U.@indef)
+obj(600000136:0V.@entry, 100047745:1I.@def)
+mod(105775081:0H.@topic, 107349299:09)
+aoj(600000136:0V.@entry, 105775081:0H.@topic)
+obj(200901799:28.@progress, 107349299:2K.@indef)
+obj(200901799:28.@progress, 107349299:2K.@indef)
+aoj(300183053:18, 100047745:1I.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10401]
+{org:en}
+In this case, when evaluating the danger of a tsunami, we have the time interval between the arrival of the seismic wave and the coming of the tsunami wave to the coast.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200065370:1M.@entry, 200670261:0J.@progress)
+mod(100346095:4A.@def, 107349299:42)
+obj(600000010:29, 100048225:2O.@def)
+obj(200065370:1M.@entry, 105089947:20.@def)
+mod(108644213:0Y.@def, 107349299:1A.@indef)
+mod(:01, 100346095:4A.@def)
+mod(100346095:4A.@def, 107349299:42)
+obj(600000010:29, 100048225:2O.@def)
+obj(200065370:1M.@entry, 105089947:20.@def)
+mod(108644213:0Y.@def, 107349299:1A.@indef)
+mod(:01, 100346095:4A.@def)
+man(200065370:1M.@entry, 600000010:29)
+obj(200670261:0J.@progress, 108644213:0Y.@def)
+to(:01, 105934029:4M.@def)
+aoj(200065370:1M.@entry, 600000005:1J.@topic)
+plc(200670261:0J.@progress, 102974697:08)
+mod(100048225:2O.@def, :01)
+plc(200670261:0J.@progress, 102974697:08)
+mod(100048225:2O.@def, :01)
+mod(105089947:20.@def, 100028270:1V)
+mod(102974697:08, 600000017:03)
+and:01(115300679:3O.@entry.@def, 115669086:33.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10402]
+{org:en}
+Currently, the main fields of research on tsunami prediction are the following
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(108223263:1X.@def.@entry, 101097119:0K.@def.@pl.@topic)
+obj(600000036:13, 105775081:1E)
+mod(101097119:0K.@def.@pl.@topic, 100636921:0U)
+obj(600000036:13, 105775081:1E)
+mod(101097119:0K.@def.@pl.@topic, 100636921:0U)
+mod(101097119:0K.@def.@pl.@topic, 301512527:0F)
+man(108223263:1X.@def.@entry, 400535248:00)
+mod(105775081:1E, 107349299:16)
+mod(105775081:1E, 107349299:16)
+aoj(600000036:13, 100636921:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10403]
+{org:en}
+Statistical forecast on the basis of information about the present and past events, including excavation of palaeotsunami traces at coastline areas
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000007:2M, 115694465:03.@entry)
+mod(104462407:3O.@pl, 115695800:3A)
+mod(100029378:2E.@def.@pl, :01)
+aoj(600000013:1G, 105091527:14)
+mod(100941974:2W, 104462407:3O.@pl)
+mod(104462407:3O.@pl, 115695800:3A)
+mod(100029378:2E.@def.@pl, :01)
+aoj(600000013:1G, 105091527:14)
+mod(100941974:2W, 104462407:3O.@pl)
+obj(600000269:0O, 105091527:14)
+obj(600000007:2M, 100941974:2W)
+aoj(600000269:0O, 115694465:03.@entry)
+mod(102735688:48.@pl, 108613000:3Y)
+and:01(301296091:25.@entry, 301731351:1T)
+mod(102735688:48.@pl, 108613000:3Y)
+and:01(301296091:25.@entry, 301731351:1T)
+obj(600000013:1G, 100029378:2E.@def.@pl)
+plc(104462407:3O.@pl, 102735688:48.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10404]
+{org:en}
+Estimation of the possibility of tsunami generation in the ocean by processing data from seismic records ( a task of the tsunami warning system)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105803379:03.@entry, 105792010:0L.@def)
+mod:01(100795720:34.@entry.@indef, 104377057:3W.@def)
+obj(600000035:44, 108462320:2A)
+mod(100849982:18, 107349299:10)
+cnt(100047745:2S.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(100795720:34.@entry.@indef, 104377057:3W.@def)
+obj(600000035:44, 108462320:2A)
+mod(100849982:18, 107349299:10)
+cnt(100047745:2S.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+plc(100849982:18, 109376198:1Q.@def)
+mod(108462320:2A, 113541167:1Z)
+mod(105792010:0L.@def, 100849982:18)
+mod:01(104377057:3W.@def, 115691163:3G)
+frm(108462320:2A, 100047745:2S.@pl)
+mod:01(104377057:3W.@def, 115691163:3G)
+frm(108462320:2A, 100047745:2S.@pl)
+aoj(600000035:44, 109376198:1Q.@def)
+aoj(302293230:2K, 100047745:2S.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10405]
+{org:en}
+Forecasting tsunami source occurrence in the ocean based on the recording of hydro-acoustic waves or the T-phase of an earthquake
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200926472:03.@entry.@progress, 600000136:1I)
+obj(600000136:1I, :01)
+mod(113959069:0U, 104263614:0N)
+obj:01(100910203:1Y.@def, 115690753:2H.@pl)
+obj(600000136:1I, :01)
+mod(113959069:0U, 104263614:0N)
+obj:01(100910203:1Y.@def, 115690753:2H.@pl)
+plc(113959069:0U, 109376198:1C.@def)
+mod:01(500323936:33.@entry.@def, 107428954:3H.@indef)
+obj(200926472:03.@entry.@progress, 113959069:0U)
+or:01(500323936:33.@entry.@def, 100910203:1Y.@def)
+or:01(500323936:33.@entry.@def, 100910203:1Y.@def)
+mod(104263614:0N, 107349299:0F)
+mod:01(115690753:2H.@pl, 115669732:2B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10406]
+{org:en}
+Forecasting tsunami source occurrence in the ocean on the basis of satellite images of the epicenter area (observation of acoustic cavitation effects, sea surface turbulence, standing wave structures)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200926472:03.@entry.@progress, 600000085:1I)
+mod:02(100879759:32.@entry, :01)
+obj(600000085:1I, 104675777:28.@pl)
+aoj:01(302868489:3H, 104809642:41.@pl)
+mod(113959069:0U, 104263614:0N)
+and:01(111520989:4M, 104809642:41.@pl)
+cnt(102735688:2W.@def, :02.@parenthesis)
+mod:02(100879759:32.@entry, :01)
+obj(600000085:1I, 104675777:28.@pl)
+aoj:01(302868489:3H, 104809642:41.@pl)
+mod(113959069:0U, 104263614:0N)
+and:01(111520989:4M, 104809642:41.@pl)
+cnt(102735688:2W.@def, :02.@parenthesis)
+plc(113959069:0U, 109376198:1C.@def)
+mod:01(104931965:5C.@entry.@pl, 107346772:4Y)
+mod(104675777:28.@pl, 104137444:1Y)
+obj(200926472:03.@entry.@progress, 113959069:0U)
+and:01(104931965:5C.@entry.@pl, 111520989:4M)
+mod(104675777:28.@pl, 102735688:2W.@def)
+and:01(104931965:5C.@entry.@pl, 111520989:4M)
+mod(104675777:28.@pl, 102735688:2W.@def)
+mod:01(104809642:41.@pl, 115668628:3Q)
+mod(104263614:0N, 107349299:0F)
+mod:01(111520989:4M, 115691587:4A)
+mod(102735688:2W.@def, 108578032:2M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10407]
+{org:en}
+Forecasting of the tsunami arrival time and its intensity at points of the coastline on the basis of computer modeling and numerical experiments using hydrodynamics and bottom topography (creating schemes and maps of tsunami zonation)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200926472:03.@entry.@progress, 600000085:2N)
+mod:04(100937895:3F, 103082979:36)
+mod:05(103974215:1V.@pl, 108613000:29.@def)
+obj:02(201640207:5W.@entry.@progress, :01:01)
+plc:05(105036394:1I.@entry, 103974215:1V.@pl)
+and:03(105064541:5G.@entry, 106113914:4R)
+agt(201158572:4I.@progress, :04)
+mod:04(100937895:3F, 103082979:36)
+mod:05(103974215:1V.@pl, 108613000:29.@def)
+obj:02(201640207:5W.@entry.@progress, :01:01)
+plc:05(105036394:1I.@entry, 103974215:1V.@pl)
+and:03(105064541:5G.@entry, 106113914:4R)
+agt(201158572:4I.@progress, :04)
+mod:02(115691019:74, 107349299:6W)
+and:05(105036394:1I.@entry, 115180934:0X.@def)
+agt(:02.@parenthesis, :03)
+obj(600000085:2N, :04)
+and:01(103720163:6K.@entry.@pl, 105905348:68.@pl)
+obj(200926472:03.@entry.@progress, :05:05)
+obj(201158572:4I.@progress, :03:03)
+mod:05(115180934:0X.@def, 107349299:0P)
+obj(201158572:4I.@progress, :03:03)
+mod:05(115180934:0X.@def, 107349299:0P)
+mod:02(:01, 115691019:74)
+mod:05(105036394:1I.@entry, 600000016:1E)
+mod:03(105064541:5G.@entry, 102878222:59)
+and:04(115695747:3S.@entry.@pl, 100937895:3F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10408]
+{org:en}
+Forecasting of the tsunami arrival time on the basis of on-line records obtained from the hydrophysical buoy systems and bottom stations
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200926472:03.@entry.@progress, 600000085:17)
+mod:01(104377057:37.@def.@pl, 107266178:32)
+aoj(303163547:1N, 100047745:1V.@pl)
+obj(600000085:17, 100047745:1V.@pl)
+mod:01(104306080:3Q.@entry.@pl, 102878222:3J)
+mod:01(104377057:37.@def.@pl, 107266178:32)
+aoj(303163547:1N, 100047745:1V.@pl)
+obj(600000085:17, 100047745:1V.@pl)
+mod:01(104306080:3Q.@entry.@pl, 102878222:3J)
+mod(115180934:0U.@def, 107349299:0M)
+and:01(104306080:3Q.@entry.@pl, 104377057:37.@def.@pl)
+obj(200926472:03.@entry.@progress, 115180934:0U.@def)
+src(202238085:23.@past, :01:01)
+src(202238085:23.@past, :01:01)
+obj(202238085:23.@past, 100047745:1V.@pl)
+aoj:01(303162002:2O, 104377057:37.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10409]
+{org:en}
+Search for a seismic long wave precursor occurring in the seismic records of some large oceanic earthquakes during build-up to the event.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(100637354:03.@entry, 109627117:0Y.@indef)
+to(100372226:3A, 100029378:3Q.@def)
+mod(100047745:1X.@def.@pl, 115691535:2J.@pl)
+mod(109627117:0Y.@indef, 111507511:0O)
+qua(115691535:2J.@pl, 600000034:28)
+to(100372226:3A, 100029378:3Q.@def)
+mod(100047745:1X.@def.@pl, 115691535:2J.@pl)
+mod(109627117:0Y.@indef, 111507511:0O)
+qua(115691535:2J.@pl, 600000034:28)
+aoj(302293230:0G, 109627117:0Y.@indef)
+dur(115691535:2J.@pl, 100372226:3A)
+obj(200723349:18.@progress, 109627117:0Y.@indef)
+aoj(302293230:1P, 100047745:1X.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302293230:1P, 100047745:1X.@def.@pl)
+plc(200723349:18.@progress, 100047745:1X.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300527870:2D, 115691535:2J.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10410]
+{org:en}
+It is evident that tsunami prediction for distant sources must be more successful than prediction of local tsunamis.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161365:06.@entry, 302331262:1Z.@topic.@obligation)
+aoj(301106405:2T, 107349299:2Z.@pl)
+man(302331262:1Z.@topic.@obligation, 400099341:1U)
+aoj(300442917:16, 104263614:1E.@pl)
+aoj(301106405:2T, 107349299:2Z.@pl)
+man(302331262:1Z.@topic.@obligation, 400099341:1U)
+aoj(300442917:16, 104263614:1E.@pl)
+bas(302331262:1Z.@topic.@obligation, 105775081:2F)
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+mod(105775081:2F, 107349299:2Z.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10411]
+{org:en}
+A tsunami near the Alaska coastline will reach Kamchatka within a few hours, and a forecast of the event may be quite reliable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(600000081:0A, 107349299:02.@topic.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10412]
+{org:en}
+The 1994 Shikotan tsunami occurred in the immediate vicinity of a coastal area (seismologists estimate that Shikotan Island sank 60 cm during the earthquake).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(102735688:22.@indef, 300462909:1U)
+dur:01(201971929:3G.@past, 107428954:42.@def)
+[W]
+:01.@parenthesis.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10413]
+{org:en}
+Thus, prompt warning of the tsunami for the Shikotan population was of no great importance.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105168261:28.@entry.@past, 107212874:0D.@topic)
+man(105168261:28.@entry.@past, 400121135:00)
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+mod(107212874:0D.@topic, 107349299:0S.@def)
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+aoj(301900630:06, 107212874:0D.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10414]
+{org:en}
+Inevitability needs no forecasting.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201189113:0E.@entry.@pl.@not, 104754056:00)
+obj(201189113:0E.@entry.@pl.@not, 200926472:0N.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10415]
+{org:en}
+To protect life and property in the Pacific, an International Pacific Tsunami Warning System has been organized and is presently functioning, utilizing an extensive network of seismic and tidal stations, as well as communications, to ensure that warning information is prompt and accurate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj:04(301386234:4I, 103820474:4S.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10416]
+{org:en}
+This International Tsunami Warning Network operates under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC/UNESCO) and works very closely with each participating Pacific country to assess the tsunami hazard and mitigate its impact.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(103501152:69.@def, 107349299:61)
+mod:03(300760149:54, 108168978:5C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10417]
+{org:en}
+The American Pacific coast is served by two centers
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201077568:0U.@entry, 500323980:04.@topic.@def)
+qua(100725506:18.@colon.@pl, "2":14)
+agt(201077568:0U.@entry, 100725506:18.@colon.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10418]
+{org:en}
+the US West Coast and Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (WC/ATWC) in Palmer, Alaska and the International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC) in Honolulu, Hawaii.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(500004620:3V, 500004618:45)
+cnt(500323663:07.@def, 500324351:1H.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10419]
+{org:en}
+The South Pacific areas are monitored by the Tsunami Center in Papaete, Taiti.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202163301:0S.@entry, 102735688:0I.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+plc(202163301:0S.@entry, 500323889:1R)
+plc(500323889:1R, 500324308:20)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10420]
+{org:en}
+The Japanese Tsunami Warning System, organized in the framework of the Japan Meteorological Agency in 1952, formulates and issues tsunami warnings for all regions and cities of Japan.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+tim(500323720:25.@def, "1952":2U)
+aoj(302965043:04, 104377057:0T.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10421]
+{org:en}
+Projects for mitigation of tsunamis in Australia and for organizing a tsunami warning system in Greece have recently been established.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200636888:3L.@entry.@complete, 105910453:00.@topic.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10422]
+{org:en}
+The network of tsunami stations created in the USSR in 1958-1959 are a part of the International Tsunami Warning Network operating under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (UNESCO).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10423]
+{org:en}
+At present, responsibility for Pacific tsunami warning is carried by seismograph stations in the Far East of Russia
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10424]
+{org:en}
+Petropavlovsk-Kamchatski, Kamchatka
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500324237:00.@entry, 500323574:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10425]
+{org:en}
+Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Sakhalin Isl.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(115669578:11.@entry, 500324275:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10426]
+{org:en}
+Vladivostok, Primorie Region
+{/org}
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+mod(105221895:2D, 500324249:2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10427]
+{org:en}
+Severo-Kurilsk, Paramushir Isl.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323653:2T.@entry, 500323890:39)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10428]
+{org:en}
+Kurilsk, Iturup Isl.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323715:3Q.@entry, 115695451:3Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10429]
+{org:en}
+Yuzhno-Kurilsk, Kunashir Isles, and Shikotan Observatory in Malokurilskoe, Shikotan Isl.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+The stations operate under the auspices of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10431]
+{org:en}
+The Russian tidal stations and the special tsunami centers are part of the Hydrometeorological Service of Russia.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10432]
+{org:en}
+The comprehensive historical tsunami database covering the period from 47 B.C. till 2001 A.D. has been compiled and is being maintained at the Tsunami Laboratory of the Institute of Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Geophysics of Siberian Division of RAS, Russia.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj:02(302907473:5C, 106000644:5Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10433]
+{org:en}
+The Web-version of the database can be found at the following URL
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200715239:13.@entry.@ability, 101267901:08.@topic.@def)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10434]
+{org:en}
+http://tsun.sscc.ru/htdbpac
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+"http//tsun.sscc.ru/htdbpac":00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10435]
+{org:en}
+The example of the image from the database is shown at Figure 8.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200923307:1A.@entry, 105820620:04.@topic.@def)
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+frm(104675777:0J.@def, 106637824:0Y.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10436]
+{org:en}
+Figure 8.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:00.@entry, "8":07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10437]
+{org:en}
+The position of historical tsunamigenic events occurred in the Pacific from 1900 till 1999.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200723349:1L.@past, 100083448:0E.@topic.@def.@entry)
+aoj(301934284:0Q, 100029378:1E.@pl)
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+mod(100083448:0E.@topic.@def.@entry, 100029378:1E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10438]
+{org:en}
+The size of circle is proportional to the event magnitude, its color -to the tsunami intensity on Soloviev - Imamura scale.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300482673:1S.@entry, 104674968:1R)
+mod(104674968:1R, 600000016:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10439]
+{org:en}
+A seismologist is on watch 24 hours at the seismic station and carries out rapid data processing of earthquake records.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10440]
+{org:en}
+If the earthquake epicenter is within 1000 km from the station and the magnitude on the Richter scale is M>7.0, the potential tsunami is considered to be a local tsunami and the seismologist has to process the seismogram within 10 minutes to determine source coordinates.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10441]
+{org:en}
+At that very instant, the following events may be quite possible at the station
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10442]
+{org:en}
+seismic shocks, vibration, cracking of walls, oscillating of hanging lamps, falling objects and books, moving chairs and tables.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200124442:2V.@progress.@entry, 200147815:1Y.@progress)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10443]
+{org:en}
+In this situation, the seismologist must make a decision and, if a tsunami is expected, must send the message to administrative structures
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(:01.@entry, 113925752:08)
+obj:01(201062555:2O.@entry.@obligation.@colon, 106253690:2X.@def)
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+mod(113925752:08, 600000017:03)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10444]
+{org:en}
+ATTENTION!
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+101228645:40.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10445]
+{org:en}
+TSUNAMI!
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+107349299:4B.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10446]
+{org:en}
+As is sometimes the case, it is difficult to stay upright while making this announcement.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200012267:1S.@progress, 106726158:24)
+gol(200117985:19, 301234030:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10447]
+{org:en}
+The Japanese Tsunami Warning System maintains an extensive network of seismic stations, 150 throughout Japan.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(600000152:2K, :2H.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10448]
+{org:en}
+Real time data transmission links are established from the stations to regional observatories and then to the headquarters in Tokyo.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10449]
+{org:en}
+If an earthquake occurs at sea, observatories will determine automatically the source parameters (epicenter coordinates, depth of focus, time of origin, magnitude) and then the observatory responsible will forecast tsunami heights for the country entire coast.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10450]
+{org:en}
+For coasts within its area of responsibility, it will issue tsunami bulletins
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10451]
+{org:en}
+the bulletin can be a warning, a watch, or simply an information bulletin.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+or:01(100880662:10.@indef.@ability, 107212874:0P.@indef.@ability)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10452]
+{org:en}
+In 1993 the warning did not reach the residents of Okushiri Island in time.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(110523519:12.@def.@pl, 103587318:1O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10453]
+{org:en}
+But considering that the first wave hit parts of the island as early as three minutes after the earthquake, present day technology was unable to be of much assistance.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(400100082:1R, 600000061:1X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10454]
+{org:en}
+For residents in the coastal areas facing a tsunami directly, the only salvation is to run to high elevations when the ground underfoot starts shaking.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100096513:1Z.@def.@topic, 303161004:1U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10455]
+{org:en}
+In Japan, where destructive tsunamis are a national event, the major idea of warning is revealed in the stone plaques installed in Wakayama, Ofunato and other cities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105833840:1X.@topic.@def, 107212874:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10456]
+{org:en}
+The text runs as follows
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200332672:09.@entry, 106387980:04.@topic.@def)
+man(200332672:09.@entry, 600000181:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10457]
+{org:en}
+Remember earthquake.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200607780:01.@entry, 107428954:0A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10458]
+{org:en}
+Feeling earthquake, remember tsunami.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200607780:0K.@entry, 107349299:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10459]
+{org:en}
+Seeing tsunami, run up to a high place.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200332672:0G.@entry, 200662589:00.@progress)
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+obj(200662589:00.@progress, 107349299:07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10460]
+{org:en}
+Tsunami mitigation and steps to reduce potential losses
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10461]
+{org:en}
+In the opinion of UNESCO experts, over 70 percent of the Earth population in the early third millennium will live on the shore of seas and oceans.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10462]
+{org:en}
+Building activity at tourist centers, coastal industrial complexes, and port facilities verifies the hypothesis.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10463]
+{org:en}
+The owners of big hotels appearing at the attractive coastal areas are, evidently, poorly informed about the danger of tsunamis which hit the coastal zone every 100 years and sometimes more often.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10464]
+{org:en}
+What can help a coastal community mitigate tsunami-related catastrophes?
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10465]
+{org:en}
+First of all, scientific knowledge about tsunami hazards in works of literature and mass media.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10466]
+{org:en}
+In the second place, a vast network for simultaneous announcement of tsunami disaster warnings, using wireless transmitters and receivers, radio and television announcement, and mobile announcement systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10467]
+{org:en}
+Thirdly, a system of constructions and engineering structures to defend people and property from tsunamis.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(104377057:0B.@entry.@indef, 400535473:00)
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+frm(:01, 107349299:33.@pl)
+mod:02(104931965:1I.@entry.@pl, 106125041:16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10468]
+{org:en}
+There are several main rules recommended by specialists.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10469]
+{org:en}
+In the event of a tsunami alarm or earthquake occurrence, all ships and boats must immediately head for open sea (if they have time!).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10470]
+{org:en}
+All persons situated within the possible inundation zone (less than 20 meters above sea level), should leave houses and buildings and climb to higher elevations.
+{/org}
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+man(201575675:0C.@past, 600000042:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10471]
+{org:en}
+The low plain of a river, sloping bank and V-shaped bays are the most dangerous places.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(100169305:11.@topic, 115694001:07.@def.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10472]
+{org:en}
+It is well known that the same tsunami may generate waves with different amplitudes and shapes in the different areas of shore.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:10473]
+{org:en}
+In recent years, scientists have been working on methods of tsunami risk assessment, estimating the probability of tsunami occurrence in a given place during a set time interval and with an appointed wave height.
+{/org}
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+This is very important for the creation of maps of tsunami zonation.
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+{org:en}
+An example of the preliminary tsunami zoning draft containing the maximum tsunami heights for some points of the Russian Pacific coast for a 100-year period is presented in Table 2 (Pelinovsky, 1996).
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+{org:en}
+Table 2.
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10477]
+{org:en}
+Prediction of tsunami height at 100 years for the Far East region of Russia.
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+[S:10478]
+{org:en}
+Prognosis of tsunami wave heights gives the basis for choosing beach regions protected from tsunamis and suitable for building, as well as for the assessment of tsunami risk (or for tsunami zonation) of the whole coastline.
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+
+[S:10479]
+{org:en}
+The efficiency of tsunami zonation schemes depends on the number of tsunamis registered in the given coastline area.
+{/org}
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+[S:10480]
+{org:en}
+Because tsunami is a rare event (fortunately) statistics cannot provide a reliable forecast.
+{/org}
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+[S:10481]
+{org:en}
+Tsunami catalogs contain authentic information on tsunamis for only the last 100 years.
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+[S:10482]
+{org:en}
+Collected historical data about tsunamis in the period from 2000 B.C. to the present time (4000 years!) are in need of refinement, even when studying well-known Mediterranean regions.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+In the last decade, the investigation of palaetsunami, based on the study of ancient tsunami deposit traces at the beach, progressed rapidly.
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+{org:en}
+Recently, sand deposits from more than 50 catastrophic tsunamis over a period of 8000 years were revealed on the Pacific coast of Kamchatka which is longer than the Atlantic coast of Europe.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The detected data extend current catalogs of tsunamis and increase the reliability of forecasting and tsunami zonation schemes.
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+
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+{org:en}
+It is important to keep in mind that peaks of seismic activity in the Pacific are coincident with the peaks of volcano and solar activity.
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+The next peak of seismic energy generation is expected at the beginning of the third millennium.
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+{org:en}
+Some seismologists set their hopes on the study of seismic long-period precursors for great oceanic earthquakes, investigation of so-called "quiet earthquakes," and analysis of hydro-acoustical signals from tsunami source.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10489]
+{org:en}
+This may give us new means for tsunami forecasting.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10490]
+{org:en}
+Evidently, coastal protection constructions such as breakwaters, dams, and moles may be the best defense from tsunami waves.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10491]
+{org:en}
+Such constructions exist at many shore areas of Japan, Chile, and Hawaii.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(102735688:13.@pl, 104204468:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10492]
+{org:en}
+The Japanese cities Iosihama and Taro are wholly surrounded by similar structures to protect residents from tsunamis.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201467370:1K.@past.@entry, :01:01.@topic)
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+iof(:01.@topic, 108226335:0D.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10493]
+{org:en}
+Such constructions may be justified when the height of the wall is no more than 10 meters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10494]
+{org:en}
+According to Japanese specialists, the defense of bays or inlets from tsunamis is more effective than creation of coastal protection walls, because the breakwater is defending the coast as well as ships in the harbor.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(300044132:2M, 400099341:2H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10495]
+{org:en}
+Moles with an overall length of 740 meters were put in Ofunato Bay, Japan in 1967, and the wave height of the May 16, 1968 tsunami was reduced by one-half.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200045817:3R.@entry.@past, 201160370:1C.@past)
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+qua(103656231:0M.@indef, 103753077:10.@pl)
+tim(201160370:1C.@past, "1967":25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10496]
+{org:en}
+Forest plantings at the shore may be used for mitigation of a tsunami destructive force.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:11.@entry.@may, 100919513:07.@topic.@pl)
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+mod(100919513:07.@topic.@pl, 108438533:00)
+aoj(300586183:1Y, 105035353:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10497]
+{org:en}
+Numerous trees will dissipate the wave's energy and decrease the range of inundation inland.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(:01.@entry, 113104059:09.@topic.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10498]
+{org:en}
+Trees are obviously effective only in the case of smaller tsunamis.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301391351:1E, 107349299:1M.@pl)
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+man(301391351:1E, 400099341:1V)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10499]
+{org:en}
+The combination of a forest barrier with engineered constructions is believed to be the optimum means for reducing tsunami damage.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10500]
+{org:en}
+When a tsunami warning reaches people in time, the following efficient actions become a problem of administration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10501]
+{org:en}
+The usual list of the evacuation procedures includes the preventive education of staff and residents, a tsunami warning transmission system, checking of transport means for evacuation, prompt management of harbor working, checking of evacuation paths, and so on.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10502]
+{org:en}
+The performance of the system during an actual tsunami involves numerous difficulties.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10503]
+{org:en}
+For example, tsunami warning transmission systems are only provided only in cities, and do not reach the uninhabited shores visited by tourists and fishermen.
+{/org}
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+man(200406963:1N.@past, 400535197:1I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10504]
+{org:en}
+The tragic deaths of Japanese children on a school trip during the May 26, 1983 tsunami is a famous example.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105820620:2S.@indef.@entry, 100219575:0B.@def.@pl.@topic)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10505]
+{org:en}
+A nearby earthquake is very dangerous in terms of tsunamis.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+On July 12, 1993 at 22h 17m 12s local time, an earthquake of magnitude 7.8 occurred in the Sea of Japan west of Hokkaido and just offshore from the small island of Okushiri, generating a destructive tsunami.
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+At 22h 25m the 10-meter wave hit Aonae.
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+Of 2,000 residents, 200 were killed, the others safe at high ground.
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+For tsunami hazard areas, an optimum insurance strategy should be developed.
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+This is important for residents, for tsunami education, and for realization of tsunami mitigation activity.
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+The more a community supports the science of tsunami hazards, the more success can be gained in tsunami mitigation.
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+In the last few years, the education activity undertaken by scientists, scholars, and specialists in geo-sciences has increased in many countries.
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+A competition to design a comprehensive program of guide books and educational literature for teaching people to act correctly during natural hazards was announced recently in the USA.
+{/org}
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+A set of guides called "Earthquakes and tsunamis" and intended for schools was published in the 1990s in Chile.
+{/org}
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+These brightly written books were translated into English and Russian with the support of UNESCO.
+{/org}
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+In 1997 Bulgarian researchers and educators created the guide book "Risk management on natural hazards and catastrophes."
+{/org}
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+The Russian Foundation for Basic Research has regularly announced competitions for support of popular scientific articles to attract public attention to the latest advances in the Earth sciences since 1998.
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+Obviously the joint actions of scientists, educators, specialists, management, administration, insurance companies and the population of shore areas, with the support of governments and correct strategy, have a chance to reduce the damage from tsunamis significantly in the new millennium.
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+
+[S:10520]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
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+aoj(301971237:00, 106396142:08.@pl.@entry)
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+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106420781:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+Acoustic cavitation
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+
+[S:10523]
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+is a phenomenon of foaming of the subsurface water layer caused by reflection of the compression wave from the water surface.
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+mod(101463259:1H.@def, 115690282:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10524]
+{org:en}
+Asteroid
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
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+[/W]
+[W]
+109208702:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10525]
+{org:en}
+is a small planet which moves around the Sun and has a size from one to several hundreds of kilometers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:1F.@entry, :00.@topic)
+aoj(301391351:07, 109394007:0D.@indef)
+qua(113659760:2M.@pl, :01:01)
+obj(200065370:1F.@entry, 105095691:1L.@indef)
+aoj(200065370:1F.@entry, :00.@topic)
+aoj(301391351:07, 109394007:0D.@indef)
+qua(113659760:2M.@pl, :01:01)
+obj(200065370:1F.@entry, 105095691:1L.@indef)
+obj(200124442:0Q, 109394007:0D.@indef)
+and(200065370:1F.@entry, 109394007:0D.@indef)
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+aoj(109394007:0D.@indef, :00.@topic)
+obj(600000090:0V, 109450454:17.@def)
+qua:01("100":2A.@entry, 600000059:22)
+obj(600000090:0V, 109450454:17.@def)
+qua:01("100":2A.@entry, 600000059:22)
+cnt(105095691:1L.@indef, 113659760:2M.@pl)
+man(200124442:0Q, 600000090:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10526]
+{org:en}
+Bolide
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+111484260:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+111484260:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10527]
+{org:en}
+is a meteorite which fluoresces brightly when it nears the Earth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(109352849:07.@entry.@indef, 600000016:1C.@topic)
+gol(202775130:1F, 108562067:1P.@def)
+man(202161160:0N, 400535481:0Y)
+aoj(109352849:07.@entry.@indef, 600000016:1C.@topic)
+gol(202775130:1F, 108562067:1P.@def)
+man(202161160:0N, 400535481:0Y)
+obj(202161160:0N, 109352849:07.@entry.@indef)
+tim(109352849:07.@entry.@indef, 202775130:1F)
+obj(202775130:1F, 600000016:1C.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10528]
+{org:en}
+Gas hydrate
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(114910440:04.@entry, 114481080:00)
+mod(114910440:04.@entry, 114481080:00)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10529]
+{org:en}
+is a solid crystal-granular material that is a special compound of natural gas with water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103729951:0U.@entry, :00.@topic)
+mod(103081859:1L.@indef, 114481080:25)
+aoj(:01, 103729951:0U.@entry.@indef)
+aoj(103729951:0U.@entry, :00.@topic)
+mod(103081859:1L.@indef, 114481080:25)
+aoj(:01, 103729951:0U.@entry.@indef)
+aoj(301335708:1X, 114481080:25)
+aoj(300291181:07, 103729951:0U.@entry.@indef)
+aoj(600000019:29, 114481080:25)
+aoj(103081859:1L.@indef, 103729951:0U.@entry.@indef)
+aoj(301678729:1D, 103081859:1L.@indef)
+aoj(301678729:1D, 103081859:1L.@indef)
+and:01(303158564:0L.@entry, 303161298:08)
+obj(600000019:29, 107935504:2E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10530]
+{org:en}
+Long gravity waves
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300015589:00, 107344875:05.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300015589:00, 107344875:05.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10531]
+{org:en}
+at a water surface, to which a tsunami is related, have a great length in comparison with the water depth, very small amplitude in comparison with the wave length, and these are propagating under gravity along the water surface.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200055539:50.@progress.@entry, 200065370:1H)
+aoj:01(600000396:21, 103656231:1U.@indef)
+obj(301971237:18, 104362025:0D.@indef)
+obj(202775577:5Q, 104362025:66.@def)
+man:01(301391351:36, 400031899:31)
+man(200055539:50.@progress.@entry, 600000003:5C)
+mod:01(105094725:2U.@def, 107935504:2O)
+and:01(105098311:3C.@entry, 103656231:1U.@indef)
+and(200055539:50.@progress.@entry, 200065370:1H)
+aoj:01(600000396:21, 103656231:1U.@indef)
+obj(301971237:18, 104362025:0D.@indef)
+obj(202775577:5Q, 104362025:66.@def)
+man:01(301391351:36, 400031899:31)
+man(200055539:50.@progress.@entry, 600000003:5C)
+mod:01(105094725:2U.@def, 107935504:2O)
+and:01(105098311:3C.@entry, 103656231:1U.@indef)
+obj(200065370:1H, :01)
+mod:01(103656231:4E.@def, 100346095:49)
+man(200055539:50.@progress.@entry, 202775577:5Q)
+obj:01(600000396:21, 105094725:2U.@def)
+aoj(301971237:18, 107349299:0X.@indef)
+aoj(200065370:1H, 600000022:4Q.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(600000396:3M, 103656231:4E.@def)
+obj(200055539:50.@progress.@entry, 600000022:4Q.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(103656231:1U.@indef, 301278818:1O)
+mod(104362025:0D.@indef, 107935504:07)
+mod(104362025:66.@def, 107935504:60)
+mod:01(103656231:1U.@indef, 301278818:1O)
+mod(104362025:0D.@indef, 107935504:07)
+mod(104362025:66.@def, 107935504:60)
+aoj:01(301391351:36, 105098311:3C.@entry)
+obj(600000003:5C, 107512147:5I)
+aoj:01(600000396:3M, 105098311:3C.@entry)
+plc(200065370:1H, 104362025:0D.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10532]
+{org:en}
+Meteorite
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+109352849:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+109352849:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10533]
+{org:en}
+is an iron or stone celestial body the size of under 10m falling on the Earth out of the space.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(109239740:0M.@indef.@entry, :00.@topic)
+obj(600000096:28, 106389553:2J.@def)
+obj(200147815:1N, 109239740:0M.@indef.@entry)
+or:01(104326084:0G.@entry, 103584829:08)
+aoj(109239740:0M.@indef.@entry, :00.@topic)
+obj(600000096:28, 106389553:2J.@def)
+obj(200147815:1N, 109239740:0M.@indef.@entry)
+or:01(104326084:0G.@entry, 103584829:08)
+obj(600000009:1D, 106832464:1L)
+mod(109239740:0M.@indef.@entry, :01)
+man(200147815:1N, 600000096:28)
+mod(105095691:15.@def, 109239740:0M.@indef.@entry)
+plc(200147815:1N, 108562067:22.@def)
+plc(200147815:1N, 108562067:22.@def)
+aoj(600000009:1D, 105095691:15.@def)
+qua(106832464:1L, "10":1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10534]
+{org:en}
+Seaquake
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+107429870:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+107429870:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10535]
+{org:en}
+is a disturbance of water surface induced by the submarine earthquake.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100333829:07.@entry.@indef, :00.@topic)
+aoj(302472137:1F, 107428954:1P.@def)
+mod(104362025:0S, 107935504:0M)
+aoj(100333829:07.@entry.@indef, :00.@topic)
+aoj(302472137:1F, 107428954:1P.@def)
+mod(104362025:0S, 107935504:0M)
+obj(200636441:10.@past, 104362025:0S)
+obj(100333829:07.@entry.@indef, 104362025:0S)
+agt(200636441:10.@past, 107428954:1P.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10536]
+{org:en}
+Tsunami
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+107349299:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+107349299:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10537]
+{org:en}
+is a big wave induced by a bottom earthquake, a submarine landslide, underwater volcano eruption, atmospheric disturbance, cosmic body fall or the decomposition of a gas hydrate at the shelf.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100346095:0B.@indef.@entry, :00.@topic)
+mod:01(100076884:3T, 102861886:3O)
+obj:01(106013471:45.@entry.@def, 114910440:4S.@indef)
+mod:01(107405411:1O.@indef, 104347754:1E)
+aoj(300173391:07, 100346095:0B.@indef.@entry)
+mod:01(115691950:2A, 115669423:1Z)
+aoj(100346095:0B.@indef.@entry, :00.@topic)
+mod:01(100076884:3T, 102861886:3O)
+obj:01(106013471:45.@entry.@def, 114910440:4S.@indef)
+mod:01(107405411:1O.@indef, 104347754:1E)
+aoj(300173391:07, 100346095:0B.@indef.@entry)
+mod:01(115691950:2A, 115669423:1Z)
+or:01(100076884:3T, 115691657:2S)
+obj(200636441:0G.@past, 100346095:0B.@indef.@entry)
+or:01(115691950:2A, 107405411:1O.@indef)
+mod:01(114910440:4S.@indef, 114481080:4O)
+agt(200636441:0G.@past, :01)
+or:01(115691657:2S, 115691950:2A)
+plc:01(114910440:4S.@indef, 104190052:57.@def)
+or:01(115691657:2S, 115691950:2A)
+plc:01(114910440:4S.@indef, 104190052:57.@def)
+mod:01(107428954:10.@indef, 102878222:0T)
+or:01(106013471:45.@entry.@def, 100076884:3T)
+or:01(107405411:1O.@indef, 107428954:10.@indef)
+aoj:01(115691701:3H, 100076884:3T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10538]
+{org:en}
+Tsunami source
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104263614:08.@entry, 107349299:00)
+mod(104263614:08.@entry, 107349299:00)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10539]
+{org:en}
+is a place where a tsunami was generated.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100721431:07.@entry.@indef, :00.@topic)
+aoj(100721431:07.@entry.@indef, :00.@topic)
+obj(201627355:0X.@past, 107349299:0L.@indef)
+plc(201627355:0X.@past, 100721431:07.@entry.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10540]
+{org:en}
+Tsunamigenic earthquake
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115692423:00, 107428954:0D.@entry)
+aoj(115692423:00, 107428954:0D.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10541]
+{org:en}
+is an earthquake which generates a tsunami wave.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(107428954:08.@entry.@indef, :00.@topic)
+mod(100346095:19.@indef, 107349299:11)
+aoj(107428954:08.@entry.@indef, :00.@topic)
+mod(100346095:19.@indef, 107349299:11)
+obj(201627355:0P, 100346095:19.@indef)
+agt(201627355:0P, 107428954:08.@entry.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10542]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10543]
+{org:en}
+Basov B.I., Dorfman A.A., Levin B.W., and Kharlamov A.A.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500322999:16.@entry, 500322982:0Q)
+and(500322999:16.@entry, 500322982:0Q)
+and(500323068:0C, 500323218:00)
+and(500322982:0Q, 500323068:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10544]
+{org:en}
+On disturbance of the ocean surface induced by eruption of the submarine volcano.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000036:1V.@entry, 100333829:1W)
+mod(107320176:34, 115693125:3K.@def)
+mod(104362025:2L.@def, 109376198:2F)
+obj(600000036:1V.@entry, 100333829:1W)
+mod(107320176:34, 115693125:3K.@def)
+mod(104362025:2L.@def, 109376198:2F)
+obj(200636441:2T.@past, 100333829:1W)
+obj(100333829:1W, 104362025:2L.@def)
+agt(200636441:2T.@past, 107320176:34)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10545]
+{org:en}
+Vulcanologia i seismologia
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324345:3M.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500324345:3M.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10546]
+{org:en}
+In Russian
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000093:5I.@entry, 109728403:5G)
+obj(600000093:5I.@entry, 109728403:5G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10547]
+{org:en}
+An investigation of parameters of a local water elevation above an acting volcano based on the theory of underwater explosion and original experiments.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100633864:04.@entry.@indef, 105859071:0L.@pl)
+mod:01(105952979:2O.@def, 100377364:39)
+mod(103281052:1D.@indef, 107935504:17)
+aoj(600000072:1N, 103281052:1D.@indef)
+obj(100633864:04.@entry.@indef, 105859071:0L.@pl)
+mod:01(105952979:2O.@def, 100377364:39)
+mod(103281052:1D.@indef, 107935504:17)
+aoj(600000072:1N, 103281052:1D.@indef)
+obj(302351064:2B, :01)
+aoj(302351064:2B, 100633864:04.@entry.@indef)
+mod:01(100377364:39, 303161918:2Y)
+agt(200010435:1W.@progress, 109470550:23.@indef)
+mod(105859071:0L.@pl, 103281052:1D.@indef)
+mod:01(100639556:3W.@entry.@pl, 300699207:3N)
+obj(600000072:1N, 109470550:23.@indef)
+mod:01(100639556:3W.@entry.@pl, 300699207:3N)
+obj(600000072:1N, 109470550:23.@indef)
+aoj(301106405:11, 103281052:1D.@indef)
+and:01(100639556:3W.@entry.@pl, 105952979:2O.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10548]
+{org:en}
+Filonov A.E.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323193:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323193:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10549]
+{org:en}
+Researchers study tsunami generated by Mexican Earthquake.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200607114:0X.@entry, 115670073:0L.@pl)
+agt(201627355:1B.@past, 107428954:1W)
+agt(200607114:0X.@entry, 115670073:0L.@pl)
+agt(201627355:1B.@past, 107428954:1W)
+obj(201627355:1B.@past, 107349299:13)
+obj(200607114:0X.@entry, 107349299:13)
+aoj(303026902:1O, 107428954:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10550]
+{org:en}
+EOS
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500006285:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500006285:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10551]
+{org:en}
+This work demonstrates the materials of unique records made by offshore buoy gauges near the epicentre.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202521816:0B.@entry, 100575741:06.@topic)
+mod(100575741:06.@topic, 600000017:01)
+agt(200012267:1K.@past, 103429288:26.@pl)
+obj(200012267:1K.@past, 100047745:1C.@pl)
+agt(202521816:0B.@entry, 100575741:06.@topic)
+mod(100575741:06.@topic, 600000017:01)
+agt(200012267:1K.@past, 103429288:26.@pl)
+obj(200012267:1K.@past, 100047745:1C.@pl)
+mod(103429288:26.@pl, 107266178:21)
+mod(103729951:0S.@def.@pl, 100047745:1C.@pl)
+aoj(300464399:1S, 103429288:26.@pl)
+obj(202521816:0B.@entry, 103729951:0S.@def.@pl)
+aoj(600000081:2D, 103429288:26.@pl)
+aoj(600000081:2D, 103429288:26.@pl)
+aoj(300491511:15, 100047745:1C.@pl)
+obj(600000081:2D, 108578032:2M.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10552]
+{org:en}
+Future of Gas Hydrate Research (1999).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103408721:00.@entry, 100636921:0M)
+mod(103408721:00.@entry, 100636921:0M)
+mod(114910440:0E, 114481080:0A)
+obj(100636921:0M, 114910440:0E)
+[W]
+"1999":0W.@parenthesis.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10553]
+{org:en}
+EOS
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500006285:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500006285:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10554]
+{org:en}
+A review of gas hydrates in geophysical aspects.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100897811:03.@entry.@indef, 114910440:0H.@pl)
+aoj(302908235:0T, 104733118:15.@pl)
+mod(100897811:03.@entry.@indef, 114910440:0H.@pl)
+aoj(302908235:0T, 104733118:15.@pl)
+mod(114910440:0H.@pl, 114481080:0D)
+scn(100897811:03.@entry.@indef, 104733118:15.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10555]
+{org:en}
+Kremlev A.N., Soloviev V.A., and Ginsburg G.D.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323300:0X.@entry, 500323166:0E)
+and(500323300:0X.@entry, 500323166:0E)
+and(500323166:0E, 500323199:00)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10556]
+{org:en}
+Reflecting seismic horisont in the basement of the submarine stable zone of gas hydrates.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200821580:00.@entry.@progress, 115692809:0J)
+aoj(302472137:1F, 105611062:1W.@def)
+mod(102800497:0Z.@def, 105611062:1W.@def)
+obj(200821580:00.@entry.@progress, 115692809:0J)
+aoj(302472137:1F, 105611062:1W.@def)
+mod(102800497:0Z.@def, 105611062:1W.@def)
+aoj(302293230:0B, 115692809:0J)
+mod(114910440:28.@pl, 114481080:24)
+plc(115692809:0J, 102800497:0Z.@def)
+aoj(300894551:1P, 105611062:1W.@def)
+aoj(300894551:1P, 105611062:1W.@def)
+mod(105611062:1W.@def, 114910440:28.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10557]
+{org:en}
+Geologia i Geofizika
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
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+[/W]
+[W]
+500324084:3M.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10558]
+{org:en}
+In Russian
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000093:5I.@entry, 109728403:5G)
+obj(600000093:5I.@entry, 109728403:5G)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10559]
+{org:en}
+Presents the results of observation and analysis of gas hydrate deposit characteristics and the description of the discovered zone of free gas under hydrate body boundary.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200772967:01.@entry, :00.@topic)
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+
+[S:10560]
+{org:en}
+Kulikov E.A., Rabinovich A.B., Thomson R.E., and Bornhold B.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10561]
+{org:en}
+The landslide tsunami of November 3, 1994, Skagway Harbour, Alaska.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(107349299:0E.@def.@entry, 500323655:1F)
+mod(107349299:0E.@def, 303163430:04)
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+mod(107349299:0E.@def, 303163430:04)
+tim("3":0Y, 115213406:0P)
+tim(107349299:0E.@def.@entry, "3":0Y)
+plc(500323655:1F, 500004503:1O)
+tim(115213406:0P, "1994":11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10562]
+{org:en}
+J. Geophys. Res.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324140:1W.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500324140:1W.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10563]
+{org:en}
+C3, 6609-6615.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324013:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500324013:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+"6609-6615":01.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10564]
+{org:en}
+This article gives a modern analysis of the landslide-created tsunami mechanism on the basis of accurate study of the real event.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200108604:0E.@entry, 100022903:06.@topic)
+aoj(300021766:2P, 104345028:2Y)
+obj(201640207:1J.@past, 100098385:1Z.@def)
+obj(100634276:0T.@indef, 100098385:1Z.@def)
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+obj(100634276:0T.@indef, 100098385:1Z.@def)
+obj(600000085:29, 104345028:2Y)
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+mod(100022903:06.@topic, 600000017:01)
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+man(200108604:0E.@entry, 600000085:29)
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+mod(100098385:1Z.@def, 107349299:1R)
+mod(100029378:3G.@def, 300013662:3B)
+mod(100098385:1Z.@def, 107349299:1R)
+mod(100634276:0T.@indef, 300414354:0M)
+mod(104345028:2Y, 100029378:3G.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10565]
+{org:en}
+Levin B.W., Kaistrenko V.M., Kryshnij V.M., Kharlamov A.A., and Chepareva M.A.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323126:1S.@entry, 500322999:18)
+and(500323028:0C, 500322982:00)
+and(500323126:1S.@entry, 500322999:18)
+and(500323028:0C, 500322982:00)
+and(500323029:0T, 500323028:0C)
+and(500322999:18, 500323029:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10566]
+{org:en}
+Physical processes in the ocean as indicators for direct tsunami registration from satellite
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(100029677:09.@entry.@pl, 109376198:0Q.@def)
+frm(100050037:1T, 104137444:2B)
+obj(600000032:0W, 103568117:0Z.@pl)
+plc(100029677:09.@entry.@pl, 109376198:0Q.@def)
+frm(100050037:1T, 104137444:2B)
+obj(600000032:0W, 103568117:0Z.@pl)
+aoj(600000032:0W, 100029677:09.@entry.@pl)
+mod(100050037:1T, 107349299:1L)
+aoj(300627004:00, 100029677:09.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300005473:1E, 100050037:1T)
+aoj(300005473:1E, 100050037:1T)
+pur(103568117:0Z.@pl, 100050037:1T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10567]
+{org:en}
+Proc. of the IUGG/IOC Int. Tsunami Sympos
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115694243:3A.@entry, 108327616:3D.@def)
+aoj(301568375:3C, 108327616:3D.@def)
+mod(115694243:3A.@entry, 108327616:3D.@def)
+aoj(301568375:3C, 108327616:3D.@def)
+mod(108327616:3D.@def, 500323850:3B)
+mod(108327616:3D.@def, 107349299:3C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10568]
+{org:en}
+Wakayama, Japan
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323751:3E.@entry, 103593222:3F)
+plc(500323751:3E.@entry, 103593222:3F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10569]
+{org:en}
+This represents the shock-wave physics approach to the study of seismic phenomena in the ocean.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200825447:06.@entry, 600000022:01.@topic)
+mod(104345028:1K.@def, 100034213:21)
+mod(100280853:14.@def, 106090869:0W)
+aoj(200825447:06.@entry, 600000022:01.@topic)
+mod(104345028:1K.@def, 100034213:21)
+mod(100280853:14.@def, 106090869:0W)
+obj(200825447:06.@entry, 100280853:14.@def)
+aoj(302293230:1T, 100034213:21)
+gol(200825447:06.@entry, 104345028:1K.@def)
+plc(100034213:21, 109376198:2I.@def)
+plc(100034213:21, 109376198:2I.@def)
+mod(106090869:0W, 115696063:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10570]
+{org:en}
+Levin B.W.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500322982:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500322982:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10571]
+{org:en}
+Nonlinear oscillating structures in the earthquake and seaquake dynamics.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(104931965:0M.@entry.@pl, 106113597:1S.@def)
+mod(106113597:1S.@def, :02)
+scn(104931965:0M.@entry.@pl, 106113597:1S.@def)
+mod(106113597:1S.@def, :02)
+obj(201878063:0A.@progress, 104931965:0M.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300658259:03.@not, 104931965:0M.@entry.@pl)
+and:02(107429870:1J.@def.@entry, 107428954:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10572]
+{org:en}
+CHAOS
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106246529:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106246529:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10573]
+{org:en}
+Provides extensive data concerning conditions of the space-time structures occurrence and experimental study of Faraday ripple with big cells.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200406963:01.@entry, :00.@topic)
+aoj:01(600000019:3K, 107344663:3D)
+aoj:01(301386234:0A, 108462320:0K)
+and:01(115692120:2J.@entry, 108462320:0K)
+aoj:01(300173391:3P, 100006484:3T.@pl)
+agt(200406963:01.@entry, :00.@topic)
+aoj:01(600000019:3K, 107344663:3D)
+aoj:01(301386234:0A, 108462320:0K)
+and:01(115692120:2J.@entry, 108462320:0K)
+aoj:01(300173391:3P, 100006484:3T.@pl)
+mod:01(104931965:1T.@def.@pl, 106010737:1I)
+obj:01(115692120:2J.@entry, 107344663:3D)
+obj:01(600000019:3K, 100006484:3T.@pl)
+mod:01(105798863:10.@pl, 113959069:24)
+obj(200406963:01.@entry, :01:01)
+mod:01(107344663:3D, 500323286:35)
+obj:01(600000182:0P, 105798863:10.@pl)
+mod:01(107344663:3D, 500323286:35)
+obj:01(600000182:0P, 105798863:10.@pl)
+aoj:01(600000182:0P, 108462320:0K)
+mod:01(113959069:24, 104931965:1T.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10574]
+{org:en}
+Levin B.W., Nosov M.A., Pavlov V.P., and Rykunov L.N.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323006:15.@entry, 500323030:0O)
+and(500323006:15.@entry, 500323030:0O)
+and(500322988:0C, 500322982:00)
+and(500323030:0O, 500322988:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10575]
+{org:en}
+Cooling of the Ocean Surface as a Result of Seaquakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200369864:00.@entry.@progress, 104362025:0L.@def)
+obj(600000056:0T, 107429870:18.@pl)
+obj(200369864:00.@entry.@progress, 104362025:0L.@def)
+obj(600000056:0T, 107429870:18.@pl)
+mod(104362025:0L.@def, 109376198:0F)
+man(200369864:00.@entry.@progress, 600000056:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10576]
+{org:en}
+Dokladi Earth Sciences
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323802:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323802:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10577]
+{org:en}
+pp.132-135.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115669681:3D.@entry, "132-135":3E)
+mod(115669681:3D.@entry, "132-135":3E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10578]
+{org:en}
+First description of revealed sea surface temperature anomalies above the bottom earthquake.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105840076:07.@entry, 108622763:1J.@pl)
+mod(105011790:17, 115691587:0V)
+obj(202144243:0M.@past, 108622763:1J.@pl)
+mod(105840076:07.@entry, 108622763:1J.@pl)
+mod(105011790:17, 115691587:0V)
+obj(202144243:0M.@past, 108622763:1J.@pl)
+aoj(600000072:1T, 108622763:1J.@pl)
+mod(107428954:2A.@def, 102878222:23)
+mod(105840076:07.@entry, "1":01.@ordinal)
+obj(600000072:1T, 107428954:2A.@def)
+obj(600000072:1T, 107428954:2A.@def)
+mod(108622763:1J.@pl, 105011790:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10579]
+{org:en}
+Pelinovsky E.N.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323273:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323273:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10580]
+{org:en}
+Tsunami waves hydrodynamics
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106113914:12.@entry, 100346095:0W.@pl)
+mod(106113914:12.@entry, 100346095:0W.@pl)
+mod(100346095:0W.@pl, 107349299:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10581]
+{org:en}
+275 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(115669681:1L.@entry, "275":1H)
+qua(115669681:1L.@entry, "275":1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10582]
+{org:en}
+Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323727:3A.@entry, 500004285:3B)
+plc(500323727:3A.@entry, 500004285:3B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10583]
+{org:en}
+In Russian
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000093:5I.@entry, 109728403:5G)
+obj(600000093:5I.@entry, 109728403:5G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10584]
+{org:en}
+Dedicated to the theory of tsunami waves at all the stages from generation to waves climbing a beach.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200677966:01.@entry, :00.@topic)
+to(100306900:1H.@def.@pl, 100346095:27.@pl)
+plc(100346095:10.@pl, 100306900:1H.@def.@pl)
+obj(200677966:01.@entry, :00.@topic)
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+plc(100346095:10.@pl, 100306900:1H.@def.@pl)
+agt(200249017:2D.@progress, 100346095:27.@pl)
+mod(105952979:0I.@def, 100346095:10.@pl)
+mod(100306900:1H.@def.@pl, 300521584:19)
+gol(200677966:01.@entry, 105952979:0I.@def)
+frm(100306900:1H.@def.@pl, 100849982:1T)
+frm(100306900:1H.@def.@pl, 100849982:1T)
+mod(100346095:10.@pl, 107349299:0S)
+obj(200249017:2D.@progress, 109217230:2O.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10585]
+{org:en}
+Petrenko V.E. and Marchuk An.G.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323207:0I.@entry, 500323497:00)
+and(500323207:0I.@entry, 500323497:00)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10586]
+{org:en}
+Numerical modeling of cosmogenic tsunami.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100937895:1E.@entry, 107349299:21)
+obj(100937895:1E.@entry, 107349299:21)
+aoj(303163108:1Q, 107349299:21)
+aoj(302230795:14, 100937895:1E.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10587]
+{org:en}
+PACON96 Abstract
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115691964:2I.@entry, 500324229:2A)
+mod(115691964:2I.@entry, 500324229:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10588]
+{org:en}
+Honolulu, Hawaii, USA
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500004620:2S.@entry, 500004618:32)
+plc(500004620:2S.@entry, 500004618:32)
+plc(500004618:32, 500323518:3A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10589]
+{org:en}
+Presents the peculiarities of tsunami waves created by meteorite fall in the ocean.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200772967:01.@entry, :00.@topic)
+agt(201640207:19.@past, 100076884:1U)
+obj(201640207:19.@past, 100346095:13.@pl)
+agt(200772967:01.@entry, :00.@topic)
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+mod(104763925:0E.@def.@pl, 100346095:13.@pl)
+mod(100076884:1U, 109352849:1K)
+obj(200772967:01.@entry, 104763925:0E.@def.@pl)
+plc(100076884:1U, 109376198:26.@def)
+plc(100076884:1U, 109376198:26.@def)
+mod(100346095:13.@pl, 107349299:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10590]
+{org:en}
+Rabinovich A.B., and Monserrat S.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323465:0L.@entry, 500323033:00)
+and(500323465:0L.@entry, 500323033:00)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10591]
+{org:en}
+;Generation of meteorological tsunami (large amplitude seishes) near the Balearic and Kuril Islands.Generation of meteorological tsunami (large amplitude seiches) near the Balearic and Kuril Islands.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100849982:16.@entry, 107349299:1Z)
+mod:02(115694385:2O.@entry, 105098311:2E)
+aoj(303161104:1K, 107349299:1Z)
+obj(100849982:16.@entry, 107349299:1Z)
+mod:02(115694385:2O.@entry, 105098311:2E)
+aoj(303161104:1K, 107349299:1Z)
+cnt(107349299:1Z, :02.@parenthesis)
+and:03(500323714:3J.@entry.@def, 500323996:36.@def)
+aoj(600000081:2X, 100849982:16.@entry)
+obj(600000081:2X, :03)
+obj(600000081:2X, :03)
+aoj:02(300527870:28, 115694385:2O.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10592]
+{org:en}
+Natural Hazards
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324197:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500324197:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10593]
+{org:en}
+Presents the conditions of tsunami generation by atmospheric disturbances.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200772967:01.@entry, :00.@topic)
+obj(600000035:24, 115691657:1E.@pl)
+man(100849982:10, 600000035:24)
+agt(200772967:01.@entry, :00.@topic)
+obj(600000035:24, 115691657:1E.@pl)
+man(100849982:10, 600000035:24)
+mod(105798863:0E.@def.@pl, 100849982:10)
+obj(200772967:01.@entry, 105798863:0E.@def.@pl)
+mod(100849982:10, 107349299:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10594]
+{org:en}
+Soloviev S.L., Go Ch.N., Kim H.S., Solovieva O.N., and Schetnikov N.A.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323136:1J.@entry, 500323022:0Z)
+and(500323013:0F, 500323157:00)
+and(500323136:1J.@entry, 500323022:0Z)
+and(500323013:0F, 500323157:00)
+and(500323016:0P, 500323013:0F)
+and(500323022:0Z, 500323016:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10595]
+{org:en}
+Tsunamis in the Mediterranean Sea.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(107349299:27.@pl.@entry, 500005601:2N.@def)
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+
+[S:10596]
+{org:en}
+2000 B.C. - 1991 A.D.
+{/org}
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+fmt("1991":3I.@entry, "2000":36)
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+
+[S:10597]
+{org:en}
+Edited by J.Bonnin, B.Levin, G. Popadopoulos, S.Tinti. Kluwer Acad. Press.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:10598]
+{org:en}
+in press
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+600000297:00.@entry
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+[W]
+600000297:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10599]
+{org:en}
+A catalog of tsunamis that have occurred in the Mediterranean sea region.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106416206:03.@entry.@indef, 107349299:0E.@pl)
+mod(109426788:1R, 303085213:1D)
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+{org:en}
+Tinti S.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[W]
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10601]
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+Tsunami in the world.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(107349299:0H.@entry, 105670972:0W.@def)
+plc(107349299:0H.@entry, 105670972:0W.@def)
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+
+[S:10602]
+{org:en}
+Kluwer Acad. Press.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323712:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323712:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10603]
+{org:en}
+A review of great tsunami events.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100897811:03.@entry.@indef, 100029378:0R.@pl)
+mod(100897811:03.@entry.@indef, 100029378:0R.@pl)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10604]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketch
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104227144:0D.@entry, 303161322:00)
+mod(104227144:0D.@entry, 303161322:00)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10605]
+{org:en}
+LEVIN Boris Wulfovich HTM1 was born in Moscow, Russia in1937.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(500004288:15, 500004285:1D)
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+tim(301733462:0X.@entry.@past, "1937":1N)
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+
+[S:10606]
+{org:en}
+Diplomaed Mining Engineer, Moscow, 1959
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
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+{org:en}
+PhD, Skochinsky Institute of Mining, 1970
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[W]
+"1970":11.@entry
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10608]
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+Diplomaed Senior Researcher, Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, 1980
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10609]
+{org:en}
+Doctor of Science in physics and mathematics, Institute of Geosystems, Moscow, 1990
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(106000644:0X.@entry, 106090869:0L)
+scn(105999797:0A, :01:01)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10610]
+{org:en}
+Diplomaed Professor of physics, Russian Ministry of Education, 2000.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(110480730:0A.@entry, 303162181:00)
+mod(110480730:0A.@entry, 303162181:00)
+scn(110480730:0A.@entry, 106090869:0N)
+[W]
+500324269:0W.@entry
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10611]
+{org:en}
+Head of seismology and tsunami station "Kurilsk" in Kurilsk, Kurile Isls., then head of laboratory, Sakhalin Institute of Far East Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, 1971-1980.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(303162654:2G, 500323908:2S)
+mod(115693928:1W.@pl, :03)
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+nam(104306080:0V, 500323715:14.@double_quote)
+plc(500323556:3X, 115669578:4T)
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+dur(101318381:28, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10612]
+{org:en}
+Head of tsunami laboratory, Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, since 1998 to present.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(101318381:00.@entry, :01)
+plc(500323556:1P, 500004288:2I)
+pof(103629986:0G, 500323914:0S)
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+fmt:01(106329734:34.@entry, "1998":2W)
+pof(500323914:0S, 500323556:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10613]
+{org:en}
+Director of Geosciences Department, Russian Foundation for Basic Research, Moscow, since 1993 to present.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(110014939:00.@entry, 105853273:0O)
+pur(103387016:18, 100636921:1T)
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+aoj(302957276:10, 103387016:18)
+plc(103387016:18, 500004288:23)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10614]
+{org:en}
+Professor in physics of Moscow State Mining University since 1994 to present.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(110480730:00.@entry, 106090869:0D)
+fmt:01(106329734:1X.@entry, "1994":1P)
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+mod(110480730:00.@entry, 500324190:0O)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10615]
+{org:en}
+Chairman of Russian Tsunami Commission, member of American Geophysical Union, member of International Tsunami Commission, AGU
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115690363:00.@entry, 500324270:0C)
+mod(115690363:00.@entry, 500324270:0C)
+mod(108170686:26.@entry, 500324120:2G)
+mod(108170686:14.@entry, 500323771:1E)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10616]
+{org:en}
+member of the Seismological Society of America
+{/org}
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+mod(108170686:00.@pl, 500324287:0E.@entry.@def)
+mod(108170686:00.@pl, 500324287:0E.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10617]
+{org:en}
+member of Scientific Council of Moscow State University and member of editorial council of Journal "Volcanology and Seismology".
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(108170686:1O.@pl.@entry, 108170686:00.@pl)
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+and(108170686:1O.@pl.@entry, 108170686:00.@pl)
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+and:01(106120496:38.@entry.@double_quote, 106120653:2S)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10618]
+{org:en}
+Main articles and edited book
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(102870092:0P.@entry, 100022903:05.@pl)
+and(102870092:0P.@entry, 100022903:05.@pl)
+mod(100022903:05.@pl, 301512527:00)
+obj(200200397:0I.@past, 102870092:0P.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10619]
+{org:en}
+Levin B.W., Kaistrenko V.M., Kryshnij V.M., Kharlamov A.A., and Chepareva M.A.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323126:1S.@entry, 500322999:18)
+and(500323028:0C, 500322982:00)
+and(500323126:1S.@entry, 500322999:18)
+and(500323028:0C, 500322982:00)
+and(500323029:0T, 500323028:0C)
+and(500322999:18, 500323029:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10620]
+{org:en}
+Physical processes in the ocean as indicators for direct tsunami registration from satellite
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(100029677:09.@entry.@pl, 109376198:0Q.@def)
+frm(100050037:1T, 104137444:2B)
+obj(600000032:0W, 103568117:0Z.@pl)
+plc(100029677:09.@entry.@pl, 109376198:0Q.@def)
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+aoj(300005473:1E, 100050037:1T)
+aoj(300005473:1E, 100050037:1T)
+pur(103568117:0Z.@pl, 100050037:1T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10621]
+{org:en}
+Proc. of the IUGG/IOC Int. Tsunami Sympos
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115695893:3A.@entry, 108327616:3D.@def)
+aoj(301568375:3C, 108327616:3D.@def)
+mod(115695893:3A.@entry, 108327616:3D.@def)
+aoj(301568375:3C, 108327616:3D.@def)
+mod(108327616:3D.@def, 500323850:3B)
+mod(108327616:3D.@def, 107349299:3C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10622]
+{org:en}
+Wakayama, Japan
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500323751:3E.@entry, 103593222:3F)
+plc(500323751:3E.@entry, 103593222:3F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10623]
+{org:en}
+Levin B.W.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500322982:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500322982:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10624]
+{org:en}
+Nonlinear oscillating structures in the earthquake and seaquake dynamics.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(104931965:0M.@entry.@pl, 106113597:1S.@def)
+mod(106113597:1S.@def, :01)
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+mod(106113597:1S.@def, :01)
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+mod(104931965:0M.@entry.@pl, 301417790:00)
+and:01(107429870:1J.@entry, 107428954:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10625]
+{org:en}
+CHAOS
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106246529:01.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106246529:01.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10626]
+{org:en}
+Publication of American Institute of Physics
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101101958:00.@entry, 500323979:0F)
+mod(101101958:00.@entry, 500323979:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10627]
+{org:en}
+Levin B.W., Nosov M.A., Pavlov V.P., and Rykunov L.N.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323006:15.@entry, 500323030:0O)
+and(500323006:15.@entry, 500323030:0O)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10628]
+{org:en}
+Cooling of the Ocean Surface as a Result of Seaquakes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200369864:00.@entry.@progress, 104362025:0L.@def)
+obj(600000056:0T, 107429870:18.@pl)
+obj(200369864:00.@entry.@progress, 104362025:0L.@def)
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+aoj(303162719:0F, 104362025:0L.@def)
+man(200369864:00.@entry.@progress, 600000056:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10629]
+{org:en}
+Dokladi Earth Sciences
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323802:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323802:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10630]
+{org:en}
+pp.132-135.mod (pp (equ>page):01.@entry, 132-135:02)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10631]
+{org:en}
+Levin B.W., Nosov M.A., Rykunov L.N.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323006:0O.@entry, 500322988:0C)
+and(500323006:0O.@entry, 500322988:0C)
+and(500322988:0C, 500322982:00)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10632]
+{org:en}
+Seismogenic ocean upwelling.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115696045:00, 115669102:0I.@entry)
+aoj(115696045:00, 115669102:0I.@entry)
+mod(115669102:0I.@entry, 109376198:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10633]
+{org:en}
+AGU 1997 Fall Meeting
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101230965:0E.@entry, 500323669:00)
+mod(101230965:0E.@entry, 500323669:00)
+mod(101230965:0E.@entry, 100076884:09)
+tim(101230965:0E.@entry, "1997":04)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10634]
+{org:en}
+December 8-12, 1997
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim("8-12":02.@entry, 115213774:01)
+tim("8-12":02.@entry, 115213774:01)
+tim(115213774:01, "1997":03)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10635]
+{org:en}
+San Francisco, California
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500004552:00.@entry, 500004530:0F)
+plc(500004552:00.@entry, 500004530:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10636]
+{org:en}
+OS41C-16
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324224:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500324224:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10637]
+{org:en}
+Vol.78, N46, Nov 18, S375.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689976:00.@entry, "78":04)
+mod(115689976:00.@entry, "78":04)
+[W]
+500324193:08.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10638]
+{org:en}
+Nosov M.A., Levin B.W., Rykunov L.N.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323006:0O.@entry, 500322982:0C)
+and(500323006:0O.@entry, 500322982:0C)
+and(500322982:0C, 500322988:00)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10639]
+{org:en}
+Modelling of the Mechanism of Ocean Surface Cooling by Underwater Earthquake.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100937895:00.@entry, 100098385:0H.@def)
+mod(107428954:1U, 115669423:1J)
+aoj(303162719:0U, 104362025:10)
+obj(100937895:00.@entry, 100098385:0H.@def)
+mod(107428954:1U, 115669423:1J)
+aoj(303162719:0U, 104362025:10)
+obj(200369864:18.@progress, 104362025:10)
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+agt(200369864:18.@progress, 107428954:1U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10640]
+{org:en}
+Annales Geophysicae, Part IY Nonlinear Geophysics & Natural Hazards, Supplement IY to Volume 16,C1136 (XXIII General Assembly of EGS, Nice.)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10641]
+{org:en}
+Nosov M.A., Levin B.W., Rykunov L.N.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323006:0O.@entry, 500322982:0C)
+and(500323006:0O.@entry, 500322982:0C)
+and(500322982:0C, 500322988:00)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10642]
+{org:en}
+Charles Darwin's Problem
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pos(105687338:0H.@entry, 500323083:00)
+pos(105687338:0H.@entry, 500323083:00)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10643]
+{org:en}
+Connection Between the Bottom Earthquakes and the Weather.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000024:0B, 100145218:00.@entry)
+mod:01(107428954:0U.@def.@pl, 300229978:0N)
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+obj(600000024:0B, :01:01)
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+
+[S:10644]
+{org:en}
+22nd International Conference on Mathematical Geophysics "The Dynamic Earth"
+{/org}
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+aoj(600000036:0K, 107142566:0J.@entry)
+cnt(106117562:1A, :01.@single_quote)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10645]
+{org:en}
+Cambridge
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+{unl}
+[W]
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+[/W]
+[W]
+500003699:00.@entry
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10646]
+{org:en}
+Journal of Conference Abstracts
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103602465:00.@entry, 115691964:0M.@pl)
+mod(103602465:00.@entry, 115691964:0M.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10647]
+{org:en}
+Volume 3 (1)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104990220:01.@entry, "3(1)":02)
+mod(104990220:01.@entry, "3(1)":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10648]
+{org:en}
+Soloviev S.L., Go Ch.N., Kim H.S., Solovieva O.N., and Schetnikov N.A.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(500323136:1J.@entry, 500323022:0Z)
+and(500323013:0F, 500323157:00)
+and(500323136:1J.@entry, 500323022:0Z)
+and(500323013:0F, 500323157:00)
+and(500323016:0P, 500323013:0F)
+and(500323022:0Z, 500323016:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10649]
+{org:en}
+Tsunamis in the Mediterranean Sea.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(107349299:00.@entry.@pl, 500005601:0G.@def)
+plc(107349299:00.@entry.@pl, 500005601:0G.@def)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10650]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 B.C. - HTM2 A.D.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(HTM2:0C.@entry, 500323580:0H)
+mod(HTM2:0C.@entry, 500323580:0H)
+mod(HTM1:00, 500323622:05)
+fmt(HTM2:0C.@entry, HTM1:00)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10651]
+{org:en}
+Edited by J. Bonnin, B. Levin, G. Popadopoulos, S. Tinti.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10652]
+{org:en}
+Kluwer Acad. Press.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323712:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323712:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10653]
+{org:en}
+in press
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+600000297:00.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+600000297:00.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10654]
+{org:en}
+WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100658082:0N.@entry, :01:01)
+obj(100658082:0N.@entry, :01:01)
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+
+[S:10655]
+{org:en}
+WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100658082:0N.@entry, :01:01)
+obj(100658082:0N.@entry, :01:01)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10656]
+{org:en}
+Eduard G. Novitsky
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323093:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323093:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10657]
+{org:en}
+Institute HTM1 of HTM2 Chemical HTM3 Machinery Industry "NIICHIMMASH," HTM4 Moscow HTM5 , HTM6 Russia
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(108407330:02.@entry, 100923444:1D)
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+mod(100923444:1D, 103701640:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10658]
+{org:en}
+Ruslan Kh. Khamizov
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323056:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323056:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10659]
+{org:en}
+Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry, RAS, HTM1 Moscow HTM2 , HTM3 Russia HTM4
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(115694599:02.@entry, 500323564:1S)
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+plc(500323564:1S, 500004288:22)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10660]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
+{/org}
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+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10661]
+{org:en}
+water quality
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+{unl}
+mod(104723816:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+mod(104723816:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10662]
+{org:en}
+water standards
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+mod(104301140:08.@entry.@pl, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10663]
+{org:en}
+sources of waste water
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+mod(104263614:02.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0J)
+aoj(303161436:0D, 107935504:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10664]
+{org:en}
+processes for water treatment
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+pur(100029677:02.@entry.@pl, 100658082:0M)
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+
+[S:10665]
+{org:en}
+equipment for water treatment
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+pur(103294048:02.@entry, 100658082:0M)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10666]
+{org:en}
+preparation
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+{unl}
+[W]
+101143040:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+101143040:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10667]
+{org:en}
+water supply
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+obj(113563522:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+obj(113563522:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10668]
+{org:en}
+water purifying
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+{unl}
+agt(200475183:08.@progress, 107935504:02.@entry)
+agt(200475183:08.@progress, 107935504:02.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10669]
+{org:en}
+waste water purifying
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200475183:0E.@progress, 107935504:08.@entry)
+aoj(303161436:02, 107935504:08.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10670]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10671]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10672]
+{org:en}
+Water Quality Regulations and Standards
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(:01.@entry, 104723816:08)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10673]
+{org:en}
+;;Sources and Types of Polluting Substances in Natural and WastewaterSources and Types of Polluting Substances in Natural and Waste Water
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10674]
+{org:en}
+Methods for Treatment of Natural Water
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+{org:en}
+Wastewater Treatment
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+obj(100658082:0D.@entry, 115669276:02)
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+
+[S:10676]
+{org:en}
+Processing of Wastewater Sludge
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+{unl}
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+obj(113541167:02.@entry, 114591804:0R)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10677]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10678]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10679]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10680]
+{org:en}
+Biographical Sketches
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+115689950:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10681]
+{org:en}
+Summary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10682]
+{org:en}
+Problems of supplying the population with drinking water of high quality assume ever-greater importance because of the development of an environment which is polluted (including its water) by industrial waste products.
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+{unl}
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+
+[S:10683]
+{org:en}
+The substances which are now found in surface and ground water are very various in different world regions because of many factors
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10684]
+{org:en}
+the types of industrial and agricultural processes in the water accumulation area, the quantity and quality of water treatment constructions, pretreatment technologies of drinking water, and wastewater purification.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10685]
+{org:en}
+The level of contamination in water sources is so high that water can no longer be considered as a harmless natural product
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+{unl}
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+
+[S:10686]
+{org:en}
+it demands special treatment and control.
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+{/org}
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+Also modern analytical methods of water quality in laboratory and field conditions are described, and tendencies in the increase of demand for water quality are formulated.
+{/org}
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+The sources and composition of municipal, agricultural, and industrial wastewaters, and assessments of surface and ground water pollution, are discussed, with the purpose of formulating problems and methods of wastewater treatment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:10690]
+{org:en}
+The main processes of water treatment (including filtration, flotation, sedimentation, coagulation and flocculation, processes of sorption, ion exchange, membrane separation, X-ray techniques, electric, chemical and biological treatment) are considered in detail.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:10691]
+{org:en}
+The principal processes, implementation and materials are described.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Centralized and local water supply methods which make use of these technologies are described, together with water treatment processes widely used in the world.
+{/org}
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+The features of water supply with water pretreatment for agricultural and industrial enterprises (heavy, food, electronics etc.) are considered.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:10694]
+{org:en}
+Technological schemes for clarifying municipal, agricultural, and industrial wastewater, methods of treatment, and methods of reuse of the waste products, are also considered in detail.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10695]
+{org:en}
+Recycling water systems used for different purposes are discussed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774210:1L.@entry, 104377057:0I.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:0Y, 105982152:18.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10696]
+{org:en}
+Finally, legal aspects of water supply are considered.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(104733118:0H.@topic.@pl, 300852754:0B)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10697]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10698]
+{org:en}
+The earth's reserves of water, estimated at approximately 1.4 billion cu km, may seem enormous.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
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+{org:en}
+However, practically 97.5 percent of these reserves are saline, of little use for consumption, including the waters of the oceans that comprise 96.5 percent of the entire quantity and the reserves of highly mineralized underground brine that constitute about 1 percent (13 million cu km).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10700]
+{org:en}
+Thus the freshwater component is only 2.5 percent of all the reserves, and two-thirds of this is in frozen glaciers, mainly in the HTM1 Arctic HTM2 and Antarctic regions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10701]
+{org:en}
+There is only 10.5 million cu km of liquid freshwater on the globe.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10702]
+{org:en}
+Practically the whole of this water is underground and currently difficult to access.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10703]
+{org:en}
+Only 135,000 cu km of freshwater, or 0.01 percent of the world's aquatic resources, is readily accessible.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua:01(115689985:0F, "135000":07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10704]
+{org:en}
+This includes water in rivers, lakes, marshes, and the soil, as well as water in the atmosphere which is in a state of continuous circulation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10705]
+{org:en}
+All this freshwater participates in a perpetual natural process of circulation, which is estimated to involve about 525,000 cu km per year.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(600000025:3O, 115689985:3I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10706]
+{org:en}
+This circulation of water is in essence a global water purification and water desalination process, carried out on a giant and eternal scale by a perpetual natural distiller.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000140:9J, 101902877:3T.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10707]
+{org:en}
+The functioning of this distiller consumes one-fifth of all the energy from the sun that reaches the surface of the earth.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200600903:10.@entry, 115698415:06.@topic.@def)
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+obj(115698415:06.@topic.@def, 110018653:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10708]
+{org:en}
+Each year a layer of water with an average thickness of 1,250 mm evaporates from the surface of the oceans.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200366858:1V.@entry, 101463259:0E.@topic.@indef)
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+mod(104936403:19.@indef, 300486290:11)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10709]
+{org:en}
+The most important source of freshwater available for humankind is the fluvial waters, the annual perpetual volume of which comprises about 40,000 cu km.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(107935504:29.@entry.@def.@pl, 104263614:0L.@topic)
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+mod(104263614:0L.@topic, 115689095:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10710]
+{org:en}
+In recent decades the pattern of worldwide water supply and consumption has begun to indicate that freshwater could prove to be the most critical resource for the whole of humanity, unless very energetic measures are soon undertaken.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200348746:2D.@entry.@complete, 115204983:0C.@pl)
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+man(300647542:42, 400536271:3X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10711]
+{org:en}
+The water supply per capita has reduced, and the rate of water consumption increased, as shown in Figure 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200153263:25.@entry.@past, 200045817:0Y.@complete)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10712]
+{org:en}
+If these tendencies are not corrected, the global water crisis, which will impose severe limitations on the economic develop'ent of most countries, could be with us as early as in the middle of the twenty-first century.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10713]
+{org:en}
+Figure 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "1":09)
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "1":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10714]
+{org:en}
+Available water supply (1) and water consumption (2) per capita of the earth's population, HTM1 , with extrapolations to 2020.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000019:2X, :01.@entry)
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+mod:02(100356367:13.@entry, "2":1G.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(113563522:0I, 107935504:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10715]
+{org:en}
+possible future supply if alternative water sources are located and used and contaminated sources are remediated.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10716]
+{org:en}
+possible future usage if the rate of population growth slows and water-saving industrial and agricultural technologies are developed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:02(200440580:1L, 113325010:0V.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10717]
+{org:en}
+The central water shortage problem is that the human population of the earth has already reached 6 billion and is still growing.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua:01("1000000000":2T, "6":2R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10718]
+{org:en}
+One of the most serious issues is the deterioration of accessible surface water as a result of the pollution of aquatic resources by industrial and agricultural wastes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:10719]
+{org:en}
+At the same time, water consumption has shown a drastic increase associated with industrial development and an increase in the area of irrigated agricultural land.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:10720]
+{org:en}
+In the year 1900, the overall consumption of pure water in the world was 400 cu km
+{/org}
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+
+[S:10721]
+{org:en}
+in 1990 it was approximately 8,000 cu km.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10722]
+{org:en}
+Domestic demand accounted for only 6 percent of this amount.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10723]
+{org:en}
+Meeting the needs of industry demanded 25 percent, and 65 percent was used for irrigation, while 4 percent was lost through evaporation from artificial water basins and lakes.
+{/org}
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+frm(113572436:3P, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10724]
+{org:en}
+The overall consumption of pure water in the world in the year 2000 was 15,000 cu km.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+tim(105670972:1B.@def, 115201505:1O.@def)
+plc(107935504:0Y, 105670972:1B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10725]
+{org:en}
+Three-fifths of this amount was used for the dilution of industrial wastewater, and in agriculture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:0Y.@entry.@past, "/5":08.@topic.@pl)
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+qua("/5":08.@topic.@pl, "3":02)
+aoj(301188648:1N, 115669276:1Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10726]
+{org:en}
+Global water consumption continues to grow steadily, despite the gradual shift in developed countries to novel technologies such as water recycling systems, and despite much effort in the field of conservation and economic use of aquatic resources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:02(:01, 105154676:6Y.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10727]
+{org:en}
+Water Quality Regulations and Standards
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(:01.@entry, 104723816:08)
+mod(:01.@entry, 104723816:08)
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+mod(104723816:08, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10728]
+{org:en}
+Water quality standards have been developed by various national, regional, and international bodies, as well as by the World Health Organization (WHO).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000035:7G, 108302724:3K.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10729]
+{org:en}
+Each national organization for standards has a legal right to issue regulations affecting its own country, and after confirmation by governments these become mandatory.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200149583:49.@entry, 200065370:17)
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+pur(100351000:1J.@indef, 200528990:1S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10730]
+{org:en}
+International regional organizations have similar rights for standardization of water quality within the countries participating in appropriate international and intergovernmental agreements.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200065370:13.@entry, 101008378:0P.@topic.@pl)
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+obj(202774402:39.@progress, 104713428:52.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10731]
+{org:en}
+For instance, in 1980 the European Union adopted a Directive on Potable Water, which is mandatory for fifteen European countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000122:02.@entry, 200413195:17.@past)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10732]
+{org:en}
+A special body set up by the EU, bringing together specialists from participating countries, works continuously to improve and develop the Directive.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10733]
+{org:en}
+It regularly publishes other normative documents, including a HTM1 List of the Contaminants of Water Subject to Monitoring and Control HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(114821984:2C.@def.@pl, 107935504:2S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10734]
+{org:en}
+The water quality standards developed by the US Environment Protection Agency are applied in the countries of the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA).
+{/org}
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+Lists of priority pollutants and their maximum permissible concentration in water intended for use in industry and agriculture, as well as the corresponding standards for wastewaters of various origins, are usually regulated through national and regional international standards.
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+These recommendations are published in the HTM1 Guidelines for Control and Quality of Potable Water HTM2 issued in English, French, and Russian.
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+Table 1 lists the WHO-recommended maximum concentrations of various substances.
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+Table 1.
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+WHO standards for the maximum concentration in water of various high priority contaminants
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+Methods of Water Quality Control and the International System of Standardization of Methods of Control
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+The system of international standardization of quality control for various materials, including water, is considered to have been born in September 1886, when the first international conference on general standards for methods for testing materials was held in HTM1 Dresden HTM2 , HTM3 Germany HTM4.
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+Since that time this system has made steady progress in the interests of the entire world community.
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+In 1926, co-ordination of activity in the field of international standardization led to the creation of the International Association of National Organizations for Standardization (ISA), which functioned up to the beginning of the Second World War.
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+After the Second World War, in 1946, twenty-five countries founded the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which now has more than 100 participating countries.
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+The Technical Committee ISO/TC 147 Water Quality was established in 1971 for development of standards in the field of water quality control, including regulating terms and determinations, sampling procedures, and chemical analytical methods.
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+In addition to the ISO, various regional organizations have developed international norms and standards on water quality control.
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+ASTM Standard 19 on Water is also widely used in HTM1 Canada HTM2 and in HTM3 Mexico HTM4 , which came together with the HTM5 USA HTM6 in 1993 as the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA).
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+Table 2
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+Member countries of Technical Committee ISO/TC 147 Water Quality.
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+HTM1 Germany HTM2 provides the Secretariat
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+It is very important in further discussion of these issues to use the accepted terminology, which has been defined in accordance with the recommendations of the international organizations on standardization of water quality control.
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+Table 3 represents some exposures from the dictionary on water quality accepted by International Standard ISO 6107 (part 8).
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+Table 3
+{/org}
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+Terms and definitions of types of water regulated by the ISO
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+[S:10761]
+{org:en}
+;;Sources and Types of Polluting Substances in Natural and WastewaterSources and Types of Polluting Substances in Natural and Waste water
+{/org}
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+There are various approaches to the classification of the principal sources and types of substances polluting water.
+{/org}
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+One of most convenient classifications is the one described below, which considers four principal sources of water contamination
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+Wastewater of animal origin formed as a result of livestock management in agriculture, as well as the municipal wastes emanating from the vital activity of humans.
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+Operational wastes of animal origin, such as discharges from manure heaps, and drainage from animal breeding premises, usually affect the quality of water in nearby small rivers and water reservoirs, and the nearest wells and springs.
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+Household effluent can contaminate rivers and other water courses downstream.
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+Even when water is treated at purification works, some downstream pollution can still occur because not all substances are destroyed by the water treatment process.
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+{org:en}
+The polluting substances in domestic water are suspended matter, organic substances including detergents and organophosphorus compounds, inorganic phosphates, bacteria, and occasionally viruses.
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+Industrial wastes, which are very diverse and can contain all known pollutants including heavy metals, acids, alkalis, petroleum products, and radioactive substances, as well as mineral and organic cancerogenes.
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+{org:en}
+Surface runoff from municipal and rural areas, containing such pollutants as suspended substances, petroleum products, heavy metals, fertilizers, and pesticides.
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+
+[S:10771]
+{org:en}
+Incidental pollution from spontaneous non-planned concentrated discharges connected with wars, catastrophes, emergencies, and the incorrect or improper management of industrial or military operations.
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+
+[S:10772]
+{org:en}
+An event which caused very serious consequences for the entire planet, and directly or indirectly affected the lives of hundreds of thousands of human beings as a result of radioactive irradiation and environmental contamination, was the accident at the HTM1 Chernobyl HTM2 nuclear power plant in the HTM3 Ukraine HTM4 in 1986.
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+
+[S:10773]
+{org:en}
+Another instance is connected with the high toxicity of modern rocket propellants, in particular, Heptyl (1,1-dimethylhydrazine).
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+mod(115691493:0A.@topic, 600000066:02)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10774]
+{org:en}
+There have been very serious consequences for the inhabitants of areas close to launching sites of missiles and space vehicles for civil and military purposes, exacerbated by occasional accidents during start-up.
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+The incomplete combustion in the atmosphere of the first and second stages of space rockets, including the residual amount of rocket fuel, sometimes up to hundreds and thousands of kilograms, creates the same effect.
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+aoj(300523978:06, 113450206:0H.@topic.@def)
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+{org:en}
+Classification of the Principal Types of Pollution of Natural and Wastewater
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+The most fundamental and conventional approach to the classification of various substances polluting aquatic environments is their separati'n into three types
+{/org}
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+mineral pollutants, organic impurities, and biological contaminants.
+{/org}
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+aoj(301680559:02, 114857278:0A.@pl)
+{/unl}
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+This approach in classification, primarily taking into account the nature of the source of pollution, facilitates choice of the optimum processes and equipment for treatment of natural and wastewater.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10780]
+{org:en}
+Other classification methods take into account the degree of dispersion of the polluting substances in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(100019613:2J.@def.@pl, 107935504:2X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10781]
+{org:en}
+All three types of pollutants indicated above can be present in water in the form of suspended matter, forming thermodynamically and physically (in time) unstable coarse-dispersed systems
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10782]
+{org:en}
+suspensions and emulsions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and(103284482:0I.@entry.@pl, 100209132:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10783]
+{org:en}
+Also, the pollutants can form finely-dispersed colloid systems, which are thermodynamically non-equilibrium but long-term stable mixtures.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105659365:2Q, 303161142:2M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10784]
+{org:en}
+The first two types of pollutants, minerals and organics, can form thermodynamically stable molecular solutions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200144850:1S.@entry.@ability, :02.@topic)
+obj(:02.@topic, :01:01)
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+and:01(114662574:11.@pl, 114857278:0P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10785]
+{org:en}
+It is clear that the choice of purification method, its complexity and cost, depend on the particle size of the contaminants in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:01(100161243:0Q.@def, 105660268:1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10786]
+{org:en}
+It is relatively easy to remove suspended matter from coarse-dispersed systems, but it is more difficult to purify water where the pollutants are dissolved at the molecular level.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300015097:0J.@entry, 600000037:2A)
+man(300744916:2P, 400099341:2K)
+aoj(302351692:0Y, 100020827:18)
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+plc(301506258:44, 105093890:4V.@def)
+aoj(300744916:2P, 200475183:32)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10787]
+{org:en}
+From the point of view of water treatment and water purification technology, the general classification of water polluting admixtures is very useful.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(302495922:44.@entry, 600000475:0B)
+and:01(107935504:1G.@entry, 100658082:12)
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+mod(100949619:1Z, 100252894:1M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10788]
+{org:en}
+This classification is accepted by many specialists in HTM1 Russia HTM2 and the countries of the former HTM3 Soviet Union HTM4.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(108168978:2A.@entry.@def.@pl, 500004285:1Q.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10789]
+{org:en}
+It is based on two physical-chemical characteristics
+{/org}
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+aoj(303161516:0U, 104731497:13.@pl)
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+aoj(303161516:0U, 104731497:13.@pl)
+qua(104731497:13.@pl, "2":0H)
+obj(302351064:08.@entry, 104731497:13.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10790]
+{org:en}
+phase state and dispersion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and(100368592:0I.@entry, 100024720:08)
+mod(100024720:08, 104676540:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10791]
+{org:en}
+These characteristics determine whether it is possible to remove any admixture in the processes of purification, using sedimentation, diffusion, adhesion, coagulation, complex formation, crystallization, and similar techniques.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200699815:0O.@entry, 600000088:0Y)
+obj(201158572:37.@progress, :01:01)
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+man(200699815:0O.@entry, 600000088:0Y)
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+mod(102681084:1Z, 600000052:1V)
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+mod(104731497:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+aoj:01(301409581:5U, 105665146:62.@entry.@pl)
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+agt(200699815:0O.@entry, 104731497:08.@topic.@pl)
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+obj(200173338:1O, 102681084:1Z)
+and:01(105665146:62.@entry.@pl, 105772044:59.@pl)
+obj(200173338:1O, 102681084:1Z)
+and:01(115669266:4D.@pl, 105584008:43.@pl)
+aoj(301821266:1C, 200173338:1O)
+and:01(100925207:4Y.@pl, 115669266:4D.@pl)
+obj(100029677:2G.@def.@pl, 100252894:2T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10792]
+{org:en}
+The basis of the accepted system of classification allows the further division of a multiplicity of contaminants of industrial and natural waters into four groups.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(100385791:23.@def, 105098750:2H.@indef)
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+obj(100385791:23.@def, 105098750:2H.@indef)
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+mod(115689188:40, :01)
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+aoj(300443988:1V, 100385791:23.@def)
+qua(100031264:4L.@pl, "4":4G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10793]
+{org:en}
+The first group of contaminants consists of suspended matter with a particle size exceeding HTM1 cm that is insoluble in water and forms suspensions and emulsions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(200144850:3P, 100020827:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10794]
+{org:en}
+The majority of this kind of pollution is usually composed of inorganic matter, although some substances of organic and biological origin can also be included in the same group of the contaminants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201626138:1G.@entry, 600000038:2A)
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+obj(200183879:48.@ability, 100019613:2O.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10795]
+{org:en}
+These include petroleum products, plankton, and bacteria.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:08.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(101383638:10.@pl, 103748886:0Q.@pl)
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+mod:01(103748886:0Q.@pl, 114980579:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10796]
+{org:en}
+Colloidal admixtures and high molecular weight organic substances, viruses, and other micro-organisms of colloidal dimensions, ranging between HTM1 and HTM2 cm, form the second group.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:04(HTM2:4Q.@entry, HTM1:4H)
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+and:01(101328702:23.@pl, 100019613:1R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10797]
+{org:en}
+The third group consists of substances forming molecular solutions (gases and organic substances dissolved in water) with particle sizes of HTM1 to HTM2 cm.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202633356:0I.@entry, 100031264:0C.@topic)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10798]
+{org:en}
+The fourth group of contaminants consists of electrolytes with particle size less than HTM1 cm, which dissociate in water with the formation of separate ions, each bearing an electric charge.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:10799]
+{org:en}
+Contaminants in the first and second groups form heterogeneous systems with water, and the contaminants of the third and fourth groups form homogeneous systems.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10800]
+{org:en}
+Within each group of contaminants the admixtures differ not only in particle size, but also in the composition and properties of particles.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10801]
+{org:en}
+This circumstance is of great importance in selecting the optimal methods of water treatment and purification, including technological layouts, and equipment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10802]
+{org:en}
+Each of these groups requires different technological methods for water purification.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+pof(600000092:02, 100031264:0G.@pl)
+aoj(302084979:16, 105660268:1K.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10803]
+{org:en}
+For instance, sedimentation or conventional filtering can eliminate contaminants of the first group.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000122:02.@entry, 200470701:1O.@ability)
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+mod(100031264:2O.@def, "1":2I.@ordinal)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10804]
+{org:en}
+Admixtures of the second group require the more expensive process of ultra-filtration through special microporous polymeric or ceramic filtering membranes or hollow fibers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj:02(301678729:2O, 103743761:4A.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10805]
+{org:en}
+However, it frequently turns out to be simpler to transfer the contaminants of the second group into the components of the first group, initially by means of treating water with special reagents (coagulants and flocculants) that destroy colloidal structure and cause the contaminants to form larger particles.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10806]
+{org:en}
+Methods for Treatment of Natural Water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(105660268:02.@entry.@pl, 100658082:0E)
+pur(105660268:02.@entry.@pl, 100658082:0E)
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+obj(100658082:0E, 107935504:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10807]
+{org:en}
+Despite the existence of a multitude of technological processes for production of water for potable or other uses, the general principles of purification are approximately the same.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(100522736:1Y, 107935504:2C)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10808]
+{org:en}
+These principles provide the following range of primary procedures
+{/org}
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+mod(100577068:1M.@pl, 300699521:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10809]
+{org:en}
+Removal from the water of heterophase contaminants by sedimentation or coagulation and sedimentation, filtration, and, less often, flotation.
+{/org}
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+man:03(400059547:3I, 400099868:3D)
+met(100216723:02.@entry, :03)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10810]
+{org:en}
+As a result of such treatment, water turbidity and color index are reduced.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(104703932:1A.@topic, 107935504:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10811]
+{org:en}
+Elimination of the admixtures of active pathogenic bacteria and prevention of their reproduction (disinfections of water) by chlorination, iodination, ozonation, silvering, electro-magnetic radiation, and electrochemical and other methods.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:02(100709521:2S.@entry.@pl, 107935504:39)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10812]
+{org:en}
+Adjustment of the water composition in dissolved (homophase) admixtures.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301506258:15, 102681084:1R.@pl)
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+cnt(301506258:15, 115693843:1G.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10813]
+{org:en}
+This stage can include a large diversity of technological processes depending on the composition and quality of the initial water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0H.@entry.@ability, 100306900:07.@topic)
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+aoj(202663848:1Y.@progress, 100029677:1O.@pl)
+mod(107935504:3I.@def, 301011973:3A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10814]
+{org:en}
+First of all, this includes the elimination of smells, aftertastes, and toxic trace-pollutants of water by the methods of aeration and degassing, oxidation, adsorption, and removal from the water of iron, manganese, silicon, and fluorides.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:03(100216723:4V.@entry, 107935504:5C.@def)
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+and:02(114871601:6F.@entry.@pl, 114654541:62.@pl)
+obj:04(600000035:7I, 105660268:35.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10815]
+{org:en}
+The final stages of water treatment might include water fluorination and softening (hardness removal).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200183879:18.@entry.@may.@past, :01)
+and:01(113557766:23.@entry, 115692143:1M)
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+man(200183879:18.@entry.@may.@past, :01)
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+mod:02(100216723:2N.@entry, 104710588:2E)
+mod(100306900:0C.@def.@pl, 100658082:0S)
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+cnt:01(113557766:23.@entry, :02.@parenthesis)
+obj(100658082:0S, 107935504:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10816]
+{org:en}
+In regions with a deficiency of freshwater but availability of sources of brackish and saline water, it may also be necessary to carry out water desalination.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(300343552:3A.@entry.@may, 105221895:05.@pl)
+mod(115668897:1D, 104263614:1T.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:0D, 105221895:05.@pl)
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+aoj(600000019:0D, 105221895:05.@pl)
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+and:01(301074458:2H.@entry, 301074062:24)
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+man(300343552:3A.@entry.@may, 400047534:32)
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+mod(113462795:3Z, 107935504:3T)
+obj(600001335:19, 115668897:1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10817]
+{org:en}
+Special water treatment, for example by radiation methods, as well as its purification from specific contaminants including radioactive matters or particular highly toxic chemicals.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000144:0R.@entry, 100658082:0G)
+aoj(301099951:2M, 114821984:2V.@pl)
+mod(105660268:1G.@pl, 101252918:16)
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+mod:01(114806838:4T.@entry.@pl, 300311044:45)
+obj(600000144:0R.@entry, 100658082:0G)
+aoj(301099951:2M, 114821984:2V.@pl)
+mod(105660268:1G.@pl, 101252918:16)
+man:01(302449430:4N, 400089267:4G)
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+mod(100252894:24, 600000016:20)
+aoj(301678729:02, 100658082:0G)
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+frm(100252894:24, 114821984:2V.@pl)
+ins(100658082:0G, 105660268:1G.@pl)
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+obj(600000007:38, :01)
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+aoj(600000014:1P, 105660268:1G.@pl)
+aoj:01(302449430:4N, 114806838:4T.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(600000007:38, 114821984:2V.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10818]
+{org:en}
+All these processes of water treatment and purification are described briefly below.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200987071:1Q.@entry, 100029677:0C.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100029677:0C.@topic.@pl, 600000017:06.@pl)
+mod(100029677:0C.@topic.@pl, :01)
+obj(200987071:1Q.@entry, 100029677:0C.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100029677:0C.@topic.@pl, 600000017:06.@pl)
+mod(100029677:0C.@topic.@pl, :01)
+man(400079866:28, 115692551:20)
+and:01(100252894:19.@entry, 100658082:0V)
+man(200987071:1Q.@entry, 400079866:28)
+obj(:01, 107935504:0P)
+obj(:01, 107935504:0P)
+qua(100029677:0C.@topic.@pl, 600000011:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10819]
+{org:en}
+More detail on the technologies of water purification, and on the corresponding equipment, is included in the specific articles included in this theme of the EOLSS.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200183879:2O.@entry, 105817845:07.@topic)
+aoj:01(301974451:1W, 103294048:2A.@entry.@def)
+mod(105920272:43, 500323815:4G.@def)
+aoj(301099951:34, 100022903:3D.@def.@pl)
+obj(200183879:2O.@entry, 105817845:07.@topic)
+aoj:01(301974451:1W, 103294048:2A.@entry.@def)
+mod(105920272:43, 500323815:4G.@def)
+aoj(301099951:34, 100022903:3D.@def.@pl)
+qua(105817845:07.@topic, 400099341:02)
+aoj(301658269:3M, 100022903:3D.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(100252894:17, 107935504:11)
+obj(105817845:07.@topic, :01:01)
+gol(200183879:2O.@entry, 100022903:3D.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(100949619:0L.@def.@pl, 100252894:17)
+mod(105920272:43, 600000017:3Y)
+mod:01(100949619:0L.@def.@pl, 100252894:17)
+mod(105920272:43, 600000017:3Y)
+plc(301658269:3M, 105920272:43)
+and:01(103294048:2A.@entry.@def, 100949619:0L.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10820]
+{org:en}
+Removing Heterophaseous Admixtures from Water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+src(200173338:02.@entry.@progress, 107935504:16)
+src(200173338:02.@entry.@progress, 107935504:16)
+aoj(303163315:0B, 102681084:0Q.@pl)
+obj(200173338:02.@entry.@progress, 102681084:0Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10821]
+{org:en}
+Most water contamination is attributed to the presence of various insoluble impurities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774826:0U.@entry, 100276987:0D.@topic)
+mod(100276987:0D.@topic, 600000436:02)
+aoj(303160904:1O, 114487184:26.@pl)
+obj(202774826:0U.@entry, 100276987:0D.@topic)
+mod(100276987:0D.@topic, 600000436:02)
+aoj(303160904:1O, 114487184:26.@pl)
+mod(101233802:1C.@def, 114487184:26.@pl)
+gol(202774826:0U.@entry, 101233802:1C.@def)
+mod(100276987:0D.@topic, 107935504:07)
+mod(100276987:0D.@topic, 107935504:07)
+aoj(301230728:1W, 114487184:26.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10822]
+{org:en}
+Different methods can be utilized for removing such impurities from water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200161872:0R.@entry.@ability, 105660268:0C.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:02, 105660268:0C.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200173338:14.@progress, 114487184:1I.@pl)
+obj(200161872:0R.@entry.@ability, 105660268:0C.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:02, 105660268:0C.@topic.@pl)
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+src(200173338:14.@progress, 107935504:1Y)
+pur(200161872:0R.@entry.@ability, 200173338:14.@progress)
+mod(114487184:1I.@pl, 600001411:1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10823]
+{org:en}
+These methods are based on three different principles
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302351064:0K.@entry, 105660268:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:0Z, 105872477:19.@pl)
+aoj(302351064:0K.@entry, 105660268:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:0Z, 105872477:19.@pl)
+qua(105872477:19.@pl, "3":0T)
+man(302351064:0K.@entry, 105872477:19.@pl)
+mod(105660268:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10824]
+{org:en}
+Direct employment of the force of gravity by means of direct sedimentation (settling), where the determining factors are the size and specific mass of particles, and the viscosity of the medium.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000658:1F, 101217859:0C.@entry)
+mod:02(104935003:56.@entry.@def, 106254475:5N.@def)
+plc(:02, 111445395:1Y)
+mod(105035353:0U.@def, 107512147:13)
+aoj:01(301099951:42, 101042242:4B.@entry)
+aoj(600000658:1F, 101217859:0C.@entry)
+mod:02(104935003:56.@entry.@def, 106254475:5N.@def)
+plc(:02, 111445395:1Y)
+mod(105035353:0U.@def, 107512147:13)
+aoj:01(301099951:42, 101042242:4B.@entry)
+aoj(:02, 105858317:3A.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300005473:05, 101217859:0C.@entry)
+and:01(101042242:4B.@entry.@def, 105095691:3T.@def)
+aoj(300005473:1R, 111445395:1Y)
+mod(101217859:0C.@entry, 105035353:0U.@def)
+obj:02(:01.@entry, 106326406:4N.@pl)
+cnt(111445395:1Y, 107362218:2D.@parenthesis)
+obj:02(:01.@entry, 106326406:4N.@pl)
+cnt(111445395:1Y, 107362218:2D.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000658:1F, 111445395:1Y)
+aoj(303163149:2Y, 105858317:3A.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:02(104935003:56.@entry.@def, :01.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10825]
+{org:en}
+This process can be enhanced by means of centrifugal forces used in cyclone separators and centrifuges.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200229605:0M.@entry.@ability, 100029677:07.@topic)
+obj(201158572:1P, :01)
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+obj(201158572:1P, :01)
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+man(200229605:0M.@entry.@ability, 600000172:0V)
+and:01(102995998:2K.@entry.@pl, 115393294:25.@pl)
+and:01(102995998:2K.@entry.@pl, 115393294:25.@pl)
+aoj(300332375:17, 105035353:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10826]
+{org:en}
+Flotation, based on continuous introduction of air bubbles into the suspension.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302351064:0D, 101100147:02.@entry)
+mod(102909053:1K.@pl, 104727214:1G)
+obj(100238022:10, 102909053:1K.@pl)
+aoj(302351064:0D, 101100147:02.@entry)
+mod(102909053:1K.@pl, 104727214:1G)
+obj(100238022:10, 102909053:1K.@pl)
+to(100238022:10, 100209132:25.@def)
+obj(302351064:0D, 100238022:10)
+aoj(300594413:0P, 100238022:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10827]
+{org:en}
+These become attached to particles and raise them to the surface of the liquid.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200158503:15.@entry, 200149583:08)
+obj(200149583:08, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200158503:15.@entry, 600000020:1B)
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+gol(200149583:08, 201290255:0F.@past)
+mod(104362025:1N.@def, 107119643:22.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10828]
+{org:en}
+Filtering and percolation (straining) through screens or porous media.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(:01.@entry, 600000045:14)
+aoj:02(300329396:1N, 106254475:1U.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000045:14, :02)
+mod(:01.@entry, 600000045:14)
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+cnt(:01.@entry, 115694471:0T.@parenthesis)
+or:02(106254475:1U.@entry.@pl, 104151581:1C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10829]
+{org:en}
+The result of this is that that the particles are left on the screen surface or in the volume of particles retained by the filtering material, and purified water is obtained at the outlet of the filtering installation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 115698567:06.@def)
+man:01(200136991:1B, 104990220:2C.@def)
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+mod:01(103748162:4Y.@def, 100240938:5M.@def)
+agt:01(200610010:2W, 103729951:3M.@def)
+obj:01(202238085:4I.@entry, 107935504:49)
+mod:01(104990220:2C.@def, 106326406:2M.@pl)
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+and:01(202238085:4I.@entry, 200136991:1B)
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+mod:01(104362025:1U.@def, 104151581:1N)
+mod:01(100240938:5M.@def, 115689798:5C)
+mod:01(103729951:3M.@def, 115689798:3C)
+plc:01(202238085:4I.@entry, 103748162:4Y.@def)
+obj:01(200610010:2W, 106326406:2M.@pl)
+plc:01(200136991:1B, 104362025:1U.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10830]
+{org:en}
+Table 4 shows how some typical particles of different types and dimensions settle in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0A.@entry, 104379243:02.@topic)
+mod(104379243:02.@topic, "4":08)
+mod(106326406:0X.@pl, :01)
+agt(200413876:25, 106326406:0X.@pl)
+agt(200923307:0A.@entry, 104379243:02.@topic)
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+agt(200413876:25, 106326406:0X.@pl)
+and:01(105093581:1U.@entry.@pl, 104504486:1K.@pl)
+man(200413876:25, 400536278:0G)
+aoj(301595440:0P, 106326406:0X.@pl)
+obj(200923307:0A.@entry, 200413876:25)
+qua(106326406:0X.@pl, 600000034:0K)
+qua(106326406:0X.@pl, 600000034:0K)
+plc(200413876:25, 107935504:2F)
+aoj:01(300490413:1A, 104504486:1K.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10831]
+{org:en}
+As can be seen, the rate of natural settlement (sedimentation) varies extremely widely.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200436879:1T.@entry, 600000008:02)
+cnt(105789089:12, 111445395:1E.@parenthesis)
+man(400495663:2A, 400535251:20)
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+mod(105789089:12, 301335708:0U)
+mod(113325010:0M.@topic.@def, 105789089:12)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10832]
+{org:en}
+Simple settlement can, for example, separate gravel from a flowing channel of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000107:0P.@entry, 201458973:12)
+aoj(303161988:1P, 103006105:1X.@indef)
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+mod(103006105:1X.@indef, 107935504:28)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10833]
+{org:en}
+To separate sand or clay, it is necessary to employ intensified purification methods.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:10834]
+{org:en}
+Relatively simple apparatuses such as hydrocyclones are sufficiently effective for this purpose.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:10835]
+{org:en}
+Three kinds of such installations can be distinguished
+{/org}
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+
+[S:10836]
+{org:en}
+pressurized, vacuum, and pressure-vacuum cyclones.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10837]
+{org:en}
+There are also hydrocyclone-filtering installations.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:10838]
+{org:en}
+These have a wide range of capabilities, and facilitate the separation of sandy fractions, clay, silts, and so on.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:10839]
+{org:en}
+These appliances are extensively employed not only in systems for purifying wastewaters but also in technologies for preparing water for different uses.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:10840]
+{org:en}
+Table 4.
+{/org}
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+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "4":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10841]
+{org:en}
+Rate of particle precipitation in a column of water with a depth of 1 m
+{/org}
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+mod(105094725:1P.@indef, 106832464:20)
+aoj(600000019:1I, 107935504:1C)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10842]
+{org:en}
+However, as can be seen from Table 4, the rate of sedimentation of colloidal particles is so low that these techniques cannot realistically be used for the clarification of colloidal liquids.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:10843]
+{org:en}
+At the same time, admixtures of colloidal character constitute the major portion of heterophase contaminants of water, and they determine its turbidity and color index.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10844]
+{org:en}
+Clearly, it is necessary to change the conditions of water treatment in such a way that colloidal particles can coalesce one with another to form rapidly precipitating agglomerates of larger sizes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(201461152:36.@ability, 106326406:2S.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10845]
+{org:en}
+Scientific Fundamentals of Coagulation and Flocculation
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10846]
+{org:en}
+Coalescence of colloidal particles does not occur spontaneously, because colloidal compounds are characterized by the existence of forces supporting suspended matter in a dispersed state with an extraordinary high degree of stability over a prolonged time.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10847]
+{org:en}
+Such stability is explained by solvation, or the protective action of adsorbed substances (hydrophilic colloids), as well as by the action of electrostatic forces which cause particles to repulse each other (hydrophilic and hydrophobic colloids).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:10848]
+{org:en}
+In natural waters, colloidal particles always have a negative charge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300075515:1J, 100974762:1S.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10849]
+{org:en}
+This is also the most widespread case in wastewater.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10850]
+{org:en}
+The interpretation of all phenomena related to colloids is based on the theory of binary electrical layer and the theory of electrokinetic potential.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10851]
+{org:en}
+Neutral micelles consist of the nuclei that are particles of humic acid.
+{/org}
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+obj(202633356:0J.@entry, 105434927:0Y.@def.@pl)
+mod(114607521:1X, 302744247:1R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10852]
+{org:en}
+The layer of negatively charged anions of humic acid is strongly adsorbed onto them.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201540232:1V.@entry, 101463259:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(200498016:0Q.@past, 109197815:0Y.@pl)
+mod(101463259:06.@topic.@def, 109197815:0Y.@pl)
+obj(201540232:1V.@entry, 101463259:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(200498016:0Q.@past, 109197815:0Y.@pl)
+mod(101463259:06.@topic.@def, 109197815:0Y.@pl)
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+man(200498016:0Q.@past, 400004184:0F)
+mod(109197815:0Y.@pl, 114607521:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10853]
+{org:en}
+Hydrogen ions (or metal ions) compose the outer shell of the binary electric layer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201626138:0W.@entry, 109315159:0B.@topic.@pl)
+mod(101463259:27.@def, 300921631:1Y)
+mod(101904182:1E.@def, 300948384:18)
+aoj(201626138:0W.@entry, 109315159:0B.@topic.@pl)
+mod(101463259:27.@def, 300921631:1Y)
+mod(101904182:1E.@def, 300948384:18)
+mod:01(109315159:0Q.@entry.@pl, 114625458:0K)
+mod(101904182:1E.@def, 101463259:27.@def)
+mod(109315159:0B.@topic.@pl, 114640434:02)
+obj(201626138:0W.@entry, 101904182:1E.@def)
+or(:01.@parenthesis, 109315159:0B.@topic.@pl)
+or(:01.@parenthesis, 109315159:0B.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302216985:1R, 101463259:27.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10854]
+{org:en}
+The portion of the indicated cations is strongly adsorbed on the interface of phases, and these form "colloidal particles," which participate in movement as a united system.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200144850:2Q.@entry, 201540232:1F)
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+mod(115699459:06.@topic.@def, 109238294:0V.@def.@pl)
+and(200144850:2Q.@entry, 201540232:1F)
+plc(201540232:1F, 103578435:1V.@def)
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+agt(202774402:3O, :01.@double_quote)
+mod(115699459:06.@topic.@def, 109238294:0V.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302475855:4H, 104377057:4O.@indef)
+obj(200144850:2Q.@entry, :01:01.@double_quote)
+mod(103578435:1V.@def, 104676540:28.@pl)
+obj(600000023:4C, 104377057:4O.@indef)
+aoj(200144850:2Q.@entry, 600000022:2K.@topic.@pl)
+man(201540232:1F, 400177289:16)
+obj(202774402:3O, 100279835:43)
+man(201540232:1F, 400177289:16)
+obj(202774402:3O, 100279835:43)
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+obj(200923793:0L.@past, 109238294:0V.@def.@pl)
+obj(201540232:1F, 115699459:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10855]
+{org:en}
+The rest of the binary electrical layer creates a diffuse cloud of ions, neutralizing the charge of the colloidal particle.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(201640207:16.@entry, 101064148:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(302826701:0P, 101463259:10.@def)
+obj(200469904:23.@progress, 100974762:2K.@def)
+mod(109315159:1X.@pl, 109247410:1O.@indef)
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+obj(200469904:23.@progress, 100974762:2K.@def)
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+obj(201640207:16.@entry, 109315159:1X.@pl)
+aoj(302903946:2Y, 106326406:38.@def)
+man(201640207:16.@entry, 200469904:23.@progress)
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+obj(100974762:2K.@def, 106326406:38.@def)
+aoj(300540487:1G, 109247410:1O.@indef)
+aoj(302216985:0I, 101463259:10.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10856]
+{org:en}
+The difference of potential between the mobile and stationary parts of the electrical layer is traditionally referred to as zeta-potential.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774311:33.@entry, 104748836:06.@topic.@def)
+and:01(301060445:1H.@entry, 300346103:16)
+mod(104748836:06.@topic.@def, 114482620:0K)
+obj(600000023:3F, 114482620:3N)
+obj(202774311:33.@entry, 104748836:06.@topic.@def)
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+obj(600000023:3F, 114482620:3N)
+mod(103892891:1S.@def.@pl, 101463259:2G.@def)
+man(202774311:33.@entry, 400476807:2P)
+obj(600000024:0U, 103892891:1S.@def.@pl)
+man(202774311:33.@entry, 600000023:3F)
+aoj(302826701:25, 101463259:2G.@def)
+aoj(600000024:0U, 114482620:0K)
+aoj(302826701:25, 101463259:2G.@def)
+aoj(600000024:0U, 114482620:0K)
+mod(114482620:3N, 106834674:3I)
+aoj(:01, 103892891:1S.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10857]
+{org:en}
+All particles with equal electrokinetic potential have a similar mobility which is independent of their sizes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:1G.@entry, 106326406:06.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303162537:0R, 114482620:16)
+mod(105095691:2X.@pl, 600000020:2R.@pl)
+aoj(300727564:2D, 104773351:1V.@indef)
+aoj(200065370:1G.@entry, 106326406:06.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303162537:0R, 114482620:16)
+mod(105095691:2X.@pl, 600000020:2R.@pl)
+aoj(300727564:2D, 104773351:1V.@indef)
+obj(600000019:0G, 114482620:16)
+obj(200065370:1G.@entry, 104773351:1V.@indef)
+qua(106326406:06.@topic.@pl, 600000011:02)
+rsn(200065370:1G.@entry, 105095691:2X.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:0G, 106326406:06.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:0G, 106326406:06.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301409581:1N, 104773351:1V.@indef)
+aoj(300889831:0L, 114482620:16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10858]
+{org:en}
+For separation of a colloidal suspension by gravity forces at an adequate rate, it is necessary to initiate the agglomeration of colloidal particles with the formation of the relatively large particles.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(300343552:2G.@entry, 100383606:06)
+man(300527870:58, 400160834:4X)
+aoj(600000019:47, 106326406:3X.@pl)
+mod(105035353:1I.@pl, 107512147:1A)
+obj(201641914:2T, 101014490:36.@def)
+obj(600000035:7T, 105035353:1I.@pl)
+pur(300343552:2G.@entry, 100383606:06)
+man(300527870:58, 400160834:4X)
+aoj(600000019:47, 106326406:3X.@pl)
+mod(105035353:1I.@pl, 107512147:1A)
+obj(201641914:2T, 101014490:36.@def)
+obj(600000035:7T, 105035353:1I.@pl)
+obj(100925207:4G.@def, 106326406:5E.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300343552:2G.@entry, 201641914:2T)
+aoj(302903946:0M, 100209132:0W.@indef)
+obj(600000019:47, 100925207:4G.@def)
+man(300343552:2G.@entry, 100209132:0W.@indef)
+aoj(600000035:7T, 100209132:0W.@indef)
+aoj(302903946:3N, 106326406:3X.@pl)
+aoj(600000035:7T, 100209132:0W.@indef)
+aoj(302903946:3N, 106326406:3X.@pl)
+aoj(300051045:1V, 113325010:24.@indef)
+obj(101014490:36.@def, 106326406:3X.@pl)
+plc(105035353:1I.@pl, 113325010:24.@indef)
+aoj(300527870:58, 106326406:5E.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10859]
+{org:en}
+To bring about this phenomenon the suspension undergoes special treatment using two principal processes
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(202108377:1C.@entry, 202090679:05)
+man(201158572:22.@progress, 100029677:2M.@pl)
+agt(201158572:22.@progress, 100658082:1S)
+pur(202108377:1C.@entry, 202090679:05)
+man(201158572:22.@progress, 100029677:2M.@pl)
+agt(201158572:22.@progress, 100658082:1S)
+obj(202090679:05, 100034213:0M)
+obj(202108377:1C.@entry, 100658082:1S)
+mod(100029677:2M.@pl, 303161143:2C)
+agt(202108377:1C.@entry, 100209132:11.@topic.@def)
+qua(100029677:2M.@pl, "2":28)
+qua(100029677:2M.@pl, "2":28)
+aoj(301678729:1K, 100658082:1S)
+mod(100034213:0M, 600000017:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10860]
+{org:en}
+Destabilization of the colloidal system, and primary colloid coalescence, usually achieved by adding special chemical substances to the treated water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202526085:2C.@entry.@past, :01)
+aoj:01(303162462:1J, 100382109:1R.@entry)
+aoj(301678729:2V, 100019613:3C.@pl)
+obj(200182406:2O.@progress, 100019613:3C.@pl)
+agt(202526085:2C.@entry.@past, :01)
+aoj:01(303162462:1J, 100382109:1R.@entry)
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+obj(200182406:2O.@progress, 100019613:3C.@pl)
+and:01(100382109:1R.@entry.@topic, 101159461:02.@topic)
+man(202526085:2C.@entry.@past, 400535718:24)
+aoj:01(302903946:0P, 104377057:0Z.@def)
+obj(200078760:3U.@past, 107935504:42.@def)
+man(202526085:2C.@entry.@past, 200182406:2O.@progress)
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+aoj(302692624:33, 100019613:3C.@pl)
+mod:01(101159461:02.@topic, 104377057:0Z.@def)
+aoj(302692624:33, 100019613:3C.@pl)
+to(100019613:3C.@pl, 107935504:42.@def)
+mod:01(100382109:1R.@entry.@topic, 300699521:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10861]
+{org:en}
+These reagents eliminate the action of the repulsive forces by cohesion or adsorption on the colloidal particles (or by special effects on the stabilizing solvate layers of the hydrophilic colloidal particles).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200470701:0H.@entry, 114778982:08.@topic.@pl)
+or(:02.@parenthesis, :01:01)
+obj(600000035:BF, :01)
+mod:02(101463259:4L.@def.@pl, 115047988:4D)
+aoj(600000035:BF, 105035353:1J.@def.@pl)
+mod:02(101463259:4L.@def.@pl, 106326406:5L.@def.@pl)
+agt(200470701:0H.@entry, 114778982:08.@topic.@pl)
+or(:02.@parenthesis, :01:01)
+obj(600000035:BF, :01)
+mod:02(101463259:4L.@def.@pl, 115047988:4D)
+aoj(600000035:BF, 105035353:1J.@def.@pl)
+mod:02(101463259:4L.@def.@pl, 106326406:5L.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302903946:2N, 106326406:2X.@def.@pl)
+obj(100037396:0V.@def, 105035353:1J.@def.@pl)
+aoj:02(301678729:3E, 104809642:3M.@entry.@pl)
+or:01(113427789:25.@entry, 111436585:1T)
+aoj:02(302903946:5B, 106326406:5L.@def.@pl)
+obj(200470701:0H.@entry, 100037396:0V.@def)
+plc:02(104809642:3M.@entry.@pl, 101463259:4L.@def.@pl)
+plc(:01, 106326406:2X.@def.@pl)
+plc:02(104809642:3M.@entry.@pl, 101463259:4L.@def.@pl)
+plc(:01, 106326406:2X.@def.@pl)
+aoj:02(300491971:4Z, 106326406:5L.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300170156:19, 105035353:1J.@def.@pl)
+obj:02(200270826:41.@progress, 101463259:4L.@def.@pl)
+mod(114778982:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10862]
+{org:en}
+For example, this can be brought about by decreasing the values of zeta-potential to zero.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000107:02.@entry, 202090679:0R.@ability)
+mod(104979425:1N.@def.@pl, 114482620:22)
+gol(200151689:18.@progress, "0":2F)
+obj(600000107:02.@entry, 202090679:0R.@ability)
+mod(104979425:1N.@def.@pl, 114482620:22)
+gol(200151689:18.@progress, "0":2F)
+met(202090679:0R.@ability, 200151689:18.@progress)
+obj(202090679:0R.@ability, 600000022:0F)
+mod(114482620:22, 106834674:1X)
+mod(114482620:22, 106834674:1X)
+obj(200151689:18.@progress, 104979425:1N.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10863]
+{org:en}
+Agglomeration (enlargement) of the "neutralized" colloids to the large flocks by the action of different forces of attraction between the particles, making contact in their Brownian movement, and also as a result of outer mechanical mixing.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200012267:4L.@progress, 101014490:08.@entry)
+obj(600000056:61, 115689918:6X)
+aoj(600000024:3Y, 104688246:3N)
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+obj(600000051:50, 100279835:5I)
+obj(101014490:08.@entry, 114588219:1L.@def.@pl)
+obj(200012267:4L.@progress, 100039297:4S)
+agt(200012267:4L.@progress, 101014490:08.@entry)
+obj(600000056:61, 115689918:6X)
+aoj(600000024:3Y, 104688246:3N)
+aoj(301819152:18.@double_quote, 114588219:1L.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000051:50, 100279835:5I)
+obj(101014490:08.@entry, 114588219:1L.@def.@pl)
+obj(200012267:4L.@progress, 100039297:4S)
+mod(105035353:3D.@pl, 104688246:3N)
+man(600000056:61, 400047534:5W)
+to(101014490:08.@entry, 107990956:2B.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301499686:6M, 115689918:6X)
+man(200012267:4L.@progress, 600000056:61)
+obj(100037396:2T.@def, 105035353:3D.@pl)
+aoj(303162444:59, 100279835:5I)
+met(101014490:08.@entry, 100037396:2T.@def)
+mod(115689918:6X, 300948384:6G)
+obj(600000024:3Y, 106326406:4A.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300527870:25, 107990956:2B.@def.@pl)
+mod(115689918:6X, 300948384:6G)
+obj(600000024:3Y, 106326406:4A.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300527870:25, 107990956:2B.@def.@pl)
+mod(100279835:5I, 600000020:53.@pl)
+cnt(101014490:08.@entry, 103289462:0N.@parenthesis)
+aoj(600000051:50, 100039297:4S)
+aoj(300490413:33, 105035353:3D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10864]
+{org:en}
+This process is usually carried out using special chemical reagents.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:0Q.@entry, 100029677:07.@topic)
+aoj(302692624:1G, 114778982:1P.@pl)
+obj(201158572:12.@progress, 114778982:1P.@pl)
+obj(202774207:0Q.@entry, 100029677:07.@topic)
+aoj(302692624:1G, 114778982:1P.@pl)
+obj(201158572:12.@progress, 114778982:1P.@pl)
+man(202774207:0Q.@entry, 400535718:0I)
+man(202774207:0Q.@entry, 201158572:12.@progress)
+mod(100029677:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(100029677:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+aoj(301678729:18, 114778982:1P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10865]
+{org:en}
+In the practice of water treatment, the processes of destabilization and primary interaction of colloidal particles are generally termed "coagulation," and the processes of the further enlargement of neutralized colloids are termed "flocculation."
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201029642:6P.@entry, 201029642:42)
+obj(100658082:0U, 107935504:0O)
+obj(201029642:42, 100029677:1D.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301434717:5D, 103289462:5L.@def)
+and:01(100039021:2L.@entry, 101159461:1T)
+obj(100029677:4W.@topic.@def.@pl, 103289462:5L.@def)
+obj(100029677:1D.@topic.@def.@pl, :01:01.@entry)
+and(201029642:6P.@entry, 201029642:42)
+obj(100658082:0U, 107935504:0O)
+obj(201029642:42, 100029677:1D.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301434717:5D, 103289462:5L.@def)
+and:01(100039021:2L.@entry, 101159461:1T)
+obj(100029677:4W.@topic.@def.@pl, 103289462:5L.@def)
+obj(100029677:1D.@topic.@def.@pl, :01:01.@entry)
+aoj(301819152:60, 114588219:6C.@pl)
+obj(100410247:0C.@def, 100658082:0U)
+gol(201029642:6P.@entry, 113482187:6X.@double_quote)
+man(201029642:42, 400041954:3S)
+mod(114588219:6C.@pl, :9Q.@def)
+aoj(302903946:34, 106326406:3E.@pl)
+obj(201029642:6P.@entry, 100029677:4W.@topic.@def.@pl)
+gol(201029642:42, 115669266:4A.@double_quote)
+man(301434717:5D, 400099341:87)
+gol(201029642:42, 115669266:4A.@double_quote)
+man(301434717:5D, 400099341:87)
+mod:01(100039021:2L.@entry, 300699521:2D)
+obj(103289462:5L.@def, 114588219:6C.@pl)
+mod(:01.@entry, 106326406:3E.@pl)
+plc(201029642:42, 100410247:0C.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10866]
+{org:en}
+The corresponding reagents are known as coagulants and flocculants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200594337:0X.@entry, 114778982:0K.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301974451:06, 114778982:0K.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200594337:0X.@entry, 114778982:0K.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301974451:06, 114778982:0K.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(115690313:1L.@entry.@pl, 114815728:16.@pl)
+gol(200594337:0X.@entry, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10867]
+{org:en}
+It was widely known as early as in the end of the nineteenth century that cations of inorganic salts may be utilized as coagulants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200594337:0G.@entry.@past, 200161872:32.@may.@topic)
+aoj(301679244:2F, 105717342:2P.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10868]
+{org:en}
+It was established that when the valence (the effective charge) of a cation is higher, then its coagulating action is more intensive (the Shultse-Gardy rule).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:10869]
+{org:en}
+The salts of iron and aluminum are most often used as coagulants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:10870]
+{org:en}
+Usually aluminum sulfate and iron trichloride are applied, mainly for economic reasons.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10871]
+{org:en}
+Recently, the oxychloride compounds of aluminum have become actively used for this purpose.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10872]
+{org:en}
+The coagulating action of these salts involves the formation of positively charged colloidal particles of hydroxides as a result of hydrolysis processes.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10873]
+{org:en}
+In this case, corresponding hydroxides such as HTM1 are formed not immediately, but in the process of consecutive steps, passing via intermediate compounds, for example, hydroxialuminum complexes, which not only neutralize negatively charged colloid particles polluting natural water, but also are also capable of polymerization.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:10874]
+{org:en}
+This process results in the formation of bridges between natural colloids, providing primary adhesion of particles and initiating the subsequent flocculation process.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10875]
+{org:en}
+The progressive modern direction in coagulation technology is electrochemical coagulation based on the pro'esses of electrochemical metal dissolution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115669266:28.@entry, 106197215:0P.@topic.@def)
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+mod(106197215:0P.@topic.@def, 300414354:0I)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10876]
+{org:en}
+There are two principal versions of such processes
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100029677:17.@pl, 600001411:12)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10877]
+{org:en}
+the dissolution of the metal electrode (anode) in the electrolyzer due to outer electric current is referred to as "electrocoagulation"
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(111443532:2J, 300921631:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10878]
+{org:en}
+the electrochemical dissolution as a result of formation of galvanic pairs in the system's metal-aqueous solution is called "galvanocoagulation."
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10879]
+{org:en}
+Sometimes iron or aluminum is used as the dissolving metal.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:10880]
+{org:en}
+The metal ions enter the aqueous medium and undergo hydrolysis, resulting in the formation of intermediate hydroxycomplexes possessing coagulating action.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:10881]
+{org:en}
+Organic substances in the class of linear polymers with a chain-like form of macromolecules are usually employed as flocculants.
+{/org}
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+aoj(600000123:1U, 102999410:1O.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10882]
+{org:en}
+Polyacrilamide HTM1 polyvinylammonium chloride HTM2 , and other polyelectrolytes of cationic character, starch and different natural materials are some of the most familiar flocculants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10883]
+{org:en}
+Inorganic compounds capable of polymerization can also be utilized in the flocculation process, in particular, freshly prepared (active) silicic acid ( HTM1 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(300308015:0M, 113538757:0X)
+aoj(300031974:3N.@parenthesis, 114607521:43)
+man(200161872:1O.@entry.@ability, 400516580:2Q)
+aoj(301679244:02, 103081859:0C.@topic.@pl)
+obj(201754271:3D.@past, 114607521:43)
+man(200161872:1O.@entry.@ability, 400047534:1G)
+aoj(300308015:0M, 103081859:0C.@topic.@pl)
+cnt(114607521:43, HTM1:4A.@parenthesis)
+aoj(300308015:0M, 103081859:0C.@topic.@pl)
+cnt(114607521:43, HTM1:4A.@parenthesis)
+mod(100029677:2H.@def, 113482187:24)
+aoj(303161903:3V, 114607521:43)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10884]
+{org:en}
+It is hydrolyzed with the formation of HTM1 , which, in turn, gradually is dehydrated and polymerized, forming polysiloxane fragments ( HTM2 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200564151:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+cnt(107008680:3I.@pl, HTM2:3U.@parenthesis)
+man(:01, 200144850:2X.@progress)
+obj(100925207:0S.@def, HTM1:15)
+obj(200564151:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+cnt(107008680:3I.@pl, HTM2:3U.@parenthesis)
+man(:01, 200144850:2X.@progress)
+obj(100925207:0S.@def, HTM1:15)
+man(400107987:1S, 600000208:1J)
+obj(600000019:0J, 100925207:0S.@def)
+and:01(200266197:2K.@entry, 200211396:25)
+man(200564151:08.@entry, 600000019:0J)
+mod(107008680:3I.@pl, 115695859:35)
+man(:01, 400107987:1S)
+mod(107008680:3I.@pl, 115695859:35)
+man(:01, 400107987:1S)
+obj(:01, HTM1:15)
+obj(200144850:2X.@progress, 107008680:3I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10885]
+{org:en}
+The molecular weight of flocculants ranges from dozens of thousands up to several million
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201204439:12.@entry, 104571088:0G.@topic.@def)
+qua("1000000":2C, 600000059:24)
+qua(115690851:1O, 400305683:1E)
+obj(201204439:12.@entry, 104571088:0G.@topic.@def)
+qua("1000000":2C, 600000059:24)
+qua(115690851:1O, 400305683:1E)
+src(201204439:12.@entry, 115690851:1O)
+mod(104571088:0G.@topic.@def, 301542252:06)
+man(201204439:12.@entry, 600000047:1Y)
+mod(104571088:0G.@topic.@def, 115690313:0Q.@pl)
+mod(104571088:0G.@topic.@def, 115690313:0Q.@pl)
+obj(600000047:1Y, "1000000":2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10886]
+{org:en}
+the chain length, consisting of a series of repetitive links, can be as much as hundreds of nanometers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600001383:21.@entry.@ability, 103656231:0C.@topic.@def)
+mod(103656231:0C.@topic.@def, 102999410:06)
+qua(113658278:2L.@pl, 115690923:29)
+aoj(600001383:21.@entry.@ability, 103656231:0C.@topic.@def)
+mod(103656231:0C.@topic.@def, 102999410:06)
+qua(113658278:2L.@pl, 115690923:29)
+aoj(301964367:19, 103673971:1K.@pl)
+man(600001383:21.@entry.@ability, 400516638:1Y)
+obj(105862721:0Z.@indef.@pl, 103673971:1K.@pl)
+bas(600001383:21.@entry.@ability, 113658278:2L.@pl)
+obj(202774237:0K.@progress, 105862721:0Z.@indef.@pl)
+obj(202774237:0K.@progress, 105862721:0Z.@indef.@pl)
+aoj(202774237:0K.@progress, 103656231:0C.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10887]
+{org:en}
+Such molecules are capable of being rapidly adsorbed to many colloidal particles, binding them into bulky and heavy agglomerates.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300306314:0L.@entry, 114682133:07.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(300462409:34.@entry, 303163027:2U)
+qua(106326406:21.@pl, 600000028:1M)
+gol(201540232:1A.@progress.@passive, 106326406:21.@pl)
+aoj(300306314:0L.@entry, 114682133:07.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(300462409:34.@entry, 303163027:2U)
+qua(106326406:21.@pl, 600000028:1M)
+gol(201540232:1A.@progress.@passive, 106326406:21.@pl)
+obj(200567291:2C.@progress, 600000020:2K)
+met(201540232:1A.@progress.@passive, 200567291:2C.@progress)
+gol(200567291:2C.@progress, 114711647:3A.@pl)
+obj(300306314:0L.@entry, 201540232:1A.@progress)
+mod(114682133:07.@topic.@pl, 600001411:02)
+aoj(302903946:1R, 106326406:21.@pl)
+mod(114682133:07.@topic.@pl, 600001411:02)
+aoj(302903946:1R, 106326406:21.@pl)
+man(201540232:1A.@progress.@passive, 400535713:12)
+aoj(:01, 114711647:3A.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10888]
+{org:en}
+Cationic polyelectrolytes may simultaneously fulfill the role, with both coagulants decreasing or neutralizing zeta-potential and flocculants forming agglomerates with the help of the mechanism of cross-linking.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202774802:1B.@entry.@may, 114590441:0B.@topic.@pl)
+obj:02(200144850:40.@progress, 114711647:48.@pl)
+or:02(:01.@entry, 114815728:23.@pl)
+obj:02(200151689:2E.@progress, 114815728:23.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:1T, 100722061:1N.@def)
+obj:02(101207609:4U.@def, 100098385:56.@def)
+agt(202774802:1B.@entry.@may, 114590441:0B.@topic.@pl)
+obj:02(200144850:40.@progress, 114711647:48.@pl)
+or:02(:01.@entry, 114815728:23.@pl)
+obj:02(200151689:2E.@progress, 114815728:23.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:1T, 100722061:1N.@def)
+obj:02(101207609:4U.@def, 100098385:56.@def)
+and:01(115690313:3O.@entry.@pl, 114482620:3A.@pl)
+man(202774802:1B.@entry.@may, 400120095:0W)
+obj:02(600000019:4L, 101207609:4U.@def)
+obj:02(200469904:2S.@progress, :01:01.@entry)
+aoj(302930387:02, 114590441:0B.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202774802:1B.@entry.@may, 100722061:1N.@def)
+aoj:02(600000019:4L, 114711647:48.@pl)
+aoj:02(200144850:40.@progress, :01.@entry)
+aoj:02(600000019:4L, 114711647:48.@pl)
+aoj:02(200144850:40.@progress, :01.@entry)
+mod:02(114815728:23.@pl, 600000323:1Y)
+obj(600000019:1T, :02)
+mod:02(100098385:56.@def, 201291527:5J.@progress)
+mod:01(114482620:3A.@pl, 106834674:35)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10889]
+{org:en}
+The processes of flocculation and coagulation are carried out in practice by very precise dosing of reagents into special flocculation tanks, which can be separate apparatuses or constructions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:1G.@entry, 100029677:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+or:02(100873381:51.@entry.@pl, 102727825:4M.@pl)
+man(301837744:2C, 400031899:27)
+obj(200516584:2K.@progress, 114778982:2U.@pl)
+and:01(115669266:10.@entry, 113482187:0J)
+obj(202774207:1G.@entry, 100029677:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+or:02(100873381:51.@entry.@pl, 102727825:4M.@pl)
+man(301837744:2C, 400031899:27)
+obj(200516584:2K.@progress, 114778982:2U.@pl)
+and:01(115669266:10.@entry, 113482187:0J)
+aoj(301678729:38, 104388743:3T.@pl)
+man(202774207:1G.@entry, 400166512:1S)
+obj(100029677:06.@topic.@def.@pl, :01:01)
+aoj(:02.@ability, 104388743:3T.@pl)
+agt(202774207:1G.@entry, 200516584:2K.@progress)
+aoj(301327371:4D, :02)
+to(114778982:2U.@pl, 104388743:3T.@pl)
+aoj(301327371:4D, :02)
+to(114778982:2U.@pl, 104388743:3T.@pl)
+aoj(301837744:2C, 200516584:2K.@progress)
+mod(104388743:3T.@pl, 113482187:3G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10890]
+{org:en}
+However, most often these appliances are integrated into the design of clarifiers, in which the settling of agglomerates is preceded by clarification of the purified water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200466651:17.@entry, 400027384:02)
+obj(107362218:2Q.@def, 114711647:32.@pl)
+plc(200901799:3I, 115691046:21.@pl)
+gol(200466651:17.@entry, 100928077:1R.@def)
+man(200466651:17.@entry, 400027384:02)
+obj(107362218:2Q.@def, 114711647:32.@pl)
+plc(200901799:3I, 115691046:21.@pl)
+gol(200466651:17.@entry, 100928077:1R.@def)
+obj(107171206:3U, 107935504:4O.@def)
+obj(200466651:17.@entry, 102729837:0S.@topic.@pl)
+man(400059547:0G, 400536271:0B)
+agt(200901799:3I, 107171206:3U)
+man(200466651:17.@entry, 400059547:0G)
+mod(102729837:0S.@topic.@pl, 600000017:0M)
+obj(200901799:3I, 107362218:2Q.@def)
+mod(102729837:0S.@topic.@pl, 600000017:0M)
+obj(200901799:3I, 107362218:2Q.@def)
+mod(100928077:1R.@def, 115691046:21.@pl)
+aoj(303156301:4F, 107935504:4O.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10891]
+{org:en}
+Sedimentation and Clarification
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(107171206:0K.@entry, 111445395:02)
+and(107171206:0K.@entry, 111445395:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10892]
+{org:en}
+Two types of substances that can be precipitated are usually distinguished
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200650353:1R.@entry, 100019613:0F.@pl.@topic)
+qua(104504486:06.@pl, "2":02)
+obj(200650353:1R.@entry, 100019613:0F.@pl.@topic)
+qua(104504486:06.@pl, "2":02)
+mod(100019613:0F.@pl.@topic, 104504486:06.@pl)
+man(200650353:1R.@entry, 400535718:1J)
+obj(200474994:12.@ability, 100019613:0F.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10893]
+{org:en}
+granulated, substances that are precipitated separately one from another with constant speed, and flocculated particles of natural or artificial origin capable of mutual influence and altering the precipitation rate in the process of their sedimentation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(106326406:34.@entry.@pl, 100019613:0E.@pl)
+aoj(300583239:28, 100330160:2H)
+mod:02(113325010:60.@def, 105061149:5M)
+or:01(300073465:3S.@entry, 301335708:3H)
+man(200474994:0Y, 600000018:23)
+aoj(300308015:4A, 104923743:43)
+obj(200474994:0Y, 100019613:0E.@pl)
+and(106326406:34.@entry.@pl, 100019613:0E.@pl)
+aoj(300583239:28, 100330160:2H)
+mod:02(113325010:60.@def, 105061149:5M)
+or:01(300073465:3S.@entry, 301335708:3H)
+man(200474994:0Y, 600000018:23)
+aoj(300308015:4A, 104923743:43)
+obj(200474994:0Y, 100019613:0E.@pl)
+obj:02(200060477:59.@entry.@progress, 111445395:6T)
+obj(600000018:23, 100330160:2H)
+obj(202625916:2S.@past, 106326406:34.@entry.@pl)
+mod:02(100157081:4V.@progress, 303161651:4O)
+and:02(200060477:59.@entry.@progress, 100157081:4V.@progress)
+man(200474994:0Y, 400535413:1B)
+mod(106326406:34.@entry.@pl, 104923743:43)
+mod:02(111445395:6T, 600000020:6N.@pl)
+obj(300308015:4A, :02.@entry)
+mod:02(111445395:6T, 600000020:6N.@pl)
+obj(300308015:4A, :02.@entry)
+man(200474994:0Y, 400536078:1M)
+aoj(:01, 104923743:43)
+mod(100019613:0E.@pl, 302231886:02)
+obj:02(200060477:59.@entry.@progress, 113325010:60.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10894]
+{org:en}
+If the concentration of substances is small, then the agglomerated flocks are precipitated in such a way that every one is separate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200474994:24.@entry, 301391351:14)
+mod(100375071:09.@topic.@def, 100019613:0Q.@pl)
+mod(100172710:2R, 113637376:2P)
+cnt(100172710:2R, 301327371:3D)
+con(200474994:24.@entry, 301391351:14)
+mod(100375071:09.@topic.@def, 100019613:0Q.@pl)
+mod(100172710:2R, 113637376:2P)
+cnt(100172710:2R, 301327371:3D)
+obj(201484714:1G.@past, 107990956:1T.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(200474994:24.@entry, 100172710:2R)
+mod(600000027:36.@topic, 600000301:30)
+obj(200474994:24.@entry, 107990956:1T.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301327371:3D, 600000027:36.@topic)
+aoj(301327371:3D, 600000027:36.@topic)
+mod(100172710:2R, 600001411:2K)
+aoj(301391351:14, 100375071:09.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10895]
+{org:en}
+However, their precipitation rate increases, because the size of flocks grows gradually due to collision with smaller particles.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(200153263:10.@entry, 200094460:22)
+obj(600000019:2Z, 106326406:3C.@pl)
+obj(200094460:22, 105095691:1N.@def)
+mod(113325010:0V.@topic, 105061149:0H)
+rsn(200153263:10.@entry, 200094460:22)
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+obj(200094460:22, 105095691:1N.@def)
+mod(113325010:0V.@topic, 105061149:0H)
+obj(600000001:2I, 107183000:2P)
+obj(200153263:10.@entry, 113325010:0V.@topic)
+mod(105095691:1N.@def, 107990956:1V.@pl)
+man(200094460:22, 400107987:28)
+man(200153263:10.@entry, 400027384:02)
+aoj(301391351:34, 106326406:3C.@pl)
+rsn(200094460:22, 600000001:2I)
+aoj(301391351:34, 106326406:3C.@pl)
+rsn(200094460:22, 600000001:2I)
+mod(105061149:0H, 600000020:0B.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:2Z, 107183000:2P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10896]
+{org:en}
+Such a process is named diffusion sedimentation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200947439:0K.@entry, 100029677:09.@topic)
+mod(100029677:09.@topic, 600001411:02)
+obj(200947439:0K.@entry, 100029677:09.@topic)
+mod(100029677:09.@topic, 600001411:02)
+mod(111445395:10, 107331600:0Q)
+gol(200947439:0K.@entry, 111445395:10)
+mod(100029677:09.@topic, 113637376:07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10897]
+{org:en}
+When there is a high concentration of flocculating substances, a too large quantity of flakes causes retarded precipitation, which in this case occurs with a clearly expressed interface boundary between the bulk of the sediment and the liquid above.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(201645601:2O.@entry, 600000033:02)
+man(300527870:1Z, 400535384:1V)
+obj(200940384:4O.@past, 108512259:58.@indef)
+scn(200723349:42, 102974697:3X)
+obj(202625916:14.@progress, 100019613:1H.@pl)
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+aoj(301840366:2V, 105061149:34)
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+obj(600000024:5H, 105025413:5T.@def)
+man(201645601:2O.@entry, 600000033:02)
+man(300527870:1Z, 400535384:1V)
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+scn(200723349:42, 102974697:3X)
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+obj(600000024:5H, 105025413:5T.@def)
+obj(600000018:49, 108512259:58.@indef)
+aoj(300527870:1Z, 105108740:25.@indef)
+aoj(201645601:2O.@entry, 115692744:2H.@pl)
+aoj(202603699:0D, 100375071:0N.@indef)
+man(200940384:4O.@past, 400039058:4G)
+man(200723349:42, 600000201:6T)
+qua(115692744:2H.@pl, 105108740:25.@indef)
+obj(201645601:2O.@entry, 105061149:34)
+obj(600000033:02, 202603699:0D)
+mod(108512259:58.@indef, 103578435:4Y)
+man(200723349:42, 600000018:49)
+obj(600000033:02, 202603699:0D)
+mod(108512259:58.@indef, 103578435:4Y)
+man(200723349:42, 600000018:49)
+mod(102974697:3X, 600000017:3S)
+obj(200723349:42, 105061149:34)
+aoj(300705498:0I, 100375071:0N.@indef)
+mod(105025413:5T.@def, :01)
+aoj(600000024:5H, 108512259:58.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10898]
+{org:en}
+This process is called zone sedimentation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200107231:0I.@entry, 100029677:07.@topic)
+mod(100029677:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+obj(200107231:0I.@entry, 100029677:07.@topic)
+mod(100029677:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(111445395:0U, 105611062:0P)
+gol(200107231:0I.@entry, 111445395:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10899]
+{org:en}
+The theory of the processes of sedimentation and precipitation of granulated particles has been developed in detail and is used for simulation, calculation, and scaling these processes, and also for designing corresponding installations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201158572:3H.@entry, 200234057:2Q.@complete)
+mod:03(100029677:50.@pl.@progress, 600000017:4U)
+and:02(100868910:45.@progress, 100899049:3T.@progress)
+obj(:01, 106326406:27.@pl)
+pur(:02, :03:03)
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+and(201158572:3H.@entry, 200234057:2Q.@complete)
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+and:02(100868910:45.@progress, 100899049:3T.@progress)
+obj(:01, 106326406:27.@pl)
+pur(:02, :03:03)
+mod(105952979:06.@topic.@def, 100029677:0K.@def.@pl)
+obj:03(200698572:5S.@entry.@progress, 100240938:6G.@pl)
+pur(201158572:3H.@entry, :02:02)
+man(200234057:2Q.@complete, 400152684:30)
+man:03(200698572:5S.@entry.@progress, 400047534:5J)
+mod(106326406:27.@pl, 302231886:1W)
+obj(201158572:3H.@entry, 105952979:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(200234057:2Q.@complete, 105952979:06.@topic.@def)
+and:03(200698572:5S.@entry.@progress, 100029677:50.@pl.@progress)
+obj(200234057:2Q.@complete, 105952979:06.@topic.@def)
+and:03(200698572:5S.@entry.@progress, 100029677:50.@pl.@progress)
+and:01(105061149:1F.@entry, 111445395:0X)
+and:02(200319406:4M.@entry.@progress, 100868910:45.@progress)
+obj(100029677:0K.@def.@pl, :01:01)
+aoj:03(301974451:62, 100240938:6G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10900]
+{org:en}
+The constant (stationary) sedimentation rate of granulated particles in the given medium is evaluated on the assumption of the equality of gravitational driving forces an' resistance forces.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200670261:2M.@entry, 113325010:16.@topic.@def)
+mod(113325010:16.@topic.@def, 111445395:0S)
+mod:01(105035353:55.@entry.@pl, 100202284:4U)
+mod(104747899:3L.@def, :01)
+mod(106326406:1P.@pl, 302231886:1E)
+obj(200670261:2M.@entry, 113325010:16.@topic.@def)
+mod(113325010:16.@topic.@def, 111445395:0S)
+mod:01(105035353:55.@entry.@pl, 100202284:4U)
+mod(104747899:3L.@def, :01)
+mod(106326406:1P.@pl, 302231886:1E)
+mod(113325010:16.@topic.@def, 106326406:1P.@pl)
+mod(100082870:33.@def, 104747899:3L.@def)
+plc(106326406:1P.@pl, 106254475:2C.@def)
+mod:01(105035353:4J.@pl, 300808940:4B)
+plc(200670261:2M.@entry, 100082870:33.@def)
+cnt(300583239:06, 301060445:0G.@parenthesis)
+aoj:01(302737183:3X, 105035353:4J.@pl)
+cnt(300583239:06, 301060445:0G.@parenthesis)
+aoj:01(302737183:3X, 105035353:4J.@pl)
+and:01(105035353:55.@entry.@pl, 105035353:4J.@pl)
+mod(106254475:2C.@def, 300028280:26)
+aoj(300583239:06, 113325010:16.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10901]
+{org:en}
+These are determined, in turn, by the viscosity of the medium and by inertial forces.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0C.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(104935003:14.@def.@pl, 106254475:1L.@def)
+and:01(105035353:28.@entry.@pl, 104935003:14.@def.@pl)
+obj(200699815:0C.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(104935003:14.@def.@pl, 106254475:1L.@def)
+and:01(105035353:28.@entry.@pl, 104935003:14.@def.@pl)
+man(200699815:0C.@entry, 600000208:0O)
+agt(200699815:0C.@entry, :01)
+aoj:01(302748757:1Z, 105035353:28.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10902]
+{org:en}
+In this case, the generalized formula for precipitation rate is as follows
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(600000323:1U.@entry, 600000186:02)
+mod(106731802:0W.@topic.@def, 302278513:0K)
+man(600000323:1U.@entry, 600000186:02)
+mod(106731802:0W.@topic.@def, 302278513:0K)
+pur(106731802:0W.@topic.@def, 113325010:1M)
+aoj(600000323:1U.@entry, 106731802:0W.@topic.@def)
+mod(113325010:1M, 105061149:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10903]
+{org:en}
+where HTM1 is the velocity ( HTM2 )
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(115689301:0K.@def, 115689346:02.@entry)
+plc(115689301:0K.@def, 115689346:02.@entry)
+cnt(115689301:0K.@def, HTM2:0V.@parenthesis)
+aoj(115689301:0K.@def, HTM1:08.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10904]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is the diameter of particle (cm)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105101815:0E.@entry.@def, HTM1:02)
+aoj(105101815:0E.@entry.@def, HTM1:02)
+cnt(106326406:0Q, 115669285:10.@parenthesis)
+mod(105101815:0E.@entry.@def, 106326406:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10905]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is the gravity acceleration (980 HTM2 )
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100330457:0M.@entry.@def, HTM1:02)
+qua:01(HTM2:14.@entry, "980":10)
+aoj(100330457:0M.@entry.@def, HTM1:02)
+qua:01(HTM2:14.@entry, "980":10)
+mod(100330457:0M.@entry.@def, 107512147:0E)
+cnt(100330457:0M.@entry.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10906]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 , HTM2 are the values of density of particle and liquid medium, respectively ( HTM3 )
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104979425:0T.@entry.@def.@pl, :02.@topic)
+mod:01(106254475:1Y.@entry, 107119643:1R)
+man(:01, 400137915:26)
+aoj(104979425:0T.@entry.@def.@pl, :02.@topic)
+mod:01(106254475:1Y.@entry, 107119643:1R)
+man(:01, 400137915:26)
+mod(104941453:13, :01)
+mod(104979425:0T.@entry.@def.@pl, 104941453:13)
+and:02(HTM2:05.@entry, HTM1:0C)
+and:02(HTM2:05.@entry, HTM1:0C)
+and:01(106254475:1Y.@entry, 106326406:1E)
+[W]
+HTM3:2L.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10907]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 the Reinolds number
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(500323555:0B.@def, HTM1:02.@entry)
+aoj(500323555:0B.@def, HTM1:02.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10908]
+{org:en}
+and HTM1 and HTM2 are numerical factors.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105858317:0Y.@entry.@pl, :02)
+and:01(HTM2:0F.@entry.@topic, HTM1:06.@topic)
+and(105858317:0Y.@entry.@pl, :02)
+and:01(HTM2:0F.@entry.@topic, HTM1:06.@topic)
+aoj(302230795:0O, 105858317:0Y.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(105858317:0Y.@entry.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10909]
+{org:en}
+The Reinolds number, interpreted as the ratio of inertial forces to the forces of dynamic viscosity, is found to have vital significance for the determination of corresponding factors and numerical values of the deposition rate of granulated particles.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200715239:35.@entry, 500323555:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(105035353:29.@def.@pl, 104935003:2R)
+mod(113325010:6N.@def, 106326406:76.@pl)
+obj(100151497:4A.@def, :01:01.@entry)
+aoj(400535853:22, 113819207:19.@def)
+pur(105169813:3P, 100151497:4A.@def)
+obj(200623151:0N, 500323555:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(200715239:35.@entry, 500323555:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(105035353:29.@def.@pl, 104935003:2R)
+mod(113325010:6N.@def, 106326406:76.@pl)
+obj(100151497:4A.@def, :01:01.@entry)
+aoj(400535853:22, 113819207:19.@def)
+pur(105169813:3P, 100151497:4A.@def)
+obj(200623151:0N, 500323555:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj:01(302230795:5K, 104979425:5U.@entry.@pl)
+obj(400535853:22, 105035353:29.@def.@pl)
+obj(200065370:3E, 105169813:3P)
+mod(106326406:76.@pl, 302231886:6V)
+and:01(104979425:5U.@entry.@pl, 105858317:58.@pl)
+aoj(302748757:1I, 105035353:1R.@pl)
+gol(200715239:35.@entry, 200065370:3E)
+aoj(300808191:2J, 104935003:2R)
+mod(113325010:6N.@def, 100208943:6C)
+mod(:01.@entry, 113325010:6N.@def)
+aoj(300808191:2J, 104935003:2R)
+mod(113325010:6N.@def, 100208943:6C)
+mod(:01.@entry, 113325010:6N.@def)
+mod(113819207:19.@def, 105035353:1R.@pl)
+mod(105169813:3P, 300095094:3J)
+gol(200623151:0N, 113819207:19.@def)
+aoj:01(301974451:4U, 105858317:58.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10910]
+{org:en}
+The calculations show that for values of Reinolds numbers of the order of magnitude HTM1 (in the region of slow sedimentation in the laminar conditions), HTM2 and HTM3 , and the above equation changes into the well-known (in physics) Stokes' formula.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200109660:5F.@entry, 200923307:0J)
+aoj:01(300980527:31, 111445395:36)
+mod(104979425:0X.@pl, 500323555:17.@pl)
+man(301376705:5W, 106090869:6B.@parenthesis)
+aoj:02(:01.@parenthesis, HTM1:2E)
+aoj(301376705:5W, 106731802:6S.@def)
+and:02(HTM3:4L.@entry, HTM2:4C)
+scn:01(111445395:36, 105798863:3Z.@def.@pl)
+and(200109660:5F.@entry, 200923307:0J)
+aoj:01(300980527:31, 111445395:36)
+mod(104979425:0X.@pl, 500323555:17.@pl)
+man(301376705:5W, 106090869:6B.@parenthesis)
+aoj:02(:01.@parenthesis, HTM1:2E)
+aoj(301376705:5W, 106731802:6S.@def)
+and:02(HTM3:4L.@entry, HTM2:4C)
+scn:01(111445395:36, 105798863:3Z.@def.@pl)
+obj(200923307:0J, 600000030:0O)
+gol(200109660:5F.@entry, 106731802:6S.@def)
+obj(600000452:1O, :02)
+agt(200923307:0J, 100868910:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(105221895:2R.@entry.@def, 111445395:36)
+obj(200109660:5F.@entry, 100185307:56.@topic.@def)
+aoj:01(300208613:3R, 105798863:3Z.@def.@pl)
+aoj(600000452:1O, 500323555:17.@pl)
+mod(100185307:56.@topic.@def, 300125993:50)
+aoj:01(300208613:3R, 105798863:3Z.@def.@pl)
+aoj(600000452:1O, 500323555:17.@pl)
+mod(100185307:56.@topic.@def, 300125993:50)
+mod:02(HTM1:2E, 105090441:24)
+mod(106731802:6S.@def, 500323478:6K)
+and:02(HTM2:4C, HTM1:2E)
+pur(600000030:0O, 104979425:0X.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10911]
+{org:en}
+In the same manner, with Reinolds numbers of HTM1 and HTM2 , and formula (1) changes into Allen's formula.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200109660:2K.@entry, 104910135:0E)
+mod(500323555:0R.@pl, HTM1:1B)
+and:02(106731802:24.@entry.@topic, :01)
+mod(106731802:35, 500006551:2X)
+man(200109660:2K.@entry, 104910135:0E)
+mod(500323555:0R.@pl, HTM1:1B)
+and:02(106731802:24.@entry.@topic, :01)
+mod(106731802:35, 500006551:2X)
+aoj(300355611:09, 104910135:0E)
+gol(200109660:2K.@entry, 106731802:35)
+aoj(600000019:0M, 104910135:0E)
+obj(200109660:2K.@entry, :03:03)
+and:01(HTM4:1T.@entry.@topic, HTM2:1K.@topic)
+and:01(HTM4:1T.@entry.@topic, HTM2:1K.@topic)
+tim:03(:02.@entry, "1":2D.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000019:0M, 500323555:0R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10912]
+{org:en}
+Finally, in the range of Reinolds numbers HTM1 (in the conditions of fast turbulent deposit sedimentation of granular particles) HTM2 , HTM3 , and formula (1) changes into the well-known Newtonian formula.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200109660:4H.@entry, 400048138:02)
+cnt(500323555:0R.@pl, HTM1:18)
+aoj(303036014:59, 106731802:5J.@def)
+aoj:01(303161915:24, 111445395:2M)
+man(200109660:4H.@entry, 600000585:0I)
+obj:01(111445395:2M, 106326406:3C.@pl)
+man(200109660:4H.@entry, 400048138:02)
+cnt(500323555:0R.@pl, HTM1:18)
+aoj(303036014:59, 106731802:5J.@def)
+aoj:01(303161915:24, 111445395:2M)
+man(200109660:4H.@entry, 600000585:0I)
+obj:01(111445395:2M, 106326406:3C.@pl)
+and:02(HTM3:3U, HTM2:3N)
+gol(200109660:4H.@entry, 106731802:5J.@def)
+obj:01(105798863:1L.@entry.@def.@pl, 111445395:2M)
+and:02(106731802:45.@entry, HTM3:3U)
+aoj:01(303158564:33, 106326406:3C.@pl)
+obj(200109660:4H.@entry, :02:02)
+scn(HTM1:18, :01:01)
+mod:02(106731802:45.@entry, "1":4E.@parenthesis)
+scn(HTM1:18, :01:01)
+mod:02(106731802:45.@entry, "1":4E.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(111445395:2M, 100372448:2E)
+aoj(301376705:4Y, 106731802:5J.@def)
+aoj:01(300323873:1Z, 111445395:2M)
+obj(600000585:0I, 500323555:0R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10913]
+{org:en}
+There are various semi-empirical approaches and theories of diffusion and zone sedimentation of flocculated particles (flakes) for technological calculations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, :01)
+obj(202625916:2Q.@past, 106326406:32.@pl)
+obj(111445395:29, 106326406:32.@pl)
+aoj:01(303160904:0C, 100280853:0Z.@pl)
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, :01)
+obj(202625916:2Q.@past, 106326406:32.@pl)
+obj(111445395:29, 106326406:32.@pl)
+aoj:01(303160904:0C, 100280853:0Z.@pl)
+pur(106326406:32.@pl, 100868910:43.@pl)
+and:01(105952979:1E.@entry.@pl, 100280853:0Z.@pl)
+and:02(105611062:24.@entry, 107331600:1Q)
+mod(:01, 111445395:29)
+aoj(302084979:3P, 100868910:43.@pl)
+mod(111445395:29, :02)
+aoj(302084979:3P, 100868910:43.@pl)
+mod(111445395:29, :02)
+aoj:01(300860254:0P, 100280853:0Z.@pl)
+cnt(106326406:32.@pl, 115692744:3D.@parenthesis.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10914]
+{org:en}
+These methods are reported in the specialist literature.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200965035:0K.@entry, 105660268:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105660268:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+obj(200965035:0K.@entry, 105660268:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105660268:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+aoj(303162836:10, 100610592:1B.@def)
+plc(200965035:0K.@entry, 100610592:1B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10915]
+{org:en}
+Depending on the composition of the purified water and on the required output, various types of clarifying equipment are employed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774279:3F.@entry, 202663848:02.@progress)
+obj(202663848:02.@progress, :01:01)
+aoj(303160904:29, 104504486:2H.@topic.@pl)
+man(202774279:3F.@entry, 202663848:02.@progress)
+obj(202663848:02.@progress, :01:01)
+aoj(303160904:29, 104504486:2H.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(103081660:0J.@def, 107935504:1B.@def)
+obj(104504486:2H.@topic.@pl, 200505151:2Q.@progress)
+obj:01(202774169:1S.@past, 100914632:21.@entry.@def)
+obj(202774279:3F.@entry, 104504486:2H.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(100914632:21.@entry.@def, 103081660:0J.@def)
+and:01(100914632:21.@entry.@def, 103081660:0J.@def)
+obj(200505151:2Q.@progress, 103294048:31)
+obj:01(200475183:12.@past, 107935504:1B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10916]
+{org:en}
+It is possible to distinguish three principal groups of appliances and constructions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301821266:08.@entry, 200650353:0K)
+and:01(100873381:21.@entry.@pl, 102729837:1M.@pl)
+qua(100031264:1C.@pl, "3":0W)
+aoj(301821266:08.@entry, 200650353:0K)
+and:01(100873381:21.@entry.@pl, 102729837:1M.@pl)
+qua(100031264:1C.@pl, "3":0W)
+mod(100031264:1C.@pl, :01)
+obj(200650353:0K, 100031264:1C.@pl)
+mod(100031264:1C.@pl, 303161143:12)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10917]
+{org:en}
+Settlers, in which the "in adherent" subsidence of suspended and flocculated particles takes place, comprise the first group.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774449:2U.@entry, 110583387:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(115669212:13.@def, 106326406:27.@pl)
+plc(202774213:2N, 110583387:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(202774449:2U.@entry, 110583387:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(115669212:13.@def, 106326406:27.@pl)
+plc(202774213:2N, 110583387:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202625916:1V.@past, 106326406:27.@pl)
+mod(100031264:3D.@def, "1":37.@ordinal)
+aoj(302351692:1H, 106326406:27.@pl)
+obj(202774449:2U.@entry, 100031264:3D.@def)
+aoj(303163362:0Q.@double_quote, 115669212:13.@def)
+aoj(303163362:0Q.@double_quote, 115669212:13.@def)
+obj(202774213:2N, 115669212:13.@def)
+and(202625916:1V.@past, 302351692:1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10918]
+{org:en}
+In these appliances clarified water is continually taken off from the upper part, and the thickened suspension and slurries are removed from the lower part.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200173338:3M.@entry, :01:01)
+obj(200050454:1H, 107935504:0W.@topic)
+obj(200431117:2K.@past, :01:01)
+aoj(301206474:43, 103892891:49.@def)
+obj(200505151:0M, 107935504:0W.@topic)
+obj(200173338:3M.@entry, :01:01)
+obj(200050454:1H, 107935504:0W.@topic)
+obj(200431117:2K.@past, :01:01)
+aoj(301206474:43, 103892891:49.@def)
+obj(200505151:0M, 107935504:0W.@topic)
+src(200050454:1H, 103892891:26.@def)
+src(200173338:3M.@entry, 103892891:49.@def)
+mod(102729837:0B.@pl, 600000017:05)
+plc(200050454:1H, 102729837:0B.@pl)
+and(200173338:3M.@entry, 200050454:1H)
+mod(103892891:26.@def, 301206318:20)
+and:01(114591333:39.@entry.@pl.@topic.@def, 100209132:2U.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(103892891:26.@def, 301206318:20)
+and:01(114591333:39.@entry.@pl.@topic.@def, 100209132:2U.@topic.@def.@pl)
+man(301206474:43, 400099341:6Z)
+man(200050454:1H, 400088931:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10919]
+{org:en}
+There is a vast diversity of settlers of vertical, horizontal, and radial types.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, 104735711:0I.@indef)
+and:01(302373055:1X.@entry, 301232635:1H)
+mod(110583387:0V.@pl, 104504486:24.@pl)
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, 104735711:0I.@indef)
+and:01(302373055:1X.@entry, 301232635:1H)
+mod(110583387:0V.@pl, 104504486:24.@pl)
+aoj(303161287:0D, 104735711:0I.@indef)
+mod(104735711:0I.@indef, 110583387:0V.@pl)
+and:01(301232635:1H, 301204142:17)
+and:01(301232635:1H, 301204142:17)
+aoj(:01, 104504486:24.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10920]
+{org:en}
+In addition there are spiral, multilevel, thin layer, and other varieties of settlers that differ in their geometry, technique of purifying, water intake, take-off of the final products, and hydrodynamic conditions inside the apparatuses, and have other special features.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:02(101463259:1J, 302888198:0Z)
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+obj:01(115395974:5B.@pl, 103748886:5X.@def.@pl)
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+and(200065370:86.@entry, 202666239:32)
+obj:01(600000187:76, 102727825:7H.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(103576617:50.@pl, 107935504:4U)
+man(202603699:0K.@entry, 400535244:02)
+and:01(105665146:42.@pl, 106004685:3L.@pl)
+and:01(105798863:6V.@entry.@pl, 115395974:5B.@pl)
+and:02(101463259:1J, 302888198:0Z)
+obj(200065370:86.@entry, 103325769:8P.@pl)
+obj:01(115395974:5B.@pl, 103748886:5X.@def.@pl)
+and:02(104751305:24.@entry.@pl, 101463259:1J)
+and(200065370:86.@entry, 202666239:32)
+obj:01(600000187:76, 102727825:7H.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(103576617:50.@pl, 107935504:4U)
+obj(202666239:32, 110583387:2L.@pl)
+mod(110583387:2L.@pl, :02)
+mod:01(106004685:3L.@pl, 600000020:3F.@pl)
+aoj:01(302979995:6I, 105798863:6V.@entry.@pl)
+and:02(302888198:0Z, 303159066:0R)
+and:01(103576617:50.@pl, 105665146:42.@pl)
+aoj(301678729:8H, 103325769:8P.@pl)
+aoj(202603699:0K.@entry, 110583387:2L.@pl)
+mod:01(105665146:42.@pl, 200475183:4F.@progress)
+aoj:01(600000187:76, 105798863:6V.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:02(300988232:1E, 101463259:1J)
+mod:01(105665146:42.@pl, 200475183:4F.@progress)
+aoj:01(600000187:76, 105798863:6V.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:02(300988232:1E, 101463259:1J)
+mod(103325769:8P.@pl, 600000031:8B)
+aoj:01(300349894:5R, 103748886:5X.@def.@pl)
+mod:02(104751305:24.@entry.@pl, 600000031:1Y)
+aoj(200065370:86.@entry, 110583387:2L.@pl)
+and:01(115395974:5B.@pl, 103576617:50.@pl)
+scn(202666239:32, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10921]
+{org:en}
+The second principal type of such appliances includes clarifiers, in which the sedimentation process is carried out in a suspended contact medium.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:1B.@entry, 102729837:10.@pl)
+mod(106254475:3X.@indef, 100039297:3P)
+mod(102729837:10.@pl, 600001411:0V)
+mod(104504486:0N.@topic.@def, "2":06.@ordinal)
+aoj(200183879:1B.@entry, 102729837:10.@pl)
+mod(106254475:3X.@indef, 100039297:3P)
+mod(102729837:10.@pl, 600001411:0V)
+mod(104504486:0N.@topic.@def, "2":06.@ordinal)
+plc(202774207:2Y, 106254475:3X.@indef)
+mod(102729837:10.@pl, 104504486:0N.@def)
+obj(202774207:2Y, 100029677:2N.@def)
+obj(200183879:1B.@entry, 115691046:1K.@pl)
+mod(100029677:2N.@def, 111445395:29)
+plc(202774207:2Y, 115691046:1K.@pl)
+mod(100029677:2N.@def, 111445395:29)
+plc(202774207:2Y, 115691046:1K.@pl)
+mod(104504486:0N.@topic.@def, 303161143:0D)
+aoj(302351692:3F, 106254475:3X.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10922]
+{org:en}
+The water to be purified is fed into the lower part of the apparatus and moves in an upward direction by counter-current mode, through a precipitating suspended matter which is composed of granular and flocculated particles (these are described as a suspended contact medium).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200124442:23.@entry, 200189511:0U)
+mod(103892891:1D.@def, 102727825:1P.@def)
+obj(201626138:4Z, 100020827:4J.@indef)
+mod(106197215:2M.@indef, 302491836:2F)
+aoj:02(302351692:70, 106254475:7I.@indef)
+obj(202625916:5O.@past, 106326406:60.@pl)
+gol(200124442:23.@entry, 106197215:2M.@indef)
+obj(200475183:0I.@will, 107935504:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(201626138:4Z, 106326406:60.@pl)
+gol(200189511:0U, 103892891:1D.@def)
+and(200124442:23.@entry, 200189511:0U)
+mod(103892891:1D.@def, 102727825:1P.@def)
+obj(201626138:4Z, 100020827:4J.@indef)
+mod(106197215:2M.@indef, 302491836:2F)
+aoj:02(302351692:70, 106254475:7I.@indef)
+obj(202625916:5O.@past, 106326406:60.@pl)
+gol(200124442:23.@entry, 106197215:2M.@indef)
+obj(200475183:0I.@will, 107935504:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(201626138:4Z, 106326406:60.@pl)
+gol(200189511:0U, 103892891:1D.@def)
+mod(111443532:37, 303163111:2Z)
+man(200124442:23.@entry, 600000026:3L)
+man(301206474:17, 400099341:7V)
+aoj(302351692:49, 100020827:4J.@indef)
+mod(106023675:3F, 111443532:37)
+obj(200189511:0U, 107935504:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(200124442:23.@entry, 107935504:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301206474:17, 103892891:1D.@def)
+obj(200474994:3V.@progress, 100020827:4J.@indef)
+obj(600000035:CT, 106023675:3F)
+aoj(301206474:17, 103892891:1D.@def)
+obj(200474994:3V.@progress, 100020827:4J.@indef)
+obj(600000035:CT, 106023675:3F)
+mod:02(106254475:7I.@indef, 100039297:7A)
+and(202625916:5O.@past, 303158564:5B)
+aoj(600000035:CT, 106197215:2M.@indef)
+gol:02(200987071:6L.@entry, 106254475:7I.@indef)
+aoj(303158564:5B, 106326406:60.@pl)
+obj(600000026:3L, 100020827:4J.@indef)
+[W]
+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10923]
+{org:en}
+Clarified water is output from the upper part of the device.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100914632:0L.@entry, 107935504:0C.@topic)
+mod(103892891:17.@def, 301206318:11)
+aoj(100914632:0L.@entry, 107935504:0C.@topic)
+mod(103892891:17.@def, 301206318:11)
+mod(103892891:17.@def, 100171249:1J.@def)
+frm(100914632:0L.@entry, 103892891:17.@def)
+obj(200505151:02.@past, 107935504:0C.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10924]
+{org:en}
+The physical-chemical nature of this process consists of contact coagulation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774237:1B.@entry, 104623113:0O.@topic.@def)
+mod(100029677:13, 600000017:0Y)
+mod(104623113:0O.@topic.@def, 100029677:13)
+aoj(202774237:1B.@entry, 104623113:0O.@topic.@def)
+mod(100029677:13, 600000017:0Y)
+mod(104623113:0O.@topic.@def, 100029677:13)
+mod(115669266:1V, 100039297:1N)
+obj(202774237:1B.@entry, 115669266:1V)
+aoj(303161516:0F, 104623113:0O.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10925]
+{org:en}
+The rates of processes in such clarifiers are appreciably higher than in settlers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+bas(300705498:1O.@entry, :3H)
+plc(100029677:0F.@pl, 115691046:0X.@pl)
+man(300705498:1O.@entry, 400099341:37)
+bas(300705498:1O.@entry, :3H)
+plc(100029677:0F.@pl, 115691046:0X.@pl)
+man(300705498:1O.@entry, 400099341:37)
+man(300705498:1O.@entry, 400006610:1C)
+plc(:3H, 110583387:23.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:1O.@entry, 113325010:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(115691046:0X.@pl, 600001411:0S)
+mod(115691046:0X.@pl, 600001411:0S)
+mod(113325010:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 100029677:0F.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10926]
+{org:en}
+The third type of clarifier consists of apparatuses in which special conditions are provided for fast settlement due to increasing gravitation forces.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774237:0U.@entry, 115691046:0K)
+aoj(301678729:1R, 105798863:1Z.@pl)
+aoj(300137725:37, 105789089:2W)
+obj(200406963:2E, 105798863:1Z.@pl)
+aoj(202774237:0U.@entry, 115691046:0K)
+aoj(301678729:1R, 105798863:1Z.@pl)
+aoj(300137725:37, 105789089:2W)
+obj(200406963:2E, 105798863:1Z.@pl)
+obj(200153263:3E.@progress, 105035353:41.@pl)
+plc(200406963:2E, 102727825:16.@pl)
+mod(104504486:0C.@topic.@def, "3":06.@ordinal)
+obj(300137725:37, 105035353:41.@pl)
+obj(202774237:0U.@entry, 102727825:16.@pl)
+mod(115691046:0K, 104504486:0C.@def)
+aoj(300323873:2R, 105789089:2W)
+mod(115691046:0K, 104504486:0C.@def)
+aoj(300323873:2R, 105789089:2W)
+pur(200406963:2E, 105789089:2W)
+mod(105035353:41.@pl, 106198313:3P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10927]
+{org:en}
+These include hydrocyclones and centrifuges.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:08.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(111443721:0L.@pl, 303160971:0G)
+aoj(200183879:08.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(111443721:0L.@pl, 303160971:0G)
+and:01(102995998:0Y.@entry.@pl, 111443721:0L.@pl)
+obj(200183879:08.@entry, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10928]
+{org:en}
+Hydrocyclones are apparatuses of an inverse conical configuration, in which the vortex movement of the medium to be purified is brought into existence by the tangential advancement of feed water (along a tangent to the circular cross-section) and the special inner design.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(102727825:0K.@entry.@pl, 115669679:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200475183:3A.@will, 106254475:2X.@def)
+aoj:02(301678729:71, 100928077:7F.@entry.@def)
+obj(202774473:3U, 100279835:2H.@def)
+to:01(113788035:5Q.@indef, 105092421:6E.@def)
+mod(105731779:1I.@indef, 300202095:12)
+mod:02(107935504:5B.@def, 107800091:56)
+mod(100279835:2H.@def, 115669136:2A)
+aoj(102727825:0K.@entry.@pl, 115669679:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200475183:3A.@will, 106254475:2X.@def)
+aoj:02(301678729:71, 100928077:7F.@entry.@def)
+obj(202774473:3U, 100279835:2H.@def)
+to:01(113788035:5Q.@indef, 105092421:6E.@def)
+mod(105731779:1I.@indef, 300202095:12)
+mod:02(107935504:5B.@def, 107800091:56)
+mod(100279835:2H.@def, 115669136:2A)
+aoj(302808830:4G, 115691174:4R.@def)
+plc(202774473:3U, 105731779:1I.@indef)
+aoj:02(:01.@parenthesis, 107935504:5B)
+obj(115691174:4R.@def, :02:02)
+obj(100279835:2H.@def, 106254475:2X.@def)
+mod(102727825:0K.@entry.@pl, 105731779:1I.@indef)
+mod:02(100928077:7F.@entry.@def, 300948985:79)
+agt(202774473:3U, 115691174:4R.@def)
+mod:02(100928077:7F.@entry.@def, 300948985:79)
+agt(202774473:3U, 115691174:4R.@def)
+aoj:01(300676271:65, 105092421:6E.@def)
+aoj(303163085:1A, 105731779:1I.@indef)
+obj:01(600000135:5I.@entry, 113788035:5Q.@indef)
+and:02(100928077:7F.@entry.@def, 107935504:5B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10929]
+{org:en}
+The vortex movement allows the more effective separation of the solid particles and liquid due to the difference in their densities and due to the employment of centrifugal forces.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200723545:0M.@entry, 100279835:0D.@topic.@def)
+obj:02(101217859:4J.@def, 105035353:59.@pl)
+man(300044132:15, 400099341:10)
+mod(100279835:0D.@topic.@def, 115669136:06)
+obj(100383606:1F.@def, :01:01)
+obj:02(104748836:36.@def, 104941453:3Q.@pl)
+agt(200723545:0M.@entry, 100279835:0D.@topic.@def)
+obj:02(101217859:4J.@def, 105035353:59.@pl)
+man(300044132:15, 400099341:10)
+mod(100279835:0D.@topic.@def, 115669136:06)
+obj(100383606:1F.@def, :01:01)
+obj:02(104748836:36.@def, 104941453:3Q.@pl)
+and:02(300137725:48.@entry, 300137725:2S)
+aoj(:02, 100383606:1F.@def)
+obj:02(300137725:2S, 104748836:36.@def)
+aoj:01(300291181:1X, 106326406:23.@def.@pl)
+obj(200723545:0M.@entry, 100383606:1F.@def)
+aoj:02(300332375:4X, 105035353:59.@pl)
+and:01(107119643:2H.@entry, 106326406:23.@def.@pl)
+aoj:02(300332375:4X, 105035353:59.@pl)
+and:01(107119643:2H.@entry, 106326406:23.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300044132:15, 100383606:1F.@def)
+mod:02(104941453:3Q.@pl, 600000020:3K.@pl)
+obj:02(300137725:48.@entry, 101217859:4J.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10930]
+{org:en}
+In practice hydrocyclones are primarily utilized to carry out the preliminary stages of water purification from heterophase admixtures such as sand and coarse particles of clay.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(200161872:16.@entry, 202774207:1I)
+aoj(600000029:3T, 102681084:3I.@pl)
+obj(202774207:1I, 100306900:28.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(301950198:4A, 106326406:4H.@entry.@pl)
+man(200161872:16.@entry, 400166512:02)
+and:01(106326406:4H.@entry.@pl, 115019030:41.@pl)
+pur(200161872:16.@entry, 202774207:1I)
+aoj(600000029:3T, 102681084:3I.@pl)
+obj(202774207:1I, 100306900:28.@def.@pl)
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+man(200161872:16.@entry, 400166512:02)
+and:01(106326406:4H.@entry.@pl, 115019030:41.@pl)
+frm(100252894:2O, 102681084:3I.@pl)
+man(200161872:16.@entry, 400138410:0W)
+obj(600000029:3T, :01)
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+obj(200161872:16.@entry, 111443721:0J.@pl.@topic)
+mod(102681084:3I.@pl, 303161840:36)
+mod(100306900:28.@def.@pl, 100252894:2O)
+mod(102681084:3I.@pl, 303161840:36)
+mod(100306900:28.@def.@pl, 100252894:2O)
+mod(111443721:0J.@pl.@topic, 303160971:0E)
+mod:01(106326406:4H.@entry.@pl, 114813182:4U)
+mod(100252894:2O, 107935504:2I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10931]
+{org:en}
+The cost-justification for using them is greatest in these cases.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301278818:17.@entry, 101241767:0B.@topic.@def)
+mod(101241767:0B.@topic.@def, 113275847:06)
+mod(102974697:1P.@pl, 600000017:1J)
+aoj(301278818:17.@entry, 101241767:0B.@topic.@def)
+mod(101241767:0B.@topic.@def, 113275847:06)
+mod(102974697:1P.@pl, 600000017:1J)
+man(301278818:17.@entry, 400536271:28)
+plc(301278818:17.@entry, 102974697:1P.@pl)
+obj(201158572:0T.@progress, 600000020:0Z)
+obj(201158572:0T.@progress, 600000020:0Z)
+pur(101241767:0B.@topic.@def, 201158572:0T.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10932]
+{org:en}
+In centrifuges the additional gravitation field which allows the solid particles to accelerate more than the liquid medium is created by the rapid rotation of the whole mixture around an axis.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201640207:3K.@entry, 102995998:05.@pl)
+mod(101097119:18.@topic.@def, 106198313:0W)
+aoj(600000077:4Z, 100380083:4R.@def)
+man(200438178:2E, 400099341:2P)
+obj(100342028:45.@def, 100380083:4R.@def)
+aoj(300291181:1V, 106326406:21.@def.@pl)
+plc(201640207:3K.@entry, 102995998:05.@pl)
+mod(101097119:18.@topic.@def, 106198313:0W)
+aoj(600000077:4Z, 100380083:4R.@def)
+man(200438178:2E, 400099341:2P)
+obj(100342028:45.@def, 100380083:4R.@def)
+aoj(300291181:1V, 106326406:21.@def.@pl)
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+agt(201640207:3K.@entry, 100342028:45.@def)
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+obj(600000077:4Z, 102764614:59.@indef)
+obj(201640207:3K.@entry, 101097119:18.@topic.@def)
+pur(200723545:1K, 200438178:2E)
+mod(100380083:4R.@def, 300514884:4L)
+pur(200723545:1K, 200438178:2E)
+mod(100380083:4R.@def, 300514884:4L)
+aoj(300432453:33, 106254475:3A.@def)
+mod(100342028:45.@def, 300979697:3Z)
+bas(200438178:2E, 106254475:3A.@def)
+aoj(303161014:0L, 101097119:18.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10933]
+{org:en}
+In practice these centrifuges are most often employed for the separation of hardly coagulated particles, and also for solving other special technological problems connected with the treatment of relatively minor volumes of purified water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774279:1B.@entry, 400166512:02)
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+man(202774279:1B.@entry, 400166512:02)
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+aoj:01(301415219:5Z, 104990220:65.@pl)
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+obj:01(200634906:3J.@entry.@progress, 105687338:4J.@pl)
+obj:01(200475183:6G.@past, 107935504:6P)
+obj(202774279:1B.@entry, 102995998:0K.@topic.@pl)
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+aoj:01(302084979:45, 105687338:4J.@pl)
+man:01(200634906:3J.@entry.@progress, 400047534:3A)
+man:01(202775436:2G.@past, 400003093:29)
+aoj:01(302084979:45, 105687338:4J.@pl)
+man:01(200634906:3J.@entry.@progress, 400047534:3A)
+man:01(301415219:5Z, 400160834:5O)
+man(400059547:15, 400536271:10)
+mod:01(104990220:65.@pl, 107935504:6P)
+mod:01(105687338:4J.@pl, 600000031:3R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10934]
+{org:en}
+Filtration
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100191980:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100191980:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10935]
+{org:en}
+In systems of water treatment filtration is usually used in the final stages of water purification from heterophase admixtures.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201158572:1I.@entry, 104377057:05.@pl)
+obj(100658082:0M, 107935504:0G)
+mod(100306900:20.@def.@pl, 300349894:1U)
+tim(201158572:1I.@entry, 100306900:20.@def.@pl)
+plc(201158572:1I.@entry, 104377057:05.@pl)
+obj(100658082:0M, 107935504:0G)
+mod(100306900:20.@def.@pl, 300349894:1U)
+tim(201158572:1I.@entry, 100306900:20.@def.@pl)
+mod(102681084:3A.@pl, 303161840:2Y)
+man(201158572:1I.@entry, 400535718:1A)
+mod(100252894:2G, 107935504:2A)
+obj(201158572:1I.@entry, 100191980:0W.@topic)
+frm(100252894:2G, 102681084:3A.@pl)
+frm(100252894:2G, 102681084:3A.@pl)
+mod(100306900:20.@def.@pl, 100252894:2G)
+mod(104377057:05.@pl, 100658082:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10936]
+{org:en}
+The process of filtration is achieved by passing the water through granular materials, fabrics, porous materials, and membranes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202526085:0V.@entry, 100029677:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(100029677:06.@topic.@def, 100191980:0H)
+and:01(103743761:3C.@entry.@pl, 103729951:2X.@pl)
+obj(202049696:17.@progress, 107935504:1J.@def)
+obj(202526085:0V.@entry, 100029677:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(100029677:06.@topic.@def, 100191980:0H)
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+obj(202049696:17.@progress, 107935504:1J.@def)
+and:01(103309808:2H.@pl, 103729951:26.@pl)
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+man(202526085:0V.@entry, 202049696:17.@progress)
+and:01(103729951:2X.@pl, 103309808:2H.@pl)
+and:01(103729951:2X.@pl, 103309808:2H.@pl)
+obj(600000026:1P, :01)
+aoj:01(303158564:1X, 103729951:26.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10937]
+{org:en}
+Two versions of filtration are distinguished by their physical-chemical mechanisms
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200650353:0X.@entry, 101267901:06.@topic.@pl)
+mod(101267901:06.@topic.@pl, 600000577:02)
+aoj(303161516:1T, 100098385:22.@pl)
+obj(200650353:0X.@entry, 101267901:06.@topic.@pl)
+mod(101267901:06.@topic.@pl, 600000577:02)
+aoj(303161516:1T, 100098385:22.@pl)
+mod(100098385:22.@pl, 600000020:1E.@pl)
+agt(200650353:0X.@entry, 100098385:22.@pl)
+mod(101267901:06.@topic.@pl, 100191980:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10938]
+{org:en}
+Filtration of water containing suspended matter through a bed of sand or other granular material.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100191980:02.@entry, 107935504:0G)
+obj(600000045:1E, 102818832:1O.@indef)
+mod(100020827:17, 600000045:1E)
+obj(100191980:02.@entry, 107935504:0G)
+obj(600000045:1E, 102818832:1O.@indef)
+mod(100020827:17, 600000045:1E)
+mod:01(103729951:2I.@entry, 600000031:23)
+obj(202701210:0M.@progress, 100020827:17)
+or:01(103729951:2I.@entry, 115019030:1V)
+aoj(202701210:0M.@progress, 107935504:0G)
+mod(102818832:1O.@indef, :01)
+mod(102818832:1O.@indef, :01)
+aoj(302351692:0X, 100020827:17)
+aoj:01(303158564:29, 103729951:2I.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10939]
+{org:en}
+In this case suspended particles are deposited on the surface of the filtering bed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202310855:11.@entry, 600000186:02)
+aoj(302351692:0D, 106326406:0N.@pl.@topic)
+mod(104362025:1I.@def, 102818832:27.@def)
+man(202310855:11.@entry, 600000186:02)
+aoj(302351692:0D, 106326406:0N.@pl.@topic)
+mod(104362025:1I.@def, 102818832:27.@def)
+plc(202310855:11.@entry, 104362025:1I.@def)
+obj(202310855:11.@entry, 106326406:0N.@pl.@topic)
+mod(102818832:27.@def, 115689798:1X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10940]
+{org:en}
+This process is referred to as film filtering.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774311:0I.@entry, 100029677:07.@topic)
+mod(115689798:12, 103338648:0X)
+obj(202774311:0I.@entry, 100029677:07.@topic)
+mod(115689798:12, 103338648:0X)
+obj(600000023:0U, 115689798:12)
+man(202774311:0I.@entry, 600000023:0U)
+mod(100029677:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10941]
+{org:en}
+Suspended substances can be deposited in the pores of the granules of the filtering bed or other filtering layers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202310855:0U.@entry.@ability, 100019613:0C.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(101463259:31.@entry.@pl, 600000031:2L)
+mod(109291513:1O.@def.@pl, :01)
+obj(202310855:0U.@entry.@ability, 100019613:0C.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(101463259:31.@entry.@pl, 600000031:2L)
+mod(109291513:1O.@def.@pl, :01)
+aoj(302351692:02, 100019613:0C.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105245906:1B.@def.@pl, 109291513:1O.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(102818832:2E.@def, 115689798:24)
+plc(202310855:0U.@entry.@ability, 105245906:1B.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(101463259:31.@entry.@pl, 115689798:2R)
+mod:01(101463259:31.@entry.@pl, 115689798:2R)
+or:01(101463259:31.@entry.@pl, 102818832:2E.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10942]
+{org:en}
+This process is called volume filtration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200107231:0I.@entry, 100029677:07.@topic)
+mod(100029677:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+obj(200107231:0I.@entry, 100029677:07.@topic)
+mod(100029677:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(100191980:0W, 104990220:0P)
+gol(200107231:0I.@entry, 100191980:0W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10943]
+{org:en}
+In practice, film and volume filtration are often observed simultaneously.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200732552:1G.@entry, :01:01.@topic)
+and:01(100191980:0V.@entry, 103338648:0F)
+man(200732552:1G.@entry, 400166512:02)
+obj(200732552:1G.@entry, :01:01.@topic)
+and:01(100191980:0V.@entry, 103338648:0F)
+man(200732552:1G.@entry, 400166512:02)
+man(200732552:1G.@entry, 400059547:1A)
+man(200732552:1G.@entry, 400120095:1P)
+mod:01(100191980:0V.@entry, 104990220:0O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10944]
+{org:en}
+In the process of film filtration, the suspended solids are deposited on the filter-bed surface, forming an additional filtering layer capable of retaining a highly dispersed mixture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(202310855:1Q.@entry, 100029677:09.@def)
+obj(300306314:3T, 200610010:44.@progress)
+mod(102818832:2E, 103339643:27)
+obj(100029677:09.@def, 100191980:0P)
+plc(202310855:1Q.@entry, 104362025:2I.@def)
+man(201616608:4N.@past, 400089267:4G)
+plc(202310855:1Q.@entry, 100029677:09.@def)
+obj(300306314:3T, 200610010:44.@progress)
+mod(102818832:2E, 103339643:27)
+obj(100029677:09.@def, 100191980:0P)
+plc(202310855:1Q.@entry, 104362025:2I.@def)
+man(201616608:4N.@past, 400089267:4G)
+aoj(303161014:32, 101463259:3N.@indef)
+man(202310855:1Q.@entry, 200144850:2R.@progress)
+obj(201616608:4N.@past, 100380083:4X.@indef)
+aoj(300306314:3T, 101463259:3N.@indef)
+obj(202310855:1Q.@entry, 113860793:1F.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200610010:44.@progress, 100380083:4X.@indef)
+obj(200144850:2R.@progress, 101463259:3N.@indef)
+obj(200610010:44.@progress, 100380083:4X.@indef)
+obj(200144850:2R.@progress, 101463259:3N.@indef)
+mod(100191980:0P, 103338648:0K)
+mod(104362025:2I.@def, 102818832:2E)
+aoj(302351692:15, 113860793:1F.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(101463259:3N.@indef, 115689798:3D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10945]
+{org:en}
+However, its hydraulic resistance increases rapidly, resulting in the need to frequently clean the suspended matter from the filter (flushing it out by a countercurrent flow of water, for example).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200153263:10.@entry, 400027384:02)
+mod(100202284:0P.@topic, 600000016:0B)
+pur(109367991:20.@def, 200177714:2J)
+obj:01(100329227:4R.@indef, 107935504:4Z)
+man(200153263:10.@entry, 400535713:1A)
+man:01(200454868:3R.@progress, 600000212:43)
+man(200153263:10.@entry, 400027384:02)
+mod(100202284:0P.@topic, 600000016:0B)
+pur(109367991:20.@def, 200177714:2J)
+obj:01(100329227:4R.@indef, 107935504:4Z)
+man(200153263:10.@entry, 400535713:1A)
+man:01(200454868:3R.@progress, 600000212:43)
+man(200177714:2J, 400035058:28)
+man(200153263:10.@entry, 202774178:1J.@progress)
+met:01(200454868:3R.@progress, 100329227:4R.@indef)
+obj(200177714:2J, 100020827:33.@def)
+obj(200153263:10.@entry, 100202284:0P.@topic)
+mod(100202284:0P.@topic, 303073751:0F)
+src(200177714:2J, 103339643:3J.@def)
+mod(100202284:0P.@topic, 303073751:0F)
+src(200177714:2J, 103339643:3J.@def)
+mod:01(100329227:4R.@indef, 101168199:4C)
+plc(202774178:1J.@progress, 109367991:20.@def)
+obj:01(200454868:3R.@progress, 600000016:40)
+aoj(302351692:2T, 100020827:33.@def)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10946]
+{org:en}
+In addition, filters are classified into two types according to hydrodynamic conditions
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200654625:0R.@entry, 400535244:02)
+obj(600000046:1H, 105798863:27.@pl)
+gol(200654625:0R.@entry, 104504486:1B.@pl)
+man(200654625:0R.@entry, 400535244:02)
+obj(600000046:1H, 105798863:27.@pl)
+gol(200654625:0R.@entry, 104504486:1B.@pl)
+man(200654625:0R.@entry, 600000046:1H)
+obj(200654625:0R.@entry, 103339643:0F.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302979995:1U, 105798863:27.@pl)
+aoj(302979995:1U, 105798863:27.@pl)
+qua(104504486:1B.@pl, "2":17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10947]
+{org:en}
+slow filters, through which the water to be purified is passed with the linear velocity less or in order of 1 HTM1 , and fast filters that are characterized by the velocities of about 10 HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(103339643:3V.@entry.@pl, 103339643:07.@pl)
+obj(202049696:1M, 107935504:0Y.@def)
+qua(HTM2:5K, 400071165:5B)
+bas(:01.@entry, HTM1:3F)
+agt(202697950:4C, 115689301:4X.@def.@pl)
+qua(115689301:29.@def, :01:01)
+obj(200475183:1A.@will, 107935504:0Y.@def)
+and(103339643:3V.@entry.@pl, 103339643:07.@pl)
+obj(202049696:1M, 107935504:0Y.@def)
+qua(HTM2:5K, 400071165:5B)
+bas(:01.@entry, HTM1:3F)
+agt(202697950:4C, 115689301:4X.@def.@pl)
+qua(115689301:29.@def, :01:01)
+obj(200475183:1A.@will, 107935504:0Y.@def)
+aoj(300980527:02, 103339643:07.@pl)
+aoj(300323873:3Q, 103339643:3V.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000018:1T, 115689301:29.@def)
+obj(600000026:89, 103339643:07.@pl)
+qua(HTM1:3F, "1":3D)
+obj(202697950:4C, 103339643:3V.@entry.@pl)
+man(202049696:1M, 600000018:1T)
+bas(400071165:5B, "10":5H)
+man(202049696:1M, 600000018:1T)
+bas(400071165:5B, "10":5H)
+or:01(400535946:2X.@entry, 400099868:2L)
+mod(115689301:4X.@def.@pl, HTM2:5K)
+aoj(300658259:22, 115689301:29.@def)
+man(202049696:1M, 600000026:89)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10948]
+{org:en}
+The film filtration mechanism is associated, in the majority of cases, with slow filters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200713167:0Z.@entry, 100098385:0M.@topic.@def)
+mod(100098385:0M.@topic.@def, 100191980:0B)
+mod(105122557:1I.@def, 102974697:1U.@pl)
+obj(200713167:0Z.@entry, 100098385:0M.@topic.@def)
+mod(100098385:0M.@topic.@def, 100191980:0B)
+mod(105122557:1I.@def, 102974697:1U.@pl)
+plc(200713167:0Z.@entry, 105122557:1I.@def)
+gol(200713167:0Z.@entry, 103339643:2B.@pl)
+mod(100191980:0B, 103338648:06)
+mod(100191980:0B, 103338648:06)
+aoj(300980527:26, 103339643:2B.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10949]
+{org:en}
+Mixed or volume filtration is observed more often for fast filters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200732552:13.@entry, 100191980:0P.@topic)
+mod(100191980:0P.@topic, :01.@entry)
+man(400059547:1H, 400099341:1C)
+obj(200732552:13.@entry, 100191980:0P.@topic)
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+man(400059547:1H, 400099341:1C)
+man(200732552:13.@entry, 400059547:1H)
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+or:01(104990220:0E.@entry, 303161752:05)
+or:01(104990220:0E.@entry, 303161752:05)
+aoj(300323873:1R, 103339643:1W.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10950]
+{org:en}
+Filtration theory recognizes that the process of clarification of the filtering suspension is the result of two opposite effects
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200610374:0K.@entry, 105952979:0D.@topic)
+mod(104809642:3F.@pl, 301663201:36)
+mod(115698567:2S.@def, 104809642:3F.@pl)
+agt(200610374:0K.@entry, 105952979:0D.@topic)
+mod(104809642:3F.@pl, 301663201:36)
+mod(115698567:2S.@def, 104809642:3F.@pl)
+mod(100209132:2A.@def, 115689798:20)
+aoj(115698567:2S.@def, 100029677:14.@topic.@def)
+obj(107171206:1F, 100209132:2A.@def)
+obj(200610374:0K.@entry, 115698567:2S.@def)
+obj(100029677:14.@topic.@def, 107171206:1F)
+obj(100029677:14.@topic.@def, 107171206:1F)
+qua(104809642:3F.@pl, "2":32)
+mod(105952979:0D.@topic, 100191980:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10951]
+{org:en}
+adhesion (attachment) of the retained particles on the microsurface, and break-off of formerly attached particles and their transfer by the hydrodynamic forces of the flowing stream.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(105584008:02.@entry, 106326406:14.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(302979995:3Y, 105035353:4B.@def.@pl)
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+man:01(300157925:2P, 400535495:2G)
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+aoj:01(302979995:3Y, 105035353:4B.@def.@pl)
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+ins:01(100201671:3I.@entry, 105035353:4B.@def.@pl)
+cnt(105584008:02.@entry, 100379422:0C.@parenthesis)
+aoj:01(303161988:4P, 107406765:4X.@def)
+and:01(100201671:3I.@entry, 106326406:2Y.@pl)
+aoj:01(303161988:4P, 107406765:4X.@def)
+and:01(100201671:3I.@entry, 106326406:2Y.@pl)
+and:02(115693386:23.@entry, 115695653:1L.@def)
+mod:01(105035353:4B.@def.@pl, 107406765:4X.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10952]
+{org:en}
+The accumulation of the precipitate in the granular bed results in a reduction in the energy necessary for breaking off particles.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774178:1M.@entry, 100372013:06.@topic.@def)
+man(200030463:31.@progress, 400535962:3A)
+aoj(300343552:2N, 104633197:2G.@def)
+aoj(202774178:1M.@entry, 100372013:06.@topic.@def)
+man(200030463:31.@progress, 400535962:3A)
+aoj(300343552:2N, 104633197:2G.@def)
+plc(114591635:0Q.@def, 109415671:1I.@def)
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+obj(100372013:06.@topic.@def, 114591635:0Q.@def)
+obj(202774178:1M.@entry, 100192300:1Z.@indef)
+obj(400535962:3A, 106326406:3E.@pl)
+obj(400535962:3A, 106326406:3E.@pl)
+pur(300343552:2N, 200030463:31.@progress)
+aoj(303158564:19, 109415671:1I.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10953]
+{org:en}
+Water filtration has an important role in water purification at the stage in which the process of attachment of particles prevails over the process of their breaking-off.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000040:3P, 100029677:3Y.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10954]
+{org:en}
+The magnitude of the forces of adhesion is determined by the intermolecular interaction of the contacting bodies.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:10955]
+{org:en}
+;;The forces of adhesion in aqueous media are a few orders of magnitude lower that the corresponding forces in the air.The forces of adhesion in aqueous media are a few orders of magnitude lower than the corresponding forces in the air.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+They are connected with the appearance of the repulsive forces attributed to the Deryagin's cleavage pressure
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10958]
+{org:en}
+Forces of adhesion depend on the wetting capability of the contacting surfaces.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(202775614:1P.@progress, 104362025:20.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10959]
+{org:en}
+The adhesion is minimum when the wetting abilities are very different.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(300490413:1Q, 400031899:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10960]
+{org:en}
+Its maximum value is achieved when the interacting surfaces are similarly hydrophilic or similarly hydrophobic.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10961]
+{org:en}
+In such cases the adhesion of hydrophobic surfaces is more than the attachment of hydrophilic ones.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300080098:0W, 104362025:18.@pl)
+aoj(300491971:2C, 600000027:2O.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10962]
+{org:en}
+This additional effect is frequently named hydrophobic interaction, associated with the "repulsive" action of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200947439:13.@entry, 104809642:0I.@topic)
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+obj(100037396:2U.@def, 107935504:34)
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+mod(104809642:0I.@topic, 303161014:07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10963]
+{org:en}
+The force of the impact of the stream on solid particles depends on the density and viscosity of the medium, on the particle size, and on the conditions of flow around the attached particles.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300291181:17, 106326406:1D.@pl)
+obj:02(600000077:4H, 106326406:51.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10964]
+{org:en}
+There are a large number of semi-empirical mathematical equations derived from similarity theory, that can be used for simulation of filtration processes and for designing filtering equipment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10965]
+{org:en}
+Filtration appliances used in practice are differentiated by type of filtering load.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10966]
+{org:en}
+The following types are well known
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301376705:0Q.@entry, 104504486:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10967]
+{org:en}
+granular
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+[W]
+303158564:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10968]
+{org:en}
+the filter-bed may be of quartz, broken anthracite, Keramsit (claylike), expanded polystyrene, etc.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+screen
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+[/W]
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+[/S]
+
+[S:10970]
+{org:en}
+the filtering layer is a sieve with a cell size measured in dozens of microns
+{/org}
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+qua(113658496:20, 400305683:1Q)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10971]
+{org:en}
+fabric
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10972]
+{org:en}
+the filtering layers may be of cotton, linen, felt, glass, or Capron cloth
+{/org}
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+or:01(103326795:1C, 103672352:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10973]
+{org:en}
+washed up
+{/org}
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+[W]
+303162117:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+303162117:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10974]
+{org:en}
+the filtering layers are wooden meal, diatomaceous earth, asbestos crumble, sand, and other materials washed up in the form of a shallow layer on a framework, the filtering material being porous ceramic, metal screen, or synthetic fabric
+{/org}
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+aoj:01(300111129:6L, 103309808:6V.@entry)
+aoj:02(:01, 103729951:4V.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10975]
+{org:en}
+Granular filters are conventionally applied for purification of household, potable and industrial water
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(303160899:25, 303161369:1U)
+aoj(:01, 107935504:2S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10976]
+{org:en}
+screen filters are used for retaining coarse-grained and floating particles.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:0L.@entry, 103339643:09.@topic.@pl)
+mod(103339643:09.@topic.@pl, 104151581:02)
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+mod(103339643:09.@topic.@pl, 104151581:02)
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+obj(200610010:0U.@progress, 106326406:1W.@pl)
+pur(201158572:0L.@entry, 200610010:0U.@progress)
+and:01(300077196:1N.@entry, 302231355:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10977]
+{org:en}
+Fabric filters are utilized in field water supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200161872:0L.@entry, 103339643:09.@topic.@pl)
+mod(103339643:09.@topic.@pl, 103309808:02)
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+scn(200161872:0L.@entry, 115669704:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10978]
+{org:en}
+Also this type of filtering layer is employed in large-scale apparatuses for the purification of different technological solutions in various production enterprises.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100796886:4B.@pl, 100522736:40)
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+mod(101463259:0U.@topic, 104504486:0C)
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+plc(202774279:13.@entry, 102727825:1R.@pl)
+aoj(303160904:3S, 100796886:4B.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10979]
+{org:en}
+The washed up filters are generally used in small to moderate-sized water preparation works (for small and medium settlements, swimming pools, and so on).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:12.@entry, 103339643:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+aoj(303163491:1J, 100577357:2G.@pl)
+and:02(600000436:41.@entry, 104371225:3L.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10980]
+{org:en}
+Water Disinfection
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100709521:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+obj(100709521:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10981]
+{org:en}
+The processes of clarification and removal of discoloration of water, by the method of coagulation with subsequent settling and filtering, do not achieve the elimination of pathological disease-producing micro-organisms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202526085:44.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 100029677:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(:01, 100274707:1C)
+mod(100004475:5W.@pl, 301393976:5Q)
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+aoj(202526085:44.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 100029677:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+aoj(300122626:2Y, :02)
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+mod(105660268:27.@def, 115669266:2H)
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+obj(100029677:06.@topic.@def.@pl, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10982]
+{org:en}
+The preliminary treatment of water with chlorine (chlorination) is often carried out in water works for the removal of heterophase admixtures of a biological character.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:2A.@entry, 100658082:0L.@topic.@def)
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+obj(100216723:39.@def, 102681084:3W.@pl)
+obj(100658082:0L.@topic.@def, 107935504:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10983]
+{org:en}
+However, even under these conditions, up to 10 percent of micro-organisms preserve their vital activity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200212414:24.@entry, 400027384:02)
+mod(105798863:0S.@pl, 600000022:0M.@pl)
+qua(100004475:1U.@pl, 600000350:14)
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+qua(115689109:1D, "10":1A)
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+qua(115689109:1D, "10":1A)
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+obj(600000003:0G, 105798863:0S.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10984]
+{org:en}
+This is why complete (primary or secondary) disinfection is carried out at the point where the purified water enters the main system of distribution of municipal and industrial water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000097:0A.@entry, 600000022:02)
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+cnt(300520214:0E, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj(101083077:3U, 107935504:4Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10985]
+{org:en}
+The processes of asepsis of water are carried out with oxidizing agents such as chlorine and its compounds, ozone, potassium permanganate, iodine, and so on.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:14.@entry, 100029677:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:02(114972807:39, :01.@entry)
+obj(600000029:22, :02)
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+and:02(114972807:39, :01.@entry)
+obj(600000029:22, :02)
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+obj(114495230:0J, 107935504:0U)
+mod:02(114979410:3Q, 114650807:3G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10986]
+{org:en}
+Other methods used are thermal treatment, the action of ultraviolet and ionizing radiations, ultrasonic treatment, ultra-filtration, and combined methods.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 105660268:08.@topic.@pl)
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+aoj:02(303162872:34, 100658082:3F)
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+aoj(:02.@entry, 105660268:08.@topic.@pl)
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+aoj:02(303162872:34, 100658082:3F)
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+and:02(105660268:4P.@entry.@pl, 115669476:3U.@pl)
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+obj(201158572:0G, 105660268:08.@topic.@pl)
+and:02(100037396:1M.@def.@pl, 100658082:10.@pl)
+and:02(100658082:3F.@pl, 100037396:1M.@def.@pl)
+and:01(200266798:2C.@progress.@entry, 302518601:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10987]
+{org:en}
+The asepsis process is controlled by determining the overall number of bacteria in 1 HTM1 of water (microbial number) and the number of bacteria in the enteric bacillus group ( HTM2 E. coli.) HTM3 in 100 ml or 1 l of water (coli-index).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200663160:0P.@entry, 100029677:0E.@topic.@def)
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+qua:02(115668729:63, "100":5Z)
+mod:03(100031264:51.@def, 101349948:4S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10988]
+{org:en}
+In accordance with the WHO microbiological standards for potable water, no coliform bacteria must be observed in a 100 ml volume of analyzed water (coli-titer).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200732552:2V.@entry.@obligation, 600000133:02)
+obj(600000133:02, 104301140:19.@pl)
+mod(107935504:3Z, 300416765:3Q)
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+man(200732552:2V.@entry.@obligation, 600000133:02)
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+qua(104990220:3G.@indef, "100":39)
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+aoj(303160899:1N, 107935504:1V)
+aoj(303162461:25, 115689384:2E.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10989]
+{org:en}
+National standards can differ from these requirements and are often more stringent.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(303161265:23.@entry, 202666239:0P.@ability)
+bas(202666239:0P.@ability, 115669633:17.@pl)
+man(400099341:1Y, 400059547:1S)
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+aoj(303161265:23.@entry, 104301140:0B.@topic.@pl)
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+mod(115669633:17.@pl, 600000017:11)
+aoj(202666239:0P.@ability, 104301140:0B.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10990]
+{org:en}
+For example, the Russian tandard requires that in 1 l of water there must not be more than 3 units of coli-form bacteria (coli-index less than 3 or coli-titer more than 300 ml).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000107:02.@entry, 202774169:10)
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+qua(107935504:1O, 106832356:1J)
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+aoj(303162461:2X, 115689384:37.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10991]
+{org:en}
+The enteric bacillus is used as the monitoring micro-organism for evaluating the effectiveness of the asepsis process because it is the indispensable component of the micro-flora in the intestine of warm-blooded animals.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10992]
+{org:en}
+Its presence always provides evidence of water contamination by fecal wastes ("black water").
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10993]
+{org:en}
+This bacterium is practically harmless and can only be an indicator of the bacterial contamination of water.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:10994]
+{org:en}
+Chlorine, ozone, and other oxidizing agents eliminate this bacillus less readily than they do pathogenic illness-causing micro-organisms.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10995]
+{org:en}
+The treatment of large volumes of water by chlorine was first employed by Taube in 1894 in HTM1 Germany HTM2 , using calcium hypochlorite HTM3.
+{/org}
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+obj(100658082:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10996]
+{org:en}
+This reagent was replaced by gaseous chlorine ( HTM1 ) from the first half of the twentieth century onwards, initially in HTM2 England HTM3 , HTM4 Germany HTM5 , and the HTM6 USA HTM7 , and later in other countries.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10997]
+{org:en}
+Recently chlorine dioxide has been widely employed because it possess a considerably greater oxidative and bactericide action than chlorine.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:10998]
+{org:en}
+Calcium hypochlorite (bleaching powder) is presently used primarily for the sanitary treatment of special sites, where wastes of organic and biological origin accumulate.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:10999]
+{org:en}
+Chlorine compounds are of high significance for the treatment of water for swimming pools.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11000]
+{org:en}
+Sodium hypochlorite obtained HTM1 in situ HTM2 by the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution is often employed for this purpose.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100190783:2G, 114655371:20)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11001]
+{org:en}
+Recently use of the compounds of chlorine and bromine, particularly BrCl, has become more and more widespread in developed countries because they possess appreciably stronger bactericidal properties.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301068609:4O, 104012260:5A.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11002]
+{org:en}
+These compounds can be used in small quantities, to minimize undesirable side-effects.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11003]
+{org:en}
+The principal and most dangerous side action of chlorine and its compounds is the possibility of the formation, in water containing primary harmful organic contaminants, of yet more toxic organochlorine substances.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(302449430:4V, 100019613:5G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11004]
+{org:en}
+This is why the appropriate WHO standards regulate very rigidly the composition of water after chlorinating (see HTM1 Table 1 HTM2 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200299341:18, 103081660:1Y.@def)
+obj(600000002:2J, 200089602:2P.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11005]
+{org:en}
+In recent decades, ozone treatment (ozonation) has been used more often for water asepsis on a large or medium scale, and treatment with iodine and also physical methods are employed for water disinfections on a medium to small scale.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+fmt:03(301391351:68.@entry, 300617752:5Y)
+man(400059547:1W, 400099341:1R)
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+and:02(105660268:4K.@entry.@pl, 114641397:3V.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11006]
+{org:en}
+All these methods are progressive, but possess their own specific limitations, which are discussed in detail in specialist literature.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300037653:0O.@entry, 600000037:11)
+aoj(301099951:1N, 100808182:1W.@pl)
+aoj(202632167:15, 105660268:0C.@topic.@pl)
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+aoj(303162836:36, 100610592:3H)
+mod(100808182:1W.@pl, 600000020:1D.@pl)
+qua(105660268:0C.@topic.@pl, 600000011:02)
+man(202774210:2J, 400152684:2T)
+obj(202774210:2J, 100808182:1W.@pl)
+aoj(300037653:0O.@entry, 105660268:0C.@topic.@pl)
+plc(202774210:2J, 100610592:3H)
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+plc(202774210:2J, 100610592:3H)
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+obj(600000037:11, 202632167:15)
+mod(100808182:1W.@pl, 301768724:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11007]
+{org:en}
+Control of Water Composition in Dissolved (Homophase) Admixtures
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(100803617:02.@entry, 102681084:1K.@pl)
+aoj(301506258:0Y, 102681084:1K.@pl)
+plc(100803617:02.@entry, 102681084:1K.@pl)
+aoj(301506258:0Y, 102681084:1K.@pl)
+mod(103081660:0J, 107935504:0D)
+obj(100803617:02.@entry, 103081660:0J)
+cnt(301506258:0Y, 115693843:19.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11008]
+{org:en}
+A few typical problems are briefly considered in this section.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200691312:11.@entry, 105687338:0G.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301595440:08, 105687338:0G.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104164989:1K, 600000017:1F)
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+scn(200691312:11.@entry, 104164989:1K)
+qua(105687338:0G.@topic.@pl, 600000101:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11009]
+{org:en}
+They affect a multiplicity of dissoluble substances whose concentrations in water for various purposes are controlled through national and international standards, and arise in connection with a great variety of technological processes for water treatment and purification.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200339738:4X.@entry, 200019448:07)
+aoj(303160904:2J, 105982152:2R.@pl)
+agt(200019448:07, 600000020:02.@topic)
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+aoj(600000051:94, 100375071:1R.@pl)
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+and:01(301568375:40.@entry, 301105840:3N)
+aoj(303162184:0Z, 100019613:1A.@pl)
+and:02(100252894:7J.@entry, 100658082:75)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11010]
+{org:en}
+Among these are the problems of water purification using compounds of iron and manganese, of water hardness removal, and of the desalination of brackish and saline water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000064:02, 105687338:0M.@entry.@def.@pl)
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+obj:03(113462795:3M.@entry.@def, 107935504:4M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11011]
+{org:en}
+Water desalination has its own great significance, especially as regards the industrial desalination of seawater which assumed the scale of a global industry in the second half of the twentieth century.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0L.@entry, 113462795:08.@topic)
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+aoj(301278818:0X, 105169813:13)
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+mod(113462795:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+obj(113462795:2I.@def, 115008847:2Y)
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+aoj(301568684:40, 100923444:47.@indef)
+aoj(301188648:27, 113462795:2I.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11012]
+{org:en}
+This problem can be also considered in the context of the treatment and purification of wastewaters, as total salt content is one of the parameters regulated by standards.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200691312:0R.@entry.@ability, 600000039:32)
+pof(600000027:3R, 105859071:42.@def.@pl)
+obj(:01.@entry, 115669276:2P.@pl)
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+mod(105809192:3G.@topic, 105717342:3B)
+aoj(600000027:3R, 105809192:3G.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11013]
+{org:en}
+Other articles in this Encyclopedia give a more detailed account of these processes, as well as other methods of purifying water from contaminating dissolved substances of an ionic and molecular nature.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200108604:12.@entry, 100022903:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(106427387:0P, 600000017:0K)
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+man(300310433:1E, 400099341:19)
+aoj(301506258:46, 100019613:4G.@pl)
+mod(105660268:2W.@pl, 600000053:2Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11014]
+{org:en}
+Purification of Water Containing Dissolved Compounds of Iron and Manganese
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100252894:02.@entry, 107935504:0I)
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+aoj(202701210:0O.@progress, 107935504:0I)
+aoj(301506258:0Z, 103081859:19.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11015]
+{org:en}
+Iron in natural waters occurs in the form of compounds of HTM1 and HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303160996:0P.@entry, 103584829:02.@topic)
+plc(103584829:02.@topic, 115689188:0I.@pl)
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+aoj(301335708:0A, 115689188:0I.@pl)
+and:01(HTM2:1X.@entry, HTM1:1O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11016]
+{org:en}
+Some of them are barely destructible complex compounds with bicarbonates, natural humic and fulvic acids.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115690892:13.@entry.@pl, 115689345:02.@topic)
+pof(115689345:02.@topic, 600000020:0A)
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+and:01(302744247:2C, 301335708:24)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11017]
+{org:en}
+Iron can also occur in water in the form of colloidal compounds and suspended matter.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj:01(302903946:16, 103081859:1G.@pl)
+and:01(100020827:24.@entry, 103081859:1G.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11018]
+{org:en}
+The compounds of bivalent iron are the most difficult to remove from water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300744916:1A.@entry, 200173338:1M)
+aoj(301546826:0J, 103584829:0S)
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+man(300744916:1A.@entry, 400536271:15)
+mod(103081859:06.@def.@pl, 103584829:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11019]
+{org:en}
+These compounds are present in surface water mainly in the form of strong complexes with natural organic acids.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301731351:0M.@entry, 103081859:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:2E, 105870365:24.@pl)
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+mod(103081859:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11020]
+{org:en}
+Practically all the dissolved iron in underground water, in the absence of dissolved oxygen, is present as the salts of bivalent iron.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(301731351:2Q.@entry, 400053512:02)
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+man(301731351:2Q.@entry, 600000023:2Y)
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+aoj(301731351:2Q.@entry, 103584829:0W.@topic.@def)
+plc(103584829:0W.@topic.@def, 115691626:14)
+plc(103584829:0W.@topic.@def, 115691626:14)
+mod(105717342:35.@def.@pl, 103584829:3N)
+aoj(600000862:1N, 115691626:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11021]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the first step involves oxidation, which causes the destruction of complex compounds and the further transformation of HTM1 into HTM2 , followed by separation of the iron compounds from the water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200401538:0N.@entry, 600000141:02)
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+obj(200401538:0N.@entry, 113530408:0W)
+frm(100383606:4S, 107935504:62.@def)
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+gol(200150776:4D, 100383606:4S)
+gol:01(100398704:3B.@entry.@def, HTM2:47)
+gol(200150776:4D, 100383606:4S)
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+aoj:01(300443988:33, 100398704:3B.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11022]
+{org:en}
+Iron (III) hydroxide is formed from corresponding salts in aqueous medium at pH values exceeding 3, so further operations usually include the formation of a precipitate of iron hydroxide (which is insoluble) and its subsequent separation by the methods of settlement and filtration described above.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300443988:2X, 100409211:35.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11023]
+{org:en}
+It is also worth mentioning that active iron hydroxide is capable of adsorbing compounds of other elements
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302502016:0D.@entry, 201023071:0J.@topic.@progress)
+aoj(300308015:1O, 103081859:29.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(103081859:29.@pl, 114914670:1B.@topic)
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+obj(201540232:1Z.@progress, 103081859:29.@entry.@pl)
+mod(103081859:29.@pl, 105868954:2S.@pl)
+mod(114914670:1B.@topic, 103584829:16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11024]
+{org:en}
+in particular, the compounds of heavy metals.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000396:02, 103081859:0L.@entry.@def.@pl)
+aoj(600000396:02, 103081859:0L.@entry.@def.@pl)
+mod(103081859:0L.@entry.@def.@pl, 107065149:0Y.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11025]
+{org:en}
+That is why co-precipitation and additional purification of water from other dissolved toxic compounds takes place in this process.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000097:09.@entry, 600000030:02)
+aoj(301506258:26, 103081859:2M.@pl)
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+man(202774213:32, 600000097:09.@entry)
+aoj(302449430:2G, 103081859:2M.@pl)
+and:01(100252894:19.@entry, 115694986:0D)
+aoj(302449430:2G, 103081859:2M.@pl)
+and:01(100252894:19.@entry, 115694986:0D)
+mod(100029677:3G, 600000017:3B)
+mod(103081859:2M.@pl, 600000053:20)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11026]
+{org:en}
+The compounds of manganese are normally removed from the water to be purified together with iron compounds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200173338:16.@entry, 103081859:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000113:28, 103081859:2R.@pl)
+man(200173338:16.@entry, 400106921:0X)
+obj(200173338:16.@entry, 103081859:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000113:28, 103081859:2R.@pl)
+man(200173338:16.@entry, 400106921:0X)
+src(200173338:16.@entry, 107935504:1N.@def)
+mod(103081859:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 114644654:0J)
+pur(200173338:16.@entry, 200475183:1Z)
+mod(103081859:2R.@pl, 103584829:2M)
+mod(103081859:2R.@pl, 103584829:2M)
+man(200475183:1Z, 600000113:28)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11027]
+{org:en}
+The general technological principles include stages of oxidation of ions of HTM1 into HTM2 ions, with subsequent transformation into insoluble hydroxides, which are easily removed from water by filtration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:13.@entry, 105872477:0S.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300122626:2W, 100398704:37)
+gol(113530408:1L, 109315159:2L.@pl)
+man(200173338:4U, 115695126:4N)
+obj(100306900:1B.@pl, 113530408:1L)
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+aoj(200183879:13.@entry, 105872477:0S.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300122626:2W, 100398704:37)
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+man(200173338:4U, 115695126:4N)
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+agt(200173338:4U, 100191980:5G)
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+obj(200183879:13.@entry, 100306900:1B.@pl)
+aoj(301230728:3R, 114914670:41.@pl)
+mod(109315159:2L.@pl, HTM2:2G)
+aoj(302084979:0E, 105872477:0S.@topic.@def.@pl)
+man(200183879:13.@entry, 600000018:2R)
+obj(200173338:4U, 114914670:41.@pl)
+mod(109315159:1Y.@pl, HTM1:26)
+obj(200173338:4U, 114914670:41.@pl)
+mod(109315159:1Y.@pl, HTM1:26)
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+src(200173338:4U, 107935504:57)
+to(100398704:37, 114914670:41.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11028]
+{org:en}
+Ozonation is the most effective method of oxidation in these processes, but more expensive.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300933154:2B.@contrast, 115689966:02.@topic)
+mod(105660268:0Y, 113530408:18)
+aoj(105660268:0Y, 115689966:02.@topic)
+aoj(300933154:2B.@contrast, 115689966:02.@topic)
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+aoj(105660268:0Y, 115689966:02.@topic)
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+man(300044132:0O, 400536271:0J)
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+aoj(300044132:0O, 105660268:0Y.@entry)
+aoj(300044132:0O, 105660268:0Y.@entry)
+scn(105660268:0Y, 100029677:1R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11029]
+{org:en}
+Another group of processes of cleaning manganese compounds from water is based on processes of ion exchange or catalytic purifying, which involve practically the same types of equipment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302351064:23.@entry, 100031264:0A.@topic)
+aoj(300355611:4K, 104504486:4P.@pl)
+aoj:01(303054409:35, 200475183:3F.@entry.@progress)
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+aoj(200401538:3W, :01)
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+aoj(302351064:23.@entry, 100031264:0A.@topic)
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+aoj:01(303054409:35, 200475183:3F.@entry.@progress)
+obj(200177714:0W.@progress, 103081859:1F.@pl)
+aoj(200401538:3W, :01)
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+mod(100031264:0A.@topic, 600000066:02)
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+mod:01(100167063:2T.@progress, 109315159:2P)
+mod(100031264:0A.@topic, 100029677:0J.@pl)
+mod:01(100167063:2T.@progress, 109315159:2P)
+mod(103081859:1F.@pl, 114644654:15)
+or:01(200475183:3F.@entry.@progress, 100167063:2T.@progress)
+src(200177714:0W.@progress, 107935504:1U)
+man(104504486:4P.@pl, 400053512:44)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11030]
+{org:en}
+In the first case cation exchange resins selective to ions HTM1 are applied.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(200765396:25.@entry, 102974697:0I)
+cnt(109315159:1R.@pl, HTM1:1W)
+mod(115692718:0Y.@topic.@pl, 109238294:0R)
+scn(200765396:25.@entry, 102974697:0I)
+cnt(109315159:1R.@pl, HTM1:1W)
+mod(115692718:0Y.@topic.@pl, 109238294:0R)
+aoj(300775693:1E, 115692718:0Y.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200765396:25.@entry, 115692718:0Y.@topic.@pl)
+mod(102974697:0I, "1":0C)
+mod(102974697:0I, "1":0C)
+ben(300775693:1E, 109315159:1R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11031]
+{org:en}
+In the second case special sorbents ("Greensand" or other similar carrier materials, e.g. zeolite) are applied.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(102974697:0J.@def, "2":0C.@ordinal)
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+mod(102974697:0J.@def, "2":0C.@ordinal)
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+obj(115699356:2M, 115106867:2R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11032]
+{org:en}
+A catalytic oxidation layer, in particular, manganese anhydride, is applied to the surface of the sand grains.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(303054409:04, 113530408:0E)
+aoj(600000185:0V, 101463259:0O.@topic.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11033]
+{org:en}
+During the water purifying process, insoluble compounds of manganese are precipitated onto the surface of the filtering bed, and these are subsequently removed periodically by back washing the filters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100029677:0T, 200475183:0J.@progress)
+mod(104362025:2P.@def, 102818832:3E.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11034]
+{org:en}
+The regeneration of the catalyst is carried out by treatment with potassium permanganate solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:12.@entry, 101047937:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(101047937:06.@topic.@def, 109900711:0Q.@def)
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+obj(101047937:06.@topic.@def, 109900711:0Q.@def)
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+mod(100190783:2J, 114979410:26)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11035]
+{org:en}
+Water Hardness Removal
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100216723:0H.@entry, 104710588:08)
+obj(100216723:0H.@entry, 104710588:08)
+mod(104710588:08, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11036]
+{org:en}
+Hardness removal (softening) is the process of elimination from water of the cations of hardness
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100029677:12.@entry.@def, 100216723:0B.@topic)
+cnt(100216723:0B.@topic, 113557766:0K.@parenthesis)
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+aoj(100029677:12.@entry.@def, 100216723:0B.@topic)
+cnt(100216723:0B.@topic, 113557766:0K.@parenthesis)
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+obj(100029677:12.@entry.@def, 100223720:1D)
+frm(100029677:12.@entry.@def, 107935504:1U)
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+obj(100216723:0B.@topic, 104710588:02)
+mod(109238294:27.@def.@pl, 104710588:2I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11037]
+{org:en}
+calcium and magnesium ions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(109315159:0O.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod(109315159:0O.@entry.@pl, :01)
+and:01(114644249:0E.@entry, 114632648:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11038]
+{org:en}
+According to international and the majority of national standards, the hardness of water intended for municipal needs, including potable purposes, must be less than 10 HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(400099868:4D.@entry.@obligation, 600000046:02)
+aoj(301038580:2W, 109367991:36.@pl)
+obj(600000095:3D, 105982152:3V.@pl)
+aoj:01(301568375:0F, :4Z)
+bas(400099868:4D.@entry.@obligation, HTM1:4Q)
+mod:01(105122557:11.@entry.@def, 104301140:1M.@pl)
+man(400099868:4D.@entry.@obligation, 600000046:02)
+aoj(301038580:2W, 109367991:36.@pl)
+obj(600000095:3D, 105982152:3V.@pl)
+aoj:01(301568375:0F, :4Z)
+bas(400099868:4D.@entry.@obligation, HTM1:4Q)
+mod:01(105122557:11.@entry.@def, 104301140:1M.@pl)
+obj(200708538:2J.@past, 107935504:2D)
+man(400099868:4D.@entry.@obligation, 600000095:3D)
+and:01(105122557:11.@entry.@def, :4Z.@def)
+mod(104710588:21.@topic.@def, 107935504:2D)
+aoj(400099868:4D.@entry.@obligation, 104710588:21.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000046:02, :01:01)
+aoj(303160899:3N, 105982152:3V.@pl)
+obj(600000046:02, :01:01)
+aoj(303160899:3N, 105982152:3V.@pl)
+qua(HTM1:4Q, "10":4N)
+aoj:01(301105840:1D, 104301140:1M.@pl)
+pur(200708538:2J.@past, 109367991:36.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11039]
+{org:en}
+Considerably more stringent requirements are applied to the hardness of water for special technical purposes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200765396:1B.@entry, 115669633:0U.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105982152:2U.@pl, 300484070:2K)
+mod(104710588:1Q.@def, 107935504:22)
+obj(200765396:1B.@entry, 115669633:0U.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105982152:2U.@pl, 300484070:2K)
+mod(104710588:1Q.@def, 107935504:22)
+man(400099341:0F, 400535299:02)
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+man(303161265:0K, 400099341:0F)
+pur(200765396:1B.@entry, 105982152:2U.@pl)
+aoj(303161265:0K, 115669633:0U.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303161265:0K, 115669633:0U.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301678729:2C, 105982152:2U.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11040]
+{org:en}
+For example, the hardness of water for feeding boilers of thermal power plants must be less than a few units of HTM1 , and, for boilers of nuclear power plants, less than this.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000107:02.@entry, 400099868:2H.@obligation)
+mod(100017222:4H.@pl, 115668751:43)
+qua(105869857:2X.@pl, 600000101:2R)
+bas(400099868:2H.@obligation, HTM1:36)
+mod(102863750:1D.@pl, 115696200:1O.@pl)
+obj(600000107:02.@entry, 400099868:2H.@obligation)
+mod(100017222:4H.@pl, 115668751:43)
+qua(105869857:2X.@pl, 600000101:2R)
+bas(400099868:2H.@obligation, HTM1:36)
+mod(102863750:1D.@pl, 115696200:1O.@pl)
+bas(400099868:51.@obligation, 600000022:5B)
+and(400099868:51.@obligation, 400099868:2H.@obligation)
+pur(107935504:0V, 102863750:1D.@pl)
+pur(400099868:51.@obligation, 102863750:3S.@pl)
+aoj(400099868:2H.@obligation, 104710588:0J.@topic.@def)
+mod(104710588:0J.@topic.@def, 107935504:0V)
+aoj(400099868:51.@obligation, 104710588:0J.@topic.@def)
+mod(104710588:0J.@topic.@def, 107935504:0V)
+aoj(400099868:51.@obligation, 104710588:0J.@topic.@def)
+mod(HTM1:36, 105869857:2X.@pl)
+mod(102863750:1D.@pl, 101057759:15)
+mod(102863750:3S.@pl, 100017222:4H.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11041]
+{org:en}
+The choice of technology for water softening usually depends on the complete ionic composition of the treated solutions, including the anion content.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:1J.@entry, 100161243:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(100161243:06.@topic.@def, 100949619:0G)
+aoj(300520214:1Y, 103081660:2D.@def)
+man(202663848:1J.@entry, 400535718:1B)
+aoj(202663848:1J.@entry, 100161243:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(100161243:06.@topic.@def, 100949619:0G)
+aoj(300520214:1Y, 103081660:2D.@def)
+man(202663848:1J.@entry, 400535718:1B)
+obj(600000095:3F, 105809192:3Z.@def)
+obj(202663848:1J.@entry, 103081660:2D.@def)
+mod(113557766:11, 107935504:0V)
+obj(200078760:2W.@past, 100190783:34.@def.@pl)
+man(202663848:1J.@entry, 600000095:3F)
+pur(100949619:0G, 113557766:11)
+aoj(302750752:27, 103081660:2D.@def)
+pur(100949619:0G, 113557766:11)
+aoj(302750752:27, 103081660:2D.@def)
+mod(103081660:2D.@def, 100190783:34.@def.@pl)
+mod(105809192:3Z.@def, 109197815:3T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11042]
+{org:en}
+This is why two types of water hardness are distinguished
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000097:0A.@entry, 600000022:02)
+mod(115693219:0R, 104504486:0I.@pl)
+aoj(600000097:0A.@entry, 600000022:02)
+mod(115693219:0R, 104504486:0I.@pl)
+obj(200650353:1A, 115693219:0R)
+man(200650353:1A, 600000097:0A.@entry)
+qua(104504486:0I.@pl, "2":0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11043]
+{org:en}
+so-called carbonate hardness that is determined by the concentration in water of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium, and sulfate hardness, that is determined correspondingly by the concentration of sulfates.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(104710588:40.@entry, 104710588:0P)
+agt(200699815:16, 100375071:1O.@def)
+mod(100375071:5G.@def, 115063493:5X.@pl)
+agt(200699815:4I, 100375071:5G.@def)
+and:01(114644249:36.@entry, 114632648:2U)
+and(104710588:40.@entry, 104710588:0P)
+agt(200699815:16, 100375071:1O.@def)
+mod(100375071:5G.@def, 115063493:5X.@pl)
+agt(200699815:4I, 100375071:5G.@def)
+and:01(114644249:36.@entry, 114632648:2U)
+mod(104710588:0P, 114798450:0F)
+mod(104710588:40.@entry, 115063493:3S)
+mod(114775729:2E.@pl, :01)
+mod(104710588:0P, 303161064:05)
+obj(200699815:4I, 104710588:40.@entry)
+mod(107935504:25, 114775729:2E.@pl)
+obj(200699815:16, 104710588:0P)
+mod(107935504:25, 114775729:2E.@pl)
+obj(200699815:16, 104710588:0P)
+man(200699815:4I, 400187228:4T)
+plc(200699815:16, 107935504:25)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11044]
+{org:en}
+The physical and physical-chemical methods that can be employed for water softening are heating, distillation, freezing, reverse osmosis, electro-coagulation, electro-dialysis, and ion exchange.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 105660268:11.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:02(113468306:2R, 113491876:2I)
+and:02(115669266:44, 113528100:3N)
+mod(113557766:24, 107935504:1Y)
+and:02(100649760:4P, 115669266:44)
+and:01(303161516:0J.@entry, 300627004:06)
+aoj(:02.@entry, 105660268:11.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:02(113468306:2R, 113491876:2I)
+and:02(115669266:44, 113528100:3N)
+mod(113557766:24, 107935504:1Y)
+and:02(100649760:4P, 115669266:44)
+and:01(303161516:0J.@entry, 300627004:06)
+mod:02(113528100:3N, 300203917:3F)
+mod:02(100167063:57.@entry, 109315159:53)
+aoj(:01, 105660268:11.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:02(113528100:3N, 115669251:35)
+and:02(100167063:57.@entry, 100649760:4P)
+obj(202774279:1L.@ability, 105660268:11.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod:02(115669266:44, 303161363:3W)
+obj(202774279:1L.@ability, 105660268:11.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod:02(115669266:44, 303161363:3W)
+mod:02(100649760:4P, 303161363:4H)
+pur(202774279:1L.@ability, 113557766:24)
+and:02(115669251:35, 113468306:2R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11045]
+{org:en}
+It is possible also to utilize different chemical reagents for precipitation of calcium and magnesium salts in the form of weakly soluble compounds, for example, carbonates, phosphates, oxalates, or hydroxides of magnesium.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301821266:08.@entry, 200161872:0P)
+obj(600000075:32, 103081859:3W.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:0X, 114778982:1G.@pl)
+or:02(114914670:5L.@entry.@pl, 114970920:58.@pl)
+man(200161872:0P, 400047534:0H)
+aoj(600000144:47, 103081859:3W.@pl)
+or:02(107928578:4W.@pl, 114798450:4K.@pl)
+aoj(301821266:08.@entry, 200161872:0P)
+obj(600000075:32, 103081859:3W.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:0X, 114778982:1G.@pl)
+or:02(114914670:5L.@entry.@pl, 114970920:58.@pl)
+man(200161872:0P, 400047534:0H)
+aoj(600000144:47, 103081859:3W.@pl)
+or:02(107928578:4W.@pl, 114798450:4K.@pl)
+mod(105717342:2W.@pl, :01)
+obj(200161872:0P, 114778982:1G.@pl)
+aoj(302265015:3O, 103081859:3W.@pl)
+obj(105061149:1T, 105717342:2W.@pl)
+or:02(114970920:58.@pl, 107928578:4W.@pl)
+man(200161872:0P, 600000075:32)
+aoj(303162910:3H, 103081859:3W.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:17, 114778982:1G.@pl)
+aoj(303162910:3H, 103081859:3W.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:17, 114778982:1G.@pl)
+mod:02(114914670:5L.@entry.@pl, 114644249:5Z)
+pur(114778982:1G.@pl, 105061149:1T)
+obj(600000144:47, :02)
+and:01(114644249:2M.@entry, 114632648:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11046]
+{org:en}
+Various combinations of these methods are frequently used.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:1J.@entry, 100378985:0A.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303160904:02, 100378985:0A.@topic.@pl)
+obj(201158572:1J.@entry, 100378985:0A.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(303160904:02, 100378985:0A.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100378985:0A.@topic.@pl, 105660268:0W.@pl)
+man(201158572:1J.@entry, 400035058:18)
+mod(105660268:0W.@pl, 600000022:0Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11047]
+{org:en}
+The methods of distillation, freezing, reverse osmosis, and electro-dialysis are intended more for decreasing total saline concentration HTM1 that is, for desalination HTM2 and not just for water softening, so they will be described in the next section.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(600000110:60, 200708538:2I.@entry)
+obj(200987071:6G.@will, 600000020:63)
+and:02(113557766:5P.@entry, 113462795:4K)
+obj(200151689:30.@progress, 100375071:3O)
+and:01(113528100:1G, 115669251:0V)
+man(200708538:2I.@entry, 400099341:2R)
+mod(105660268:06.@topic.@def.@pl, :01)
+obj(600000110:60, 200987071:6G.@will)
+rsn(600000110:60, 200708538:2I.@entry)
+obj(200987071:6G.@will, 600000020:63)
+and:02(113557766:5P.@entry, 113462795:4K)
+obj(200151689:30.@progress, 100375071:3O)
+and:01(113528100:1G, 115669251:0V)
+man(200708538:2I.@entry, 400099341:2R)
+mod(105660268:06.@topic.@def.@pl, :01)
+obj(600000110:60, 200987071:6G.@will)
+aoj(600000189:47, 100375071:3O)
+pur(200708538:2I.@entry, 200151689:30.@progress)
+aoj(303161072:6X, 104164989:72.@def)
+obj:02(113557766:5P.@entry, 107935504:5J)
+aoj(301074458:3H, 100375071:3O)
+and:01(115669251:0V, 113468306:0H)
+obj(200708538:2I.@entry, 105660268:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+scn(200987071:6G.@will, 104164989:72.@def)
+mod:02(113557766:5P.@entry, 600000138:5A.@not)
+mod(100375071:3O, 303160907:3B)
+scn(200987071:6G.@will, 104164989:72.@def)
+mod:02(113557766:5P.@entry, 600000138:5A.@not)
+mod(100375071:3O, 303160907:3B)
+mod:01(113528100:1G, 300203917:18)
+man(200151689:30.@progress, 600000189:47)
+and:01(115690375:1X.@entry, 113528100:1G)
+obj(600000189:47, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11048]
+{org:en}
+Water softening by heating (the thermal method) is based on the destruction of calcium bicarbonate to barely dissolved calcium carbonate, with liberation of the carbon dioxide
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(302351064:1H.@entry, 600000018:43)
+mod(113557766:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+mod(114775729:2K, 114632648:2C)
+obj(100095502:48, 114796969:4Q.@def)
+to(100217014:1X.@def, 114798450:3S)
+mod:01(105660268:16.@entry.@def, 301250565:0Y)
+man(302351064:1H.@entry, 600000018:43)
+mod(113557766:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+mod(114775729:2K, 114632648:2C)
+obj(100095502:48, 114796969:4Q.@def)
+to(100217014:1X.@def, 114798450:3S)
+mod:01(105660268:16.@entry.@def, 301250565:0Y)
+man(301506258:3A, 400002621:33)
+obj(302351064:1H.@entry, 100217014:1X.@def)
+cnt(113491876:0L, :01.@parenthesis)
+mod(114798450:3S, 114632648:3K)
+aoj(302351064:1H.@entry, 113557766:08.@topic)
+obj(600000035:66, 113491876:0L)
+aoj(301506258:3A, 114798450:3S)
+obj(600000035:66, 113491876:0L)
+aoj(301506258:3A, 114798450:3S)
+obj(100217014:1X.@def, 114775729:2K)
+obj(600000018:43, 100095502:48)
+aoj(600000035:66, 113557766:08.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11049]
+{org:en}
+Chemical and ion-exchange methods for water softening are considered below in more detail, because these methods are employed most frequently around the world.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(200691312:1O.@entry, 202774279:3B)
+obj(202774279:3B, 105660268:2Z.@pl)
+pur(105660268:0S.@topic.@pl, 113557766:1A)
+mod(105660268:2Z.@pl, 600000017:2T)
+scn(200691312:1O.@entry, 105817845:2D)
+man(400035058:3P, 400536271:3K)
+rsn(200691312:1O.@entry, 202774279:3B)
+obj(202774279:3B, 105660268:2Z.@pl)
+pur(105660268:0S.@topic.@pl, 113557766:1A)
+mod(105660268:2Z.@pl, 600000017:2T)
+scn(200691312:1O.@entry, 105817845:2D)
+man(400035058:3P, 400536271:3K)
+and:01(109315159:0F.@entry, 114806838:02)
+man(200691312:1O.@entry, 400079866:1Z)
+man(202774279:3B, 400035058:3P)
+obj(100167063:0J, :01)
+obj(200691312:1O.@entry, 105660268:0S.@topic.@pl)
+plc(202774279:3B, 600000090:40)
+mod(105660268:0S.@topic.@pl, 100167063:0J)
+plc(202774279:3B, 600000090:40)
+mod(105660268:0S.@topic.@pl, 100167063:0J)
+qua(105817845:2D, 400099341:28)
+obj(600000090:40, 105670972:4B.@def)
+mod(113557766:1A, 107935504:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11050]
+{org:en}
+Liming is utilized for softening water with high carbonate and non-carbonate hardness.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200161872:0C.@entry, 201603732:02.@topic.@progress)
+mod(104710588:2E, :01.@entry)
+obj(200254867:0P.@progress, 107935504:0Z)
+obj(200161872:0C.@entry, 201603732:02.@topic.@progress)
+mod(104710588:2E, :01.@entry)
+obj(200254867:0P.@progress, 107935504:0Z)
+aoj:01(300705498:1D, 114798450:1I)
+man(200254867:0P.@progress, 600000018:15)
+mod:01(114798450:20.@entry, 303161142:1W)
+pur(200161872:0C.@entry, 200254867:0P.@progress)
+and:01(114798450:20.@entry, 114798450:1I)
+and:01(114798450:20.@entry, 114798450:1I)
+obj(600000018:15, 104710588:2E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11051]
+{org:en}
+In this method a suspension of slaked lime (milk of lime) is added to the treated water (which is often subject to preliminary heating).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200182406:1R.@entry, 105660268:0A)
+aoj:02(303161166:2Y, 600000120:2J.@entry)
+cnt(107749731:14, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj(301953635:24, 107935504:2C.@def)
+aoj:02(300878086:39, 113491876:3L)
+plc(200182406:1R.@entry, 105660268:0A)
+aoj:02(303161166:2Y, 600000120:2J.@entry)
+cnt(107749731:14, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj(301953635:24, 107935504:2C.@def)
+aoj:02(300878086:39, 113491876:3L)
+mod(105660268:0A, 600000017:05)
+gol(200182406:1R.@entry, 107935504:2C.@def)
+obj:02(303161166:2Y, 113491876:3L)
+mod:01(105399034:1A.@entry, 107749731:1I)
+obj(200182406:1R.@entry, 100209132:0J.@topic.@indef)
+man:02(303161166:2Y, 400059547:2S)
+aoj(303163733:0X, 107749731:14)
+man:02(303161166:2Y, 400059547:2S)
+aoj(303163733:0X, 107749731:14)
+obj(100209132:0J.@topic.@indef, 107749731:14)
+cnt(:02.@parenthesis, 107935504:2C.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11052]
+{org:en}
+The lime is dissolved, and the liquid is alkalized as a result of this.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200265094:17.@entry, 301506258:0E)
+obj(600000056:1H, 600000022:1W)
+and(200265094:17.@entry, 301506258:0E)
+obj(600000056:1H, 600000022:1W)
+man(200265094:17.@entry, 600000056:1H)
+obj(200265094:17.@entry, 107119643:0X.@def)
+aoj(301506258:0E, 107749731:06.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11053]
+{org:en}
+The moderately dissoluble calcium hydrocarbonate is transformed into the practically insoluble carbonate form, in accordance with the reaction cited below, including calcium hydroxide that was added to the water as reagent
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200381601:1I.@entry, 115690319:10.@topic.@def)
+man(303162184:0H, 400215237:06)
+obj(600000095:4E, 114914670:4W)
+man(301230728:2F, 400053512:23)
+aoj(600000023:5Y, :9O)
+aoj(301230728:2F, 103384535:2Z.@def)
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+
+[S:11054]
+{org:en}
+More expensive reagents which also precipitate calcium in the form of calcium carbonate are used for treatment of water with high non-carbonate hardness.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11055]
+{org:en}
+Calcined soda ( HTM1 ) is used in the soda technology of water softening.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:11056]
+{org:en}
+A mixture of lime and soda [ HTM1 and HTM2 ] is utilized in the lime HTM3 soda method
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11057]
+{org:en}
+and a mixture of soda and sodium hydroxide ( HTM1 and NaOH) is employed in the soda HTM2 alkali method.
+{/org}
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+[S:11058]
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+These are used predominantly for softening water with increased acidity and also water with a high concentration of magnesium ions.
+{/org}
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+[S:11059]
+{org:en}
+The precipitation of poorly soluble magnesium hydroxide is carried out in the last case in addition to calcium carbonate precipitation.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:11060]
+{org:en}
+The so-called barium method was previously used for softening water with high sulfate hardness intended for technical purposes.
+{/org}
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+[S:11061]
+{org:en}
+In this method, barium reagents ( HTM1 and/or HTM2 ) were added to water.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:11062]
+{org:en}
+After water clarification, its further softening was carried out by the lime HTM1 soda method.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11063]
+{org:en}
+In this process, sulfates are removed from the water in the form of practically insoluble barium sulfate, HTM1 , in addition to the removal of calcium and magnesium ions in the forms of calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11064]
+{org:en}
+At present, this process is seldom used in practice because of the high cost of barium reagents and the development of other more effective methods, in particular ion exchange.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11065]
+{org:en}
+It might be well to point out that sodium oxalate, sodium and potassium phosphates, and hydrophosphates, are effectively used for water softening.
+{/org}
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+[S:11066]
+{org:en}
+The phosphate method allows for deep water softening (up to a residual hardness of not more than 0.05 HTM1 ).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11067]
+{org:en}
+However, because of the high cost of the reagents, this method is employed only for the further softening of water that has been preliminarily treated with other reagents.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11068]
+{org:en}
+Phosphate water softeners are often employed as additives to washing detergent powders.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774279:12.@entry, 115055936:0I.@topic.@pl)
+mod(103994008:29.@pl, 115691952:1R)
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+aoj(302118181:1Z, 103994008:29.@pl)
+to(102679788:1E.@pl, 103994008:29.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11069]
+{org:en}
+Today, the ion exchange method of water softening is the most widely used.
+{/org}
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+mod(105660268:0Q.@topic.@def, 113557766:16)
+man(400495663:1S.@def, 400536271:1N)
+obj(113557766:16, 107935504:10)
+man(201158572:1Z.@entry.@past, 400495663:1S.@def)
+obj(100167063:0H, 109315159:0D)
+obj(100167063:0H, 109315159:0D)
+tim(105660268:0Q.@topic.@def, 115156001:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11070]
+{org:en}
+Practically all boiler installations of small and medium capacity, which are used for producing hot water and steam for small settlements and local production plants, employ ion exchange water softening.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202774279:53.@entry, 100240938:0P.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:03(301391351:3O, 105789089:3U.@pl)
+mod(100720951:1N, :01)
+mod(100240938:0P.@topic.@pl, 100720951:1N)
+and:02(115055181:37.@entry, 114409137:2T)
+mod(113557766:5T, 107935504:5N)
+pur(201621555:2G.@progress, :03:03)
+agt(202774279:53.@entry, 100240938:0P.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:03(301391351:3O, 105789089:3U.@pl)
+mod(100720951:1N, :01)
+mod(100240938:0P.@topic.@pl, 100720951:1N)
+and:02(115055181:37.@entry, 114409137:2T)
+mod(113557766:5T, 107935504:5N)
+pur(201621555:2G.@progress, :03:03)
+mod(100240938:0P.@topic.@pl, 102863750:0I)
+mod:03(100017222:4V.@entry.@pl, 100522736:4K)
+mod(113557766:5T, 100167063:5E)
+pur(201158572:27, 201621555:2G.@progress)
+qua(100240938:0P.@topic.@pl, 600000011:0E)
+mod:03(100017222:4V.@entry.@pl, 301106405:4E)
+obj(202774279:53.@entry, 113557766:5T)
+and:01(300617752:1G.@entry, 301391351:16)
+man(100240938:0P.@topic.@pl, 400053512:02)
+and:01(300617752:1G.@entry, 301391351:16)
+man(100240938:0P.@topic.@pl, 400053512:02)
+and:03(100017222:4V.@entry.@pl, 105789089:3U.@pl)
+mod(100167063:5E, 109315159:5A)
+obj(201621555:2G.@progress, :02:02.@entry)
+obj(201158572:27, 100720951:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11071]
+{org:en}
+Also, a significant number of the large thermal power plants supplying whole regions with heat and electricity utilize this technology for water softening.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200161872:34.@entry, 400047534:02)
+mod(100017222:1I.@topic.@def.@pl, 105190804:1D)
+mod(113557766:42, 107935504:3W)
+obj(600000018:2E, :01)
+obj(200161872:34.@entry, 100949619:3H)
+gol(202327200:1Q.@progress, 105221895:26.@pl)
+man(200161872:34.@entry, 400047534:02)
+mod(100017222:1I.@topic.@def.@pl, 105190804:1D)
+mod(113557766:42, 107935504:3W)
+obj(600000018:2E, :01)
+obj(200161872:34.@entry, 100949619:3H)
+gol(202327200:1Q.@progress, 105221895:26.@pl)
+aoj(300527870:10, 100017222:1I.@topic.@def.@pl)
+pur(200161872:34.@entry, 113557766:42)
+man(202327200:1Q.@progress, 600000018:2E)
+qua(100017222:1I.@topic.@def.@pl, 103835412:0M.@indef)
+agt(200161872:34.@entry, 100017222:1I.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300625055:0A, 103835412:0M.@indef)
+agt(202327200:1Q.@progress, 100017222:1I.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300625055:0A, 103835412:0M.@indef)
+agt(202327200:1Q.@progress, 100017222:1I.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(107514600:2S.@entry, 105725527:2J)
+mod(100949619:3H, 600000017:3C)
+aoj(300514884:20, 105221895:26.@pl)
+mod(100017222:1I.@topic.@def.@pl, 301250565:16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11072]
+{org:en}
+The ion exchangers used for water softening are solid or gel-like granules that are insoluble in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(109291513:23.@entry.@pl, 110069120:0A.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(301230728:2L, 107935504:2Y)
+or:01(200691665:1U.@entry, 300291181:1E)
+aoj(109291513:23.@entry.@pl, 110069120:0A.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(301230728:2L, 107935504:2Y)
+or:01(200691665:1U.@entry, 300291181:1E)
+pur(201158572:0L, 113557766:10)
+aoj(:01, 109291513:23.@entry.@pl)
+obj(110069120:0A.@topic.@def.@pl, 109315159:06)
+aoj(301230728:2L, 109291513:23.@entry.@pl)
+obj(201158572:0L, 110069120:0A.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(201158572:0L, 110069120:0A.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj:01(200691665:1U.@entry, 114590542:1Q)
+obj(113557766:10, 107935504:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11073]
+{org:en}
+For cation exchangers these granules are formed from high molecular weight hydrated poly-anions of either an organic or inorganic nature.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(200144850:17.@entry, 110069120:0D.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 104623113:3O.@indef)
+obj(200214020:25.@past, 109197815:2J.@pl)
+mod(109197815:2J.@pl, 104623113:3O.@indef)
+mod(110069120:0D.@pl, 109238294:06)
+pur(200144850:17.@entry, 110069120:0D.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 104623113:3O.@indef)
+obj(200214020:25.@past, 109197815:2J.@pl)
+mod(109197815:2J.@pl, 104623113:3O.@indef)
+mod(110069120:0D.@pl, 109238294:06)
+mod(104571088:1Y, 301542252:1O)
+src(200144850:17.@entry, 109197815:2J.@pl)
+mod(109291513:0U.@topic.@pl, 600000017:0O)
+aoj(300705498:1J, 104571088:1Y)
+obj(200144850:17.@entry, 109291513:0U.@topic.@pl)
+or:01(301679244:3E.@entry, 301093142:33)
+mod(109197815:2J.@pl, 303162753:2E)
+or:01(301679244:3E.@entry, 301093142:33)
+mod(109197815:2J.@pl, 303162753:2E)
+mod(109197815:2J.@pl, 104571088:1Y)
+mod(104623113:3O.@indef, 600001327:2T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11074]
+{org:en}
+These are neutralized by mobile cations, which can be exchanged with the other cations present in the aqueous solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200469904:0C.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301731351:2H, 109238294:29.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300346103:0R, 109238294:0Y.@pl)
+obj(200469904:0C.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301731351:2H, 109238294:29.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300346103:0R, 109238294:0Y.@pl)
+aoj(301355089:2W, 100190783:34.@def)
+obj(202257370:1K.@ability, 109238294:0Y.@pl)
+plc(301731351:2H, 100190783:34.@def)
+agt(200469904:0C.@entry, 109238294:0Y.@pl)
+mod(109238294:29.@def.@pl, 600000031:23)
+mod(109238294:29.@def.@pl, 600000031:23)
+gol(202257370:1K.@ability, 109238294:29.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11075]
+{org:en}
+Anion exchangers consist of poly-cations and mobile anions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774237:0J.@entry, 110069120:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(110069120:08.@topic.@pl, 109197815:02)
+aoj:01(300346103:1B, 109197815:1I.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(202774237:0J.@entry, 110069120:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(110069120:08.@topic.@pl, 109197815:02)
+aoj:01(300346103:1B, 109197815:1I.@entry.@pl)
+and:01(109197815:1I.@entry.@pl, 109238294:0Z.@pl)
+obj(202774237:0J.@entry, :01:01)
+mod:01(109238294:0Z.@pl, 303162753:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11076]
+{org:en}
+The softening process on the cation exchanger takes place according to the following reaction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774213:1I.@entry, 100029677:0G.@topic.@def)
+mod(100029677:0G.@topic.@def, 113557766:06)
+mod(100202816:2F.@def, 300127815:25)
+obj(202774213:1I.@entry, 100029677:0G.@topic.@def)
+mod(100029677:0G.@topic.@def, 113557766:06)
+mod(100202816:2F.@def, 300127815:25)
+obj(600000046:1O, 100202816:2F.@def)
+man(202774213:1I.@entry, 600000046:1O)
+mod(110069120:12.@def, 109238294:0V)
+mod(110069120:12.@def, 109238294:0V)
+obj(100029677:0G.@topic.@def, 110069120:12.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11077]
+{org:en}
+where
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689346:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115689346:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11078]
+{org:en}
+R-Na is the cation exchanger in original sodium form, and HTM1 is a resulting calcium form
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(103384535:2G.@entry.@indef, 110069120:0L.@def)
+plc(110069120:0L.@def, 103384535:1E)
+mod(103384535:2G.@entry.@indef, 114632648:28)
+and(103384535:2G.@entry.@indef, 110069120:0L.@def)
+plc(110069120:0L.@def, 103384535:1E)
+mod(103384535:2G.@entry.@indef, 114632648:28)
+mod(103384535:1E, 114655371:17)
+obj(200340704:1Y.@progress, 103384535:2G.@entry.@indef)
+mod(103384535:1E, 300699207:0Y)
+aoj(103384535:2G.@entry.@indef, HTM1:1O.@topic)
+mod(110069120:0L.@def, 109238294:0E)
+mod(110069120:0L.@def, 109238294:0E)
+aoj(110069120:0L.@def, 500324264:02.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11079]
+{org:en}
+the product of the ion exchange reaction.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103748886:06.@entry.@def, 100202816:0Y.@def)
+mod(103748886:06.@entry.@def, 100202816:0Y.@def)
+obj(100167063:0P, 109315159:0L)
+mod(100202816:0Y.@def, 100167063:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11080]
+{org:en}
+Two main characteristics determining how much water can be softened are very important for the ion exchange process
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301275562:27.@entry, 104731497:0B.@topic.@pl)
+qua(107935504:1C.@topic, 600000263:13.@qfocus)
+agt(200699815:0R.@progress, 104731497:0B.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100029677:32.@def, 100167063:2T)
+aoj(301275562:27.@entry, 104731497:0B.@topic.@pl)
+qua(107935504:1C.@topic, 600000263:13.@qfocus)
+agt(200699815:0R.@progress, 104731497:0B.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100029677:32.@def, 100167063:2T)
+obj(200699815:0R.@progress, 200254867:1P.@ability)
+man(301275562:27.@entry, 400031899:22)
+mod(104731497:0B.@topic.@pl, 301512527:06)
+pur(301275562:27.@entry, 100029677:32.@def)
+qua(104731497:0B.@topic.@pl, "2":02)
+qua(104731497:0B.@topic.@pl, "2":02)
+obj(100167063:2T, 109315159:2P)
+obj(200254867:1P.@ability, 107935504:1C.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11081]
+{org:en}
+the capacity of the exchanger (concentration of active functional groups in solid phase in HTM1 or HTM2 ), and the constant of ion exchange equilibrium, K.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(105858936:39.@entry.@def, 100720951:06.@def)
+aoj:02(300031974:1E, 100031264:1W.@pl)
+mod(100720951:06.@def, 110069120:0M.@def)
+cnt(105659365:3Y, 106832248:4B)
+or:01(HTM2:2T.@entry, HTM1:2L)
+and(105858936:39.@entry.@def, 100720951:06.@def)
+aoj:02(300031974:1E, 100031264:1W.@pl)
+mod(100720951:06.@def, 110069120:0M.@def)
+cnt(105659365:3Y, 106832248:4B)
+or:01(HTM2:2T.@entry, HTM1:2L)
+plc:02(100375071:0X.@entry, 104676540:2C)
+mod(105659365:3Y, 100167063:3P)
+aoj:02(300291181:26, 104676540:2C)
+plc:02(100375071:0X.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(105858936:39.@entry.@def, 105659365:3Y)
+aoj:02(301090308:1L, 100031264:1W.@pl)
+cnt(110069120:0M.@def, :02.@parenthesis)
+aoj:02(301090308:1L, 100031264:1W.@pl)
+cnt(110069120:0M.@def, :02.@parenthesis)
+mod(100167063:3P, 109315159:3L)
+mod:02(100375071:0X.@entry, 100031264:1W.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11082]
+{org:en}
+The latter can be mathematically expressed for the reaction presented in accordance with the mass action law, for example, as follows
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200940384:0Z.@entry.@ability, 600000107:34)
+man(200772967:1Q, 600000133:20)
+man(200940384:0Z.@entry.@ability, 400064829:0K)
+man(200940384:0Z.@entry.@ability, 600000107:34)
+man(200772967:1Q, 600000133:20)
+man(200940384:0Z.@entry.@ability, 400064829:0K)
+mod(100611143:2Z.@def, 100037396:2S)
+pur(200940384:0Z.@entry.@ability, 100202816:1H.@def)
+mod(100611143:2Z.@def, 303162680:2N)
+obj(200940384:0Z.@entry.@ability, 600000200:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000133:20, 100611143:2Z.@def)
+obj(600000133:20, 100611143:2Z.@def)
+obj(200772967:1Q, 100202816:1H.@def)
+obj(600000107:34, 600000181:3H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11083]
+{org:en}
+where HTM1 and HTM2 are the concentrations of exchanging ions in solid phase, and, respectively, HTM3 and HTM4 are the concentrations in an equilibrium solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(:03, 115689346:02.@entry)
+obj:03(202257370:1C.@progress, 109315159:1N.@pl)
+mod:03(100190783:4A.@indef, 105659365:3Y)
+aoj:03(100375071:3D.@entry.@def.@pl, :02)
+plc(:03, 115689346:02.@entry)
+obj:03(202257370:1C.@progress, 109315159:1N.@pl)
+mod:03(100190783:4A.@indef, 105659365:3Y)
+aoj:03(100375071:3D.@entry.@def.@pl, :02)
+mod:03(100375071:0U.@def.@pl, 202257370:1C.@progress)
+man:03(100375071:3D.@entry.@def.@pl, 400137915:2D)
+and:01(HTM2:0H.@entry.@topic, HTM1:08.@topic)
+aoj:03(100375071:0U.@def.@pl, :01)
+and:03(100375071:3D.@entry.@def.@pl, 100375071:0U.@def.@pl)
+aoj:03(300291181:1V, 104676540:21)
+and:02(HTM4:30.@entry.@topic, HTM3:2R.@topic)
+aoj:03(300291181:1V, 104676540:21)
+and:02(HTM4:30.@entry.@topic, HTM3:2R.@topic)
+plc:03(100375071:3D.@entry.@def.@pl, 100190783:4A.@indef)
+plc:03(202257370:1C.@progress, 104676540:21)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11084]
+{org:en}
+Constant HTM1 denotes that the cation exchanger is more selective to HTM2 than to HTM3
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200931467:0G.@entry, HTM1:0B.@topic)
+bas(HTM2:1Z, HTM3:2C)
+ben(300775693:1M, HTM2:1Z)
+aoj(200931467:0G.@entry, HTM1:0B.@topic)
+bas(HTM2:1Z, HTM3:2C)
+ben(300775693:1M, HTM2:1Z)
+aoj(300775693:1M, 110069120:14.@topic.@def)
+mod(HTM1:0B.@topic, 105858936:02)
+obj(200931467:0G.@entry, 300775693:1M)
+mod(110069120:14.@topic.@def, 109238294:0X)
+mod(110069120:14.@topic.@def, 109238294:0X)
+man(300775693:1M, 400099341:1H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11085]
+{org:en}
+that is to say, calcium ions are favorably extracted from the treated solution into the sorbent, whereas sodium ions transfer into the solution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(400409709:02.@entry, 200638723:19)
+gol(200555240:3B, 100190783:3T.@def)
+man(200638723:19, 115695205:0Z)
+gol(200638723:19, 114597158:2I.@def)
+obj(400409709:02.@entry, 200638723:19)
+gol(200555240:3B, 100190783:3T.@def)
+man(200638723:19, 115695205:0Z)
+gol(200638723:19, 114597158:2I.@def)
+obj(600000179:2R, 200555240:3B)
+obj(200638723:19, 109315159:0Q.@pl)
+mod(109315159:0Q.@pl, 114632648:0I)
+man(200638723:19, 600000179:2R)
+mod(109315159:36.@pl, 114655371:2Z)
+aoj(301953635:1S, 100190783:20.@def)
+mod(109315159:36.@pl, 114655371:2Z)
+aoj(301953635:1S, 100190783:20.@def)
+src(200638723:19, 100190783:20.@def)
+obj(200555240:3B, 109315159:36.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11086]
+{org:en}
+Ion exchangers of the type of styrene-divinylbenzene copolymeric resin with sulfonic functional groups (for example, Dowex/USA or KU-2/Russia) are mostly used for softening purposes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:4C.@entry, 110069120:06.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(600000025:3G, 500323518:3H)
+mod(115693620:14, 114595543:0W)
+mod(110069120:06.@topic.@pl, 109315159:02)
+obj:02(600000144:2Y.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(113557766:4K, 105982152:4U.@pl)
+aoj(303163783:26, 100031264:2Q.@pl)
+obj(201158572:4C.@entry, 110069120:06.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(600000025:3G, 500323518:3H)
+mod(115693620:14, 114595543:0W)
+mod(110069120:06.@topic.@pl, 109315159:02)
+obj:02(600000144:2Y.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(113557766:4K, 105982152:4U.@pl)
+aoj(303163783:26, 100031264:2Q.@pl)
+mod(114894140:1V, 115693620:14)
+aoj:01(600000025:3G, 500323803:3B)
+man(201158572:4C.@entry, 400535310:45)
+aoj(:02.@parenthesis, 100031264:2Q.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:21, 114894140:1V)
+or:01(500324146:3O.@entry, 500323803:3B)
+pur(201158572:4C.@entry, 105982152:4U.@pl)
+obj:02(600000025:3S, 500004285:3T)
+obj(600000019:21, 100031264:2Q.@pl)
+mod(104504486:0O.@def, 114894140:1V)
+obj:02(600000025:3S, 500004285:3T)
+obj(600000019:21, 100031264:2Q.@pl)
+mod(104504486:0O.@def, 114894140:1V)
+aoj:02(600000025:3S, :01)
+mod(110069120:06.@topic.@pl, 104504486:0O.@def)
+aoj(301090308:2F, 100031264:2Q.@pl)
+aoj(303163101:1J, 114894140:1V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11087]
+{org:en}
+They have a total ion exchange capacity about 4.5 HTM1 (2.25 HTM2 of bed volume) and are characterized by the equilibrium constant HTM3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202697950:2J.@entry, 200065370:07)
+qua(HTM1:1G, 400071165:16)
+qua:01(104990220:23.@entry, HTM2:1R)
+mod(HTM3:3P, 105858936:3G.@def)
+mod(100720951:0X.@indef, 100167063:0O)
+and(202697950:2J.@entry, 200065370:07)
+qua(HTM1:1G, 400071165:16)
+qua:01(104990220:23.@entry, HTM2:1R)
+mod(HTM3:3P, 105858936:3G.@def)
+mod(100720951:0X.@indef, 100167063:0O)
+cnt(HTM1:1G, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj(202697950:2J.@entry, HTM3:3P)
+qua(100720951:0X.@indef, 303160907:0E)
+obj(200065370:07, HTM1:1G)
+mod:01(HTM2:1R, "2.25":1M)
+obj(202697950:2J.@entry, 600000020:02.@topic)
+bas(400071165:16, "4.5":1C)
+aoj(200065370:07, 600000020:02.@topic)
+bas(400071165:16, "4.5":1C)
+aoj(200065370:07, 600000020:02.@topic)
+mod:01(104990220:23.@entry, 102818832:1Z)
+mod(105858936:3G.@def, 105659365:34)
+mod(100167063:0O, 109315159:0K)
+mod(HTM1:1G, 100720951:0X.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11088]
+{org:en}
+These parameters are enough for softening, in one sorption-regeneration cycle, around 200 relative (column) volumes of raw water with an initial hardness of around 10 HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600001343:0N.@entry, 105859071:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105859071:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02.@pl)
+mod(107341038:21, 101047937:1O)
+qua(104990220:31.@pl, 600000129:28)
+mod(104710588:42.@indef, HTM1:4O)
+qua(107935504:3G, 104990220:31.@pl)
+aoj(300619433:3C, 107935504:3G)
+aoj(600001343:0N.@entry, 105859071:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105859071:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02.@pl)
+mod(107341038:21, 101047937:1O)
+qua(104990220:31.@pl, 600000129:28)
+mod(104710588:42.@indef, HTM1:4O)
+qua(107935504:3G, 104990220:31.@pl)
+aoj(300619433:3C, 107935504:3G)
+bas(600000129:28, "200":2F)
+bas(600000129:4E, "10":4L)
+pur(600001343:0N.@entry, 113557766:0X)
+aoj(600000019:3M, 107935504:3G)
+cnt(300006032:2J, 103073977:2T.@parenthesis)
+qua(HTM1:4O, 600000129:4E)
+plc(600001343:0N.@entry, 104990220:31.@pl)
+mod(113558490:1F, 600000027:1B)
+aoj(300006032:2J, 104990220:31.@pl)
+mod(113558490:1F, 600000027:1B)
+aoj(300006032:2J, 104990220:31.@pl)
+aoj(301011973:3U, 104710588:42.@indef)
+mod(104990220:31.@pl, 107341038:21)
+obj(600000019:3M, 104710588:42.@indef)
+mod(107341038:21, 113558490:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11089]
+{org:en}
+Figure 2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "2":09)
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "2":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11090]
+{org:en}
+Water softening by sodium ion exchange for HTM1 and HTM2 from their initial equimolar solution
+{/org}
+{unl}
+frm(113557766:08.@entry, 100190783:2G)
+mod(109315159:0S, 114655371:0L)
+pur(100167063:0W, :01:01)
+frm(113557766:08.@entry, 100190783:2G)
+mod(109315159:0S, 114655371:0L)
+pur(100167063:0W, :01:01)
+aoj(301011973:1Y, 100190783:2G)
+obj(113557766:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+mod(100190783:2G, 600000020:1S.@pl)
+ins(113557766:08.@entry, 100167063:0W)
+and:01(HTM2:1I.@entry, HTM1:19)
+and:01(HTM2:1I.@entry, HTM1:19)
+mod(100167063:0W, 109315159:0S)
+aoj(303163207:26, 100190783:2G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11091]
+{org:en}
+distribution of concentration profiles (fronts of exchange) in the ion exchanger bed before the end of sorption operating cycle
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(400101051:2E, 101083077:02.@entry)
+obj(200341285:35.@progress, 107341038:3F)
+mod:01(103398467:16.@entry, 100167063:1F)
+cnt(106516404:0W.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj(400101051:2E, 101083077:02.@entry)
+obj(200341285:35.@progress, 107341038:3F)
+mod:01(103398467:16.@entry, 100167063:1F)
+cnt(106516404:0W.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj(400101051:2E, 100728065:2P.@def)
+plc(106516404:0W.@pl, 102818832:2A.@def)
+mod(110069120:20, 109315159:1W)
+obj(101083077:02.@entry, 106516404:0W.@pl)
+mod(107341038:3F, 113558490:2W)
+mod(102818832:2A.@def, 110069120:20)
+mod(107341038:3F, 113558490:2W)
+mod(102818832:2A.@def, 110069120:20)
+mod(106516404:0W.@pl, 100375071:0I)
+mod(100728065:2P.@def, 107341038:3F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11092]
+{org:en}
+concentration history for ions in effluent (breakthrough curves) for the sorption process carried on until the equilibrium with raw solution is reached.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tmt(202775075:2K.@entry.@past, 200743344:42)
+aoj(600000019:3H, 105659365:35.@def)
+pur(114857021:10, 100029677:2C.@def)
+mod(106155567:0G.@topic, 100375071:02)
+tmt(202775075:2K.@entry.@past, 200743344:42)
+aoj(600000019:3H, 105659365:35.@def)
+pur(114857021:10, 100029677:2C.@def)
+mod(106155567:0G.@topic, 100375071:02)
+mod(100029677:2C.@def, 113558490:23)
+pur(106155567:0G.@topic, 109315159:0S.@pl)
+aoj(300619433:3M, 100190783:3Q)
+mod:01(100107875:1N.@entry.@pl, 100151409:1A)
+agt(202775075:2K.@entry.@past, 106155567:0G.@topic)
+obj(600000019:3H, 100190783:3Q)
+cnt(114857021:10, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000019:3H, 100190783:3Q)
+cnt(114857021:10, :01.@parenthesis)
+plc(109315159:0S.@pl, 114857021:10)
+obj(200743344:42, 105659365:35.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11093]
+{org:en}
+Ion exchange softening is a cyclic process, which involves the stages of sorption and regeneration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100029677:11.@entry.@pl.@indef, 113557766:0F.@topic)
+and:01(101047937:2G.@entry, 113558490:23)
+obj(200401538:1G, 100306900:1T.@def.@pl)
+aoj(100029677:11.@entry.@pl.@indef, 113557766:0F.@topic)
+and:01(101047937:2G.@entry, 113558490:23)
+obj(200401538:1G, 100306900:1T.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300675701:0U, 100029677:11.@entry.@pl.@indef)
+obj(100167063:06, 109315159:02)
+aoj(200401538:1G, 100029677:11.@entry.@pl.@indef)
+mod(113557766:0F.@topic, 100167063:06)
+mod(113557766:0F.@topic, 100167063:06)
+obj(100306900:1T.@def.@pl, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11094]
+{org:en}
+As a rule, the regeneration of the ion exchanging bed loaded by the hardness ions is carried out by treatment of the bed with concentrated solutions of single charged cations
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774207:2F.@entry, 600000808:02)
+obj(101047937:0H.@topic.@def, 109415671:1G.@def)
+obj(600000019:3F, 100190783:3X.@pl)
+mod(109315159:27.@def.@pl, 104710588:1Y)
+obj(100658082:2U, 109415671:3B.@def)
+obj(115692116:15, 109315159:11)
+man(202774207:2F.@entry, 600000808:02)
+obj(101047937:0H.@topic.@def, 109415671:1G.@def)
+obj(600000019:3F, 100190783:3X.@pl)
+mod(109315159:27.@def.@pl, 104710588:1Y)
+obj(100658082:2U, 109415671:3B.@def)
+obj(115692116:15, 109315159:11)
+aoj(300539389:4A, 109238294:4P.@pl)
+agt(202774207:2F.@entry, 100658082:2U)
+mod(109415671:1G.@def, 115692116:15)
+mod(100190783:3X.@pl, 200237511:3K.@past)
+obj(202774207:2F.@entry, 101047937:0H.@topic.@def)
+obj(200487748:1K, 109415671:1G.@def)
+mod(100190783:3X.@pl, 109238294:4P.@pl)
+obj(200487748:1K, 109415671:1G.@def)
+mod(100190783:3X.@pl, 109238294:4P.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:3F, 109415671:3B.@def)
+agt(200487748:1K, 109315159:27.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300358132:4H, 109238294:4P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11095]
+{org:en}
+mostly with sodium chloride.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(600000018:09.@entry, 400535310:02)
+man(600000018:09.@entry, 400535310:02)
+mod(115016852:0L, 114655371:0E)
+obj(600000018:09.@entry, 115016852:0L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11096]
+{org:en}
+The concentrated effluents enriched by calcium and magnesium ions can be processed at a special stage, but are often discharged in practice.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200515154:23.@entry.@ability, 600000037:2X)
+man(201097743:3B, 400166512:3M)
+obj(200237511:06.@past, 114857021:0J.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301678729:2I, 100306900:2Q.@indef)
+man(200515154:23.@entry.@ability, 600000037:2X)
+man(201097743:3B, 400166512:3M)
+obj(200237511:06.@past, 114857021:0J.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301678729:2I, 100306900:2Q.@indef)
+and:01(114644249:1H.@entry, 114632648:15)
+plc(200515154:23.@entry.@ability, 100306900:2Q.@indef)
+mod(109315159:1R.@pl, :01)
+obj(200515154:23.@entry.@ability, 114857021:0J.@topic.@def.@pl)
+man(201097743:3B, 400059547:35)
+agt(200171586:0T.@past, 109315159:1R.@pl)
+man(201097743:3B, 400059547:35)
+agt(200171586:0T.@past, 109315159:1R.@pl)
+obj(200171586:0T.@past, 114857021:0J.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000037:2X, 201097743:3B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11097]
+{org:en}
+This is why the problem of utilization of waste concentrates represents the main disadvantage of the ion exchange method, although this is offset by the rich variety of its benefits.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000097:0A.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+obj(114580476:0T, 105937878:1E.@pl)
+mod(105161614:2B, 105660268:38.@def)
+mod(105142641:4V.@pl, 104751305:4G.@def)
+aoj(200825447:1R.@entry, 105687338:0I.@topic.@def)
+obj(201746940:3X, 600000022:3P)
+aoj(600000097:0A.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+obj(114580476:0T, 105937878:1E.@pl)
+mod(105161614:2B, 105660268:38.@def)
+mod(105142641:4V.@pl, 104751305:4G.@def)
+aoj(200825447:1R.@entry, 105687338:0I.@topic.@def)
+obj(201746940:3X, 600000022:3P)
+mod(105660268:38.@def, 100167063:2Z)
+man(200825447:1R.@entry, 600000097:0A.@entry)
+obj(600000038:3G, 201746940:3X)
+mod(105660268:38.@def, 109315159:2V)
+aoj(301457369:4B, 104751305:4G.@def)
+man(200825447:1R.@entry, 600000038:3G)
+aoj(303161436:18, 105937878:1E.@pl)
+mod(105161614:2B, 301512527:26)
+aoj(303161436:18, 105937878:1E.@pl)
+mod(105161614:2B, 301512527:26)
+mod(105142641:4V.@pl, 600000016:4R)
+obj(200825447:1R.@entry, 105161614:2B)
+agt(201746940:3X, 105142641:4V.@pl)
+mod(105687338:0I.@topic.@def, 114580476:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11098]
+{org:en}
+Water Desalination
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(113462795:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+obj(113462795:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11099]
+{org:en}
+Saline water can be desalinated either by the removal of salts or by the extraction of pure water from it.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200531904:0M.@entry.@ability, 107935504:09.@topic)
+obj:01(100392950:23.@entry.@def, 107935504:2H)
+man(200531904:0M.@entry.@ability, 400047534:0Y)
+obj(200531904:0M.@entry.@ability, 107935504:09.@topic)
+obj:01(100392950:23.@entry.@def, 107935504:2H)
+man(200531904:0M.@entry.@ability, 400047534:0Y)
+agt(200531904:0M.@entry.@ability, :01)
+aoj(301074458:02, 107935504:09.@topic)
+src(200531904:0M.@entry.@ability, 600000016:2S)
+obj:01(100216723:1C.@def, 105717342:1N.@pl)
+obj:01(100216723:1C.@def, 105717342:1N.@pl)
+or:01(100392950:23.@entry.@def, 100216723:1C.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11100]
+{org:en}
+There are two basic groups of desalination methods corresponding to these two alternatives.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, 100031264:0M.@pl)
+mod(105660268:19.@pl, 113462795:0W)
+mod(100031264:0M.@pl, 300026168:0G)
+aoj(202603699:08.@entry, 100031264:0M.@pl)
+mod(105660268:19.@pl, 113462795:0W)
+mod(100031264:0M.@pl, 300026168:0G)
+qua(115690188:28.@pl, "2":24)
+qua(100031264:0M.@pl, "2":0C)
+mod(115690188:28.@pl, 600000022:1Y.@pl)
+mod(100031264:0M.@pl, 105660268:19.@pl)
+obj(202774619:1H.@progress, 115690188:28.@pl)
+obj(202774619:1H.@progress, 115690188:28.@pl)
+aoj(202774619:1H.@progress, 105660268:19.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11101]
+{org:en}
+The first group of methods (connected with salt removal) do not involve the conversion of water into ice or vapor.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200401538:1U.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 100031264:0C.@topic.@def)
+mod(100031264:0C.@topic.@def, 105660268:0L.@pl)
+obj(100094788:26.@def, 107935504:2K)
+aoj(200401538:1U.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 100031264:0C.@topic.@def)
+mod(100031264:0C.@topic.@def, 105660268:0L.@pl)
+obj(100094788:26.@def, 107935504:2K)
+obj:01(300566099:0U.@entry, 100216723:1E)
+obj(200401538:1U.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 100094788:26.@def)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 105660268:0L.@pl)
+gol(200401538:1U.@entry.@emphasis.@not, :02)
+mod(100031264:0C.@topic.@def, "1":06.@ordinal)
+mod(100031264:0C.@topic.@def, "1":06.@ordinal)
+or:02(115055633:32.@entry, 107614198:2V)
+mod:01(100216723:1E, 105717342:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11102]
+{org:en}
+These methods include ion exchange, extraction and precipitation of salts, electrolysis and electro-dialysis, reverse osmosis, biological, and some other methods.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0G.@entry, 105660268:08.@topic.@pl)
+and:04(113528100:3C, :02)
+mod:01(100167063:0S, 109315159:0O)
+mod(105660268:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02.@pl)
+and:01(105061149:1H.@entry, 100392950:12)
+aoj:02(303161363:2M, 100649760:2U.@entry)
+aoj(200183879:0G.@entry, 105660268:08.@topic.@pl)
+and:04(113528100:3C, :02)
+mod:01(100167063:0S, 109315159:0O)
+mod(105660268:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02.@pl)
+and:01(105061149:1H.@entry, 100392950:12)
+aoj:02(303161363:2M, 100649760:2U.@entry)
+mod:04(105660268:4C.@entry, 600000270:46)
+obj(:01, :04:04)
+and:02(100649760:2U.@entry, 100255065:25)
+qua:04(105660268:4C.@entry, :03:03)
+obj(200183879:0G.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj:04(300203917:34, 113528100:3C)
+and:04(105660268:4C.@entry, 113528100:3C)
+aoj:04(300203917:34, 113528100:3C)
+and:04(105660268:4C.@entry, 113528100:3C)
+and:01(100392950:12, 100167063:0S)
+and:02(100255065:25, 105717342:1Y.@pl)
+and:03(600000034:41.@entry, 301405904:3L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11103]
+{org:en}
+The second group of methods includes distillation, membrane distillation or pervaporation, heating water to supercritical temperatures, and freezing.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0U.@entry, 105660268:0M.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105660268:0M.@topic.@pl, 100031264:0D.@def)
+mod:02(107935504:33, 113491876:2V)
+and:02(107935504:33, :01.@entry)
+aoj(200183879:0U.@entry, 105660268:0M.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105660268:0M.@topic.@pl, 100031264:0D.@def)
+mod:02(107935504:33, 113491876:2V)
+and:02(107935504:33, :01.@entry)
+mod:02(:01.@entry, 103743761:1H)
+and:02(115669251:4C.@entry, 107935504:33)
+and:02(:01.@entry, 113468306:13)
+obj(200183879:0U.@entry, :02:02)
+mod(100031264:0D.@def, "2":06.@ordinal)
+aoj:02(300652351:3C, 105011790:3Q.@pl)
+mod(100031264:0D.@def, "2":06.@ordinal)
+aoj:02(300652351:3C, 105011790:3Q.@pl)
+to:02(107935504:33, 105011790:3Q.@pl)
+or:01(100375348:29.@entry, 113468306:1T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11104]
+{org:en}
+In many cases it is more efficient to use different methods in combination.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300839619:0R.@entry, 600000297:02)
+aoj(300490413:18, 105660268:1I.@pl)
+plc(201158572:14, 100378985:1T)
+man(300839619:0R.@entry, 600000297:02)
+aoj(300490413:18, 105660268:1I.@pl)
+plc(201158572:14, 100378985:1T)
+man(300839619:0R.@entry, 400099341:0M)
+aoj(300839619:0R.@entry, 201158572:14)
+obj(201158572:14, 105660268:1I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11105]
+{org:en}
+The ion exchange method of desalination is mainly applied to water for use in electric power plants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200765396:1G.@entry, 105660268:0J.@topic.@def)
+mod(100017222:2L.@pl, 300921631:28)
+pur(107935504:1R, 100947128:21)
+obj(200765396:1G.@entry, 105660268:0J.@topic.@def)
+mod(100017222:2L.@pl, 300921631:28)
+pur(107935504:1R, 100947128:21)
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+{org:en}
+When in use, a mixed bed is first separated.
+{/org}
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+[S:11111]
+{org:en}
+Three main processes are applied on an industrial scale for producing potable water
+{/org}
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+[S:11112]
+{org:en}
+thermal distillation, electro-dialysis, and reverse osmosis.
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+mod(113468306:0A, 301250565:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:11113]
+{org:en}
+In thermal distillation processes, saline water is heated to boiling point producing vapor, which is condensed to form fresh water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:11114]
+{org:en}
+For these processes, thermal energy is required, which can be produced by conventional or by renewable sources, such as solar energy.
+{/org}
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+[S:11115]
+{org:en}
+Modern thermal distillation processes are differentiated depending on their distinctive technological properties and energy sources, the most important types being multi-stage flash distillation (MSFD), multiple effect distillation (MED), vapor compression distillation (VCD) and solar distillation (SD).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:11116]
+{org:en}
+The thermal distillation processes can be applied for different waters with a wide range of mineralization.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:11117]
+{org:en}
+Electro-dialysis (ED) is an electro-membrane process, which is carried on with the use of apparatus pictured schematically in Figure 3a.
+{/org}
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+man(201686956:2U, 400446735:33)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11118]
+{org:en}
+It consists of alternated selective cation and anion exchanging membranes, forming a multi-chamber unit sandwiched between two electrode plates.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11119]
+{org:en}
+ED has the following operation principle
+{/org}
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+mod(105872477:0X.@def, 100409211:0N)
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+mod(105872477:0X.@def, 300127815:0D)
+obj(200065370:05.@entry, 105872477:0X.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11120]
+{org:en}
+initial water is fed into each chamber and flows lengthwise along membranes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11121]
+{org:en}
+Under the influence of an electrical field, ions move to the oppositely charged electrodes
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(101097119:13.@indef, 302826701:0S)
+man(200498016:22.@past, 400170332:1R.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11122]
+{org:en}
+anions to the anode, and cations to the cathode.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and(109238294:11.@entry.@pl, 109197815:05.@pl)
+to(109197815:05.@pl, 102714315:0J.@def)
+to(109238294:11.@entry.@pl, 102984699:1G.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11123]
+{org:en}
+At the same time cations can only pass through the cationic membranes, and anions through the anionic membranes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:11124]
+{org:en}
+;;As the result, in one type of unit, chambers (in every even-numbered chamber in Figure 3a) the solution is desalinated, while in the other type salt concentrating takes place.As the result, in one type of unit chambers (in every even-numbered chamber in Figure 3a) the solution is desalinated, while in the other type salt concentrating takes place.
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+The ED method is more suitable for desalination of brackish and slightly mineralized waters.
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+[S:11126]
+{org:en}
+Figure 3. Membrane methods of water desalination
+{/org}
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+[S:11127]
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+electrodialysis of solution of sodium sulfate, A-anionic and C-cationic membranes
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+reverse osmosis of saline water.
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+[S:11129]
+{org:en}
+Reverse osmosis (RO) is a baro-membrane desalination process in which water from a pressurized saline solution is separated from the solutes by flowing through a membrane.
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+No heating or electricity is necessary for the separation.
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+In this case most of the energy is required for pressurizing the feed water through the membranes (Figure 3b).
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+[S:11132]
+{org:en}
+One of the distinctive advantages of RO is the possibility of energy recuperation, with which approximately HTM1 is required for desalination of one cubic meter of sea water (salt concentration HTM2 ).
+{/org}
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+[S:11133]
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+At present the RO method is the most developed.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:11134]
+{org:en}
+More than 50 percent of modern seawater desalination plants are designed on the basis of the RO process.
+{/org}
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+All listed thermal and membrane desalination methods require special pretreatment of water for preventing scaling on heating surfaces and membranes.
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+[S:11136]
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+In practice, raw water is preliminarily acidified (especially, for RO), and special inhibitors are added to it.
+{/org}
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+[S:11137]
+{org:en}
+The methods of preliminary softening with chemicals or with ion exchangers are well known, but they are not economic.
+{/org}
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+Recently, special ion exchange softening HTM1 desalination cyclic "self-sustaining" processes HTM2 were proposed.
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+They provide deep softening of raw water using brines produced after desalination in every cycle for sorbent regeneration without any additional reagents.
+{/org}
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+[S:11140]
+{org:en}
+On the base of such a "self-sustaining" process some complex technology for seawater treatment has been elaborated (Figure 4).
+{/org}
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+In this technology the desalination plant consists of the combination of electro-dialysis and reverse osmosis stages.
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+It provides a brine of high concentration, which can easily be treated as well as recycled for softening sorbent regeneration.
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+The main advantage of this technology is deep treatment of seawater, which allows not only the production of potable water but also salt products.
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+Figure 4. The principal scheme for complex treatment of seawater
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+Some novel desalination methods have been developed during recent years, including electro-deionization (EDI), which is very interesting and has high potential.
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+
+[S:11149]
+{org:en}
+As new challenges arise in the field of water and wastewater treatment, new applications of the advantages of the EDI method can be expected.
+{/org}
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+[S:11150]
+{org:en}
+Wastewater Treatment
+{/org}
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+obj(100658082:0D.@entry, 115669276:02)
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+[S:11151]
+{org:en}
+It is convenient to classify the whole range of wastewaters according to their origin, since their composition is, as a rule, extremely variable, and it is very difficult to classify wastewaters using only this characteristic.
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+{org:en}
+Using only the source, it is possible to distinguish four principal types of wastewater
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+{org:en}
+downpour (surface)
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+{org:en}
+municipal (household)
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+industrial
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+agricultural.
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+The phase, chemical, and microbiological composition of these waters can alter within wide limits.
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+This is why purification methods are based on a wide range of disciplines, including mechanics, physics, physical chemistry, and chemistry, and also biology and biotechnology.
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+Unlike in the preparation of drinking water, purification of wastewater is more often connected with the removal from water of appreciable quantities of pollutants of many kinds.
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+If the pollutants cannot be removed, they must be neutralized.
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+That is considered almost catastrophic in natural water but it is an acceptable solution for wastewater.
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+For example, pollution by an excessive amount of highly toxic organic substances is the permanent norm for municipal wastewater.
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+The regulating standards and the volume of wastewater are extremely diverse.
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+Most frequently, the standards depend on the output and capabilities of the water treatment works for wastewater purification in an inhabited settlement.
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+The standards regulating the composition and the permitted amounts of treated (purified) wastewater also depend on local natural conditions.
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+Although the physical-chemical principles for purification of natural and wastewater are in general the same, there are some special technological features connected with wastewater.
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+Methods of biological treatment involving the use of micro-organisms are employed for the purification of municipal wastewater containing large amounts of organic compounds (including all components of gray and black waters).
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+These include various kinds of oxidation (wet air oxidizing, catalytic oxidation in autoclaves, oxidation by chlorine dioxide, peroxide compounds, and other oxidizing agents of intensive action), chemical fixation, high temperature treatment (including burning), and physical methods including treatment by various types of electromagnetic and electronic radiation.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11175]
+{org:en}
+All these methods are briefly described here, and more detailed information is provided in the articles on to the particular problems of water purification and water treatment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300310433:1L, 105091527:1U.@topic)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11176]
+{org:en}
+Physical-Chemical Methods of Wastewater Purification
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105660268:0K.@entry.@pl, 100252894:16)
+mod(105660268:0K.@entry.@pl, 100252894:16)
+mod(100252894:16, 115669276:0V)
+aoj(303161516:0B, 105660268:0K.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11177]
+{org:en}
+The physical-chemical methods are, in the majority of cases, relatively expensive.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300933154:22.@entry, 105660268:0O.@topic.@def.@pl)
+man(300933154:22, 400160834:1R)
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+aoj(303161516:06, 105660268:0O.@topic.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11178]
+{org:en}
+This is why these methods are applied only for purification of water which is heavily polluted by such substances as oil products, pigments, and dyes, various organic substances including detergents, salts of heavy metals, constituents of mineral fertilizers, radioisotopes, and so on.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11179]
+{org:en}
+Since these contaminants can reside in wastewater in the form of suspended matter, colloidal, or true molecular solutions, it is only possible to remove them by using rather sophisticated technologies based on modern achievements in the various fields of knowledge.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11180]
+{org:en}
+Electro-coagulation, galvano-coagulation, chemosorption ultra-filtration, reverse osmosis, and electro-dialysis, in combination with various technologies of filtration and drying, are employed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:02(115669266:0V.@topic, 303161835:0N)
+aoj:02(300203917:2E, 113528100:2M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11181]
+{org:en}
+The phase and chemical composition of the wastewater from power stations determine which stages of filtration, electro-coagulation, galvano-coagulation, flotation, drying, and electro-dialysis need to be used for purification, and the complexity of the technological layout required.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11182]
+{org:en}
+It is possible to apply a technological layout including the stages of adsorption, reverse osmosis, reagent treatment, and filtration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000007:1D, 100306900:1R.@def.@pl)
+and:01(113528100:2O, 113427789:21)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11183]
+{org:en}
+Appropriate organization of the water recycling system makes it possible to prevent environmental pollution by toxic wastes and heavy metals.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200012267:1L.@entry, 101008378:0E.@topic)
+mod(104377057:1E.@def, 107935504:0Y)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11184]
+{org:en}
+Figure 5 shows an example of the complex technological layout needed to purify the wastewater from galvanic production, including purification of the low concentration flushing water and of concentrated acid and alkaline wastewater from galvanic baths.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11185]
+{org:en}
+This layout provides separate treatment (purification, desalination) for the flows of low concentration (flushing) water and high concentration wastewater (calculated technological solutions, stationary recovery baths, etc.).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:03(115669276:4C.@entry, 300705498:3T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11186]
+{org:en}
+Figure 5. An example of the complex layout for purifying wastewater from galvanic production.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200475183:1D.@progress, 115669276:1N)
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+aoj(303161411:23, 100522736:2C)
+src(200475183:1D.@progress, 100522736:2C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11187]
+{org:en}
+collecting tanks
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104388743:0D.@entry, 115668891:02)
+mod(104388743:0D.@entry, 115668891:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11188]
+{org:en}
+pumps
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+104021798:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+104021798:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11189]
+{org:en}
+units of electrochemical purification
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105869857:02.@entry.@pl, 100252894:0R)
+aoj(302717784:0B, 100252894:0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11190]
+{org:en}
+electrodialysis units
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105869857:0I.@entry.@pl, 115690375:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11191]
+{org:en}
+metering tank
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200490586:02.@entry.@progress, 104388743:0B)
+obj(200490586:02.@entry.@progress, 104388743:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11192]
+{org:en}
+galvano-coagulation unit
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105869857:0M.@entry, 115669266:0A)
+mod(105869857:0M.@entry, 115669266:0A)
+mod(115669266:0A, 303161835:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11193]
+{org:en}
+neutralization reactor
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104057846:0H.@entry, 100233386:02)
+mod(104057846:0H.@entry, 100233386:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11194]
+{org:en}
+vacuum filter
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103339643:09.@entry, 108653474:02)
+mod(103339643:09.@entry, 108653474:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11195]
+{org:en}
+evaporation unit
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105869857:0E.@entry, 113572436:02)
+mod(105869857:0E.@entry, 113572436:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11196]
+{org:en}
+condenser.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+103087366:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+103087366:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11197]
+{org:en}
+Flushing HTM1 water containing salts of ammonium, heavy and alkaline metals, surfactants, and other organic substances is fed into the electrochemical purification unit (3), where the following processes are carried out
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200189511:3G.@entry, 107935504:0G.@topic)
+obj(202701210:0M.@progress, 105717342:0X.@pl)
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+aoj:02(:01, 114625458:1Z.@pl)
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+obj(202774207:5S, 100029677:5G.@def.@topic)
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+aoj(302717784:3T, 105869857:4M.@def)
+aoj:02(301093142:2U, 100019613:32.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(303161989:02, 107935504:0G.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11198]
+{org:en}
+electrochemical oxidation of dissolved organic substances
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(113530408:0I.@entry, 100019613:1D.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:15, 100019613:1D.@pl)
+obj(113530408:0I.@entry, 100019613:1D.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:15, 100019613:1D.@pl)
+aoj(301506258:0V, 100019613:1D.@pl)
+aoj(302717784:02, 113530408:0I.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11199]
+{org:en}
+coagulation of suspended matter by iron hydroxides
+{/org}
+{unl}
+ins(115669266:02.@entry, 114914670:16.@pl)
+mod(114914670:16.@pl, 303164216:11)
+ins(115669266:02.@entry, 114914670:16.@pl)
+mod(114914670:16.@pl, 303164216:11)
+aoj(302351692:0H, 100020827:0R)
+obj(115669266:02.@entry, 100020827:0R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11200]
+{org:en}
+flotation of suspended matter
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(101100147:02.@entry, 100020827:0P)
+obj(101100147:02.@entry, 100020827:0P)
+aoj(302351692:0F, 100020827:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11201]
+{org:en}
+clarifying, settling, and filtration of water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(:01.@entry, 107935504:16)
+obj(:01.@entry, 107935504:16)
+and:01(107362218:0E, 200505151:02.@progress)
+and:01(100191980:0S.@entry, 107362218:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11202]
+{org:en}
+adsorption of the pollutants dissolved in the water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(113427789:02.@entry, 114857278:0K.@def.@pl)
+obj(113427789:02.@entry, 114857278:0K.@def.@pl)
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+aoj(301506258:0V, 114857278:0K.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11203]
+{org:en}
+Precipitates formed in an electrochemical unit are transported in the sediment-colle ting tank (16) and saline water is fed to the electro-dialysis unit (6).
+{/org}
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+mod(105869857:46.@def, "6":4C.@parenthesis)
+obj(201384439:29.@progress, 104388743:2K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11204]
+{org:en}
+Desalinated water with a total salt concentration of not more than 0.5 HTM1 enters the collecting tank for desalinated water (7), and is returned for recycling.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(600000019:0K, 107935504:0E.@topic)
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+mod(100375071:12.@indef, HTM1:21)
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+obj(600000019:0K, 100375071:12.@indef)
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+obj(600000019:0K, 100375071:12.@indef)
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+obj(200531904:02.@past, 107935504:0E.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11205]
+{org:en}
+The concentrated salts after electro-dialysis installation are fed to the mechanical dehydration of sludge in the vacuum filter (18).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200189511:1T.@entry, 105717342:0J.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(100240938:1C, 115690375:0V)
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+aoj(301499686:24, 113460568:2F.@def)
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+plc(114591804:2U, 103339643:3F.@def)
+obj(600000112:0P, 100240938:1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11206]
+{org:en}
+Concentrated acidic wastewater is treated in galvano-coagulation appliances (14) and acidic concentrated wastes are fed into the reactor of interlinked neutralization (15), where the acidic wastewater is mixed with alkaline wastes until the resulting mixture achieve a pH value between 7.5 and 8.5.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200189511:3A.@entry, 200078760:10)
+obj(200340704:6R.@progress, 100380083:71.@def)
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+gol(200184117:5Q, 115689751:6A.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11207]
+{org:en}
+Where there is a shortage of concentrated alkaline wastewater, the mixture is additionally alkalized by the solution of calcined soda from the metering tank (10).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(202603699:0E, 115689467:0J.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11208]
+{org:en}
+After sedimentation, sludge is dehydrated in the vacuum filter (18), and sediment is transported to the store facilities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201449974:2F.@entry, 200211396:0X)
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+obj(600000002:02, 111445395:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11209]
+{org:en}
+The filtrate as well as the clarified water above the sediment is treated in the electrochemical assemblage (23) of the line of concentrated wastewater.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(600000072:1A, 107935504:14.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11210]
+{org:en}
+The water purified from heavy metal ions and organic compounds is directed for desalination on the electro-dialysis installation (24).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+src(200475183:0C, :01:01)
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+and:01(103081859:1Q.@entry.@pl, 109315159:15.@pl)
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+mod(100240938:3H.@def, "24":3V.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11211]
+{org:en}
+Desalinated water is recycled.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201162425:0N.@entry, 107935504:0E.@topic)
+obj(201162425:0N.@entry, 107935504:0E.@topic)
+obj(200531904:02.@past, 107935504:0E.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11212]
+{org:en}
+The concentrate of mineral salts from electro-dialysis installation is evaporated
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200366858:21.@entry, 105937878:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(105717342:0T.@pl, 114662574:0L)
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+mod(100240938:1L, 115690375:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11213]
+{org:en}
+The distillates are combined and return to recycling, but the solid residue of mineral salts is directed to places of underground concealment or to reprocessing.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:11214]
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+The described layout provides for the complex processing of all potential wastes from galvanic production, with practically completely closed water recycling and the formation of a minimum amount of solid residues.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11215]
+{org:en}
+The Biological Purification of Wastewater
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:11216]
+{org:en}
+The biological treatment of wastewater is based on the capability of some micro-organism populations to consume and utilize many organic and mineral pollutants of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:11217]
+{org:en}
+Organic components that can be present in water in the dissolved state, in the form of separate liquid phase (emulsion), or in the composition of the solid particles, are removed by micro-organisms from the water to be purified by three alternative mechanisms
+{/org}
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+aerobic conversion, forming carbon dioxide and water
+{/org}
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+[S:11219]
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+anaerobic destruction, forming carbon dioxide and ethane
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:11220]
+{org:en}
+biological transformation, forming non-toxic or less toxic products.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:11221]
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+The processes of biological treatment do not disintegrate toxic inorganic compounds and cannot purify water.
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+[S:11222]
+{org:en}
+However micro-organisms also discard some inorganic components.
+{/org}
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+[S:11223]
+{org:en}
+First of all, compounds containing nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, calcium, and magnesium are consumed.
+{/org}
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+These are biologically active nutrient macro-components, being the substances that make possible the growth and vital activity of cells.
+{/org}
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+[S:11225]
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+To a lesser extent, elements that are nutrient micro-components, including iron, boron, copper, manganese, zinc, and molybdenum, are consumed.
+{/org}
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+Trace quantities of inorganic compounds can be removed from water in the course of biological treatment as a result of adsorption of the metal ions on the surface of the microbial cells.
+{/org}
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+This phenomenon is connected with the fact that, conventionally, the small negative electric charge is concentrated on the surface of the cells.
+{/org}
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+Therefore the cellular shells are capable of sorption of the metal ions through the ion-exchange mechanism.
+{/org}
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+The anionic particles, such as chlorides and sulfates, do not undergo the action of biological purification.
+{/org}
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+The technology of biological treatment is widely used in all countries for purification of municipal and industrial wastewater.
+{/org}
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+The employment of this method for purification of polluted natural water, and in particular, of groundwater, is at present the object of active scientific research.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11232]
+{org:en}
+The most important parameters of water quantity used for estimation of the total concentration of polluting organic substances and for selection of the particular layout of biological purification are biological oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD).
+{/org}
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+mod(100375071:2A.@def, 303160907:24)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11233]
+{org:en}
+The differences in the values of BOD and COD of water input into the purification assembly and at its outlet are used for evaluation of the effectiveness of the biological purification process.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201158572:3A.@entry, 201422539:1K)
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+obj(201422539:1K, 104748836:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11234]
+{org:en}
+The COD value characterizes the concentration of substances capable of being oxidized
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(300308015:1Q, 200238867:27.@progress.@passive)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11235]
+{org:en}
+these are predominantly contaminants of organic nature.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(114821984:0Q.@entry.@pl, 600000022:02.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:16, 104623113:1E)
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+mod(114821984:0Q.@entry.@pl, 104623113:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11236]
+{org:en}
+The value of BOD shows the amount of oxygen that is required by micro-organisms in the process of consumption (and removal from water) of organic components.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301093142:3V, 103081021:43.@pl)
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+and:02(:01.@entry.@parenthesis, 100356367:2R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11237]
+{org:en}
+The complete biodegradation of organic matter requires rather a long time.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300520214:06, 115668940:0F.@topic.@def)
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+obj(202774169:1C.@entry, 100028270:1Y.@indef)
+mod(115668940:0F.@topic.@def, 115691310:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11238]
+{org:en}
+That is why shorter time intervals are usually chosen for the standard regulating documents, which are used for obtaining results that can be compared with each other.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11239]
+{org:en}
+For example, in ASTM standards this time is five days at 20 °C.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11240]
+{org:en}
+At the same time, the tests of COD that are carried out with the use of chemical oxidizers, in particular, of potassium bichromate in acidic medium, require not more than three hours for complete equilibrium.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(202774207:1H, 600000018:1T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11241]
+{org:en}
+The micro-organism populations for the process of biological treatment may be natural, or artificial, specially grown for removal from water of certain toxic organic compounds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11242]
+{org:en}
+These can be both procaryotic and eucaryotic micro-organisms.
+{/org}
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+and:01(303162315:0K, 600000323:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11243]
+{org:en}
+Eucaryotic biological organisms including the simplest unicellular animal organisms (protozoa), single cell fungi, and also most algae possess a highly organized cell structure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(115668556:3N.@entry, 112992868:32.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11244]
+{org:en}
+Procaryotic organisms, which include bacteria and HTM1 Cyanophyceae HTM2 blue-green algae, possess a more primitive cellular structure devoid of cellular nuclei.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(303162315:02, 100004475:0E.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11245]
+{org:en}
+The most important for biological water purification among all populations of micro-organisms are the bacteria, including HTM1 heterotrophs HTM2 (aerobic), HTM3 fastidious HTM4 (anaerobic), photosynthetic bacteria, and Actinomycetes.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11246]
+{org:en}
+Microbe populations in the biological system of the operating bath follow four entirely definite phases, following the addition of water polluted with organic compounds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:11247]
+{org:en}
+Figure 6 illustrates these phases of evolution.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+For some time after the first contact, the rate of reproduction of micro-organisms stays very low, and the overall quantity of bacteria in the system changes insignificantly.
+{/org}
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+[S:11249]
+{org:en}
+During this first phase, the adaptation (acclimation) of micro-organisms proceeds, and the production of enzymes necessary for destruction and consumption of the particular organic substances is initiated.
+{/org}
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+[S:11251]
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+In the third stage, the growth of the micro-organism population slows, because of the limiting availability of the nutrient substrate, and some bacteria die.
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+[S:11252]
+{org:en}
+The fourth phase shows a sharp depletion in the number of micro-organisms.
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+[S:11253]
+{org:en}
+In this stage, the dead bacteria serve as a feeding substrate for bionts.
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+[S:11254]
+{org:en}
+The natural metabolism of unicellular micro-organisms, in particular, of bacteria, is such that in conditions of decreasing concentration of available nutrient substrate, the cells become more impermeable, because they are covered by a protective layer composed of polysaccharide slime (silt), which they produce themselves.
+{/org}
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+[S:11255]
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+In this stage, the agglomeration and precipitation of the silt proceeds as a consequence of collisions of bacteria with each other, due to stirring or Brownian movement.
+{/org}
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+[S:11256]
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+This, in brief, is the biochemical and physical-chemical mechanism of the biological purification process.
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+[S:11257]
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+Figure 6.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
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+The growth and death of micro-organisms interacting with organic nutrient substances in a limited volume of wastewater.
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+The vital activity of micro-organisms and, consequently, the effectiveness of the processes of biological purification, depend essentially on external conditions, primarily on the temperature and composition of the water to be treated.
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+The temperature interval of optimum growth and vital activity for the majority of the mesophilic micro-organisms involved is limited, ranging from 20 to 45 °C.
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+The optimum temperature for thermophilic bacteria may be higher than 45 °C.
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+Most micro-organisms function actively in the middle range of pH values, from 5 to 10.
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+A high concentration of toxic inorganic substances, such as cyanides, heavy metals, or arsenic, results in the death of micro-organisms and deterioration of the efficiency of the biological purification of wastewater.
+{/org}
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+A classification connected with the mechanism and conditions of growth of active biomass is often used in the description of the technique and technology of biological purification of wastewater.
+{/org}
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+
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+There are two types of systems for biological treatment, differing in the conditions used for supporting the biomass.
+{/org}
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+Systems in which there is a free suspension of micro-organisms are referred to as "suspended growth treatment systems."
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:11267]
+{org:en}
+Systems in which the micro-organisms are bonded (immobilized) on a solid base, or where solid carrier organisms are utilized, are referred to as "supported growth treatment systems."
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:11268]
+{org:en}
+Processing of Wastewater Sludge
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11269]
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+The formation of sludge (slimes) of various origins, and with different fractions and chemical compositions, takes place in the majority of modern water purification systems.
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+Sludge of some types does not require additional purifying (or else the purification process is simple).
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+Such sludge can be efficiently utilized in road construction, ceramic production, and various other applications.
+{/org}
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+In other cases, the sludge processing is an independent and, as a rule, rather complex technological operation.
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+
+[S:11273]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the silts separated in the process of purification of household, surface, or industrial wastes are made more compact by treatment with biochemical active reagents.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:11274]
+{org:en}
+The solid substance separated by conventional methods in this process can be utilized as organic fertilizer, and the isolated water can be used for technoological and irrigation needs after additional purification in settlement reservoirs.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+There are two ways in which the slimes of galvanic production plants are processed.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11276]
+{org:en}
+When separate isolation of the compounds of heavy metals is carried out, the separated materials are returned to the stage of preparing electrolytes for galvanizing baths.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11277]
+{org:en}
+When the slimes of the mixed type are separated, they can be utilized in the manufacturing of construction and ceramic materials, after intermediate processing (see, HTM1 Section 5.1 of this article HTM2 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
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+The wastes from cattle and bird breeding farms (manure, guano) can be transformed into high quality disinfected organic fertilizers by the technologies of aerobic or anaerobic digestion.
+{/org}
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+aoj(301819152:16.@double_quote.@past, 114588219:1J.@def.@pl)
+obj(100037396:38, 115690313:3M.@def.@pl)
+to(114588219:1J.@def.@pl, 107990956:25.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000056:2T, 100037396:38)
+cnt(101014490:06.@entry.@def, 103289462:0L.@parenthesis)
+man(202774213:2N, 600000056:2T)
+man(202774213:2N, 600000056:2T)
+obj(202774213:2N, 101014490:06.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11299]
+{org:en}
+special organic substances in the class of linear polymers or special inorganic compounds capable of polymerization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(100019613:0I.@entry.@pl, 100884466:10.@def)
+or:01(103081859:2A.@entry.@pl, 114994328:1G.@pl)
+mod(100884466:10.@def, :01)
+plc(100019613:0I.@entry.@pl, 100884466:10.@def)
+or:01(103081859:2A.@entry.@pl, 114994328:1G.@pl)
+mod(100884466:10.@def, :01)
+aoj:01(300658259:19, 114994328:1G.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:0A, 100019613:0I.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(301679244:20, 103081859:2A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301678729:02, 100019613:0I.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(301678729:1S, 103081859:2A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(301678729:1S, 103081859:2A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300306314:2K, :01)
+obj(300306314:2K, 113538757:2V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11300]
+{org:en}
+Flotation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+101100147:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+101100147:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11301]
+{org:en}
+Clarification of waters based on the continuous introduction into the suspension to be separated of air bubbles, which connect with particles and ascend with them to the surface of liquid.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(107171206:05.@entry, 115689188:0M)
+gol:01(201969216:4B.@entry, 104362025:4Z.@def)
+obj(201458973:2O, 100209132:27.@def)
+gol(100238022:1L.@def, 100209132:27.@def)
+mod:01(104362025:4Z.@def, 107119643:5A)
+obj(107171206:05.@entry, 115689188:0M)
+gol:01(201969216:4B.@entry, 104362025:4Z.@def)
+obj(201458973:2O, 100209132:27.@def)
+gol(100238022:1L.@def, 100209132:27.@def)
+mod:01(104362025:4Z.@def, 107119643:5A)
+mod(102909053:35.@pl, 104727214:31)
+obj(302351064:0X, 100238022:1L.@def)
+obj:01(600000018:4I, 600000020:4N)
+obj(:01, 102909053:35.@pl)
+aoj(302351064:0X, 115689188:0M)
+man:01(201969216:4B.@entry, 600000018:4I)
+src(201458973:2O, 102909053:35.@pl)
+man:01(201969216:4B.@entry, 600000018:4I)
+src(201458973:2O, 102909053:35.@pl)
+aoj(300594413:1A, 100238022:1L.@def)
+gol:01(201069190:3K, 106326406:3X.@pl)
+and:01(201969216:4B.@entry, 201069190:3K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11302]
+{org:en}
+Hardness removal (softening)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100216723:0B.@entry, 104710588:02)
+obj(100216723:0B.@entry, 104710588:02)
+cnt(100216723:0B.@entry, 113557766:0K.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11303]
+{org:en}
+The processes of elimination from water of cations of hardness
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100029677:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 100223720:0J)
+mod(109238294:19.@pl, 104710588:1K)
+mod(100029677:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 100223720:0J)
+mod(109238294:19.@pl, 104710588:1K)
+obj(100223720:0J, 109238294:19.@pl)
+src(100223720:0J, 107935504:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11304]
+{org:en}
+calcium and magnesium ions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(109315159:0O.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod(109315159:0O.@entry.@pl, :01)
+and:01(114644249:0E.@entry, 114632648:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11305]
+{org:en}
+Polluting components
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200492706:02.@entry.@progress, 103081021:0C.@pl)
+agt(200492706:02.@entry.@progress, 103081021:0C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11306]
+{org:en}
+Heterophase and dissolved impurities of chemical and biological character, which deteriorate the quality of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(114487184:0S.@entry.@pl, 104616916:1U.@pl)
+and:02(301405904:1J.@entry, 302692624:16)
+agt(200208497:2B, 104616916:1U.@pl)
+mod(114487184:0S.@entry.@pl, 104616916:1U.@pl)
+and:02(301405904:1J.@entry, 302692624:16)
+agt(200208497:2B, 104616916:1U.@pl)
+and:01(301506258:0I.@entry, 303161840:02)
+mod(104723816:2R.@def, 107935504:32)
+aoj(:01, 114487184:0S.@entry.@pl)
+obj(200208497:2B, 104723816:2R.@def)
+obj(200208497:2B, 104723816:2R.@def)
+aoj(:02, 104616916:1U.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11307]
+{org:en}
+The upper limits of concentration of these components are regulated by water standards.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200299341:1N.@entry, 105124057:0B.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(100375071:0L, 103081021:18)
+mod(105124057:0B.@topic.@def.@pl, 100375071:0L)
+obj(200299341:1N.@entry, 105124057:0B.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(100375071:0L, 103081021:18)
+mod(105124057:0B.@topic.@def.@pl, 100375071:0L)
+mod(104301140:26.@pl, 107935504:20)
+agt(200299341:1N.@entry, 104301140:26.@pl)
+mod(103081021:18, 600000017:12)
+mod(103081021:18, 600000017:12)
+mod(105124057:0B.@topic.@def.@pl, 301206318:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11308]
+{org:en}
+Sedimentation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+111445395:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+111445395:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11309]
+{org:en}
+Clarification of waters by settling the mechanical impurities under gravity force.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(107171206:02.@entry, 107935504:0J.@pl)
+aoj(301499686:16, 114487184:1H.@def.@pl)
+obj(200413876:0T.@progress, 114487184:1H.@def.@pl)
+mod(107171206:02.@entry, 107935504:0J.@pl)
+aoj(301499686:16, 114487184:1H.@def.@pl)
+obj(200413876:0T.@progress, 114487184:1H.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000035:40, 200413876:0T.@progress)
+mod(105035353:26, 107512147:1Y)
+aoj(600000035:40, 107935504:0J.@pl)
+obj(600000009:1S, 105035353:26)
+obj(600000009:1S, 105035353:26)
+mod(114487184:1H.@def.@pl, 600000009:1S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11310]
+{org:en}
+This process can be enhanced by means of the centrifugal forces used in cyclone separators and centrifuges.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200229605:0M.@entry.@ability, 100029677:07.@topic)
+obj(201158572:1U, :01)
+agt(201158572:1U, 105035353:1N.@def.@pl)
+obj(200229605:0M.@entry.@ability, 100029677:07.@topic)
+obj(201158572:1U, :01)
+agt(201158572:1U, 105035353:1N.@def.@pl)
+mod(100029677:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+obj(600000172:0V, 105035353:1N.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(115393294:2A.@pl, 111443721:22)
+man(200229605:0M.@entry.@ability, 600000172:0V)
+and:01(102995998:2P.@entry.@pl, 115393294:2A.@pl)
+and:01(102995998:2P.@entry.@pl, 115393294:2A.@pl)
+aoj(300332375:1B, 105035353:1N.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11311]
+{org:en}
+Water standards
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104301140:08.@entry.@pl, 107935504:02)
+mod(104301140:08.@entry.@pl, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11312]
+{org:en}
+The requirements for the quality of water developed by various organs for standardization including national organizations, regional international organizations, and worldwide by the World Health Organization (WHO).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(115669633:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 104723816:0R.@def)
+pur:02(103854065:1W.@pl, 101158690:27)
+agt:02(:60.@entry, 108302724:5X.@def)
+aoj:01(301568375:4B, 101008378:4P.@pl.@entry)
+and:02(:60.@entry, 200234057:18)
+mod:01(101008378:3G.@pl.@entry, 301105840:37)
+obj(115669633:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 104723816:0R.@def)
+pur:02(103854065:1W.@pl, 101158690:27)
+agt:02(:60.@entry, 108302724:5X.@def)
+aoj:01(301568375:4B, 101008378:4P.@pl.@entry)
+and:02(:60.@entry, 200234057:18)
+mod:01(101008378:3G.@pl.@entry, 301105840:37)
+aoj:02(600000007:2R, 103854065:1W.@pl)
+obj(:02, 107935504:12)
+and:01(101008378:4P.@pl.@entry, 101008378:3G.@pl)
+agt:02(200234057:18, 103854065:1W.@pl)
+mod(104723816:0R.@def, 107935504:12)
+obj:02(600000007:2R, :01)
+equ(115669126:6O.@parenthesis, 108302724:5X.@def)
+obj:02(600000007:2R, :01)
+equ(115669126:6O.@parenthesis, 108302724:5X.@def)
+man:02(:60.@entry, 400535386:5G)
+mod:01(101008378:4P.@pl.@entry, 302408977:42)
+aoj:02(303160904:1L, 103854065:1W.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11313]
+{org:en}
+These standards regulate the physical, chemical and biological composition of waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200299341:0I.@entry, 104301140:08.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(302692624:15, 300627004:0V)
+aoj(:01, 103081660:1T.@def)
+agt(200299341:0I.@entry, 104301140:08.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(302692624:15, 300627004:0V)
+aoj(:01, 103081660:1T.@def)
+mod(103081660:1T.@def, 107935504:28.@pl)
+obj(200299341:0I.@entry, 103081660:1T.@def)
+mod(104301140:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+mod(104301140:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+and:01(301405904:1I.@entry, 302692624:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11314]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11315]
+{org:en}
+American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(107966140:0B.@entry, 103729951:0V.@pl)
+mod(103729951:0V.@pl, 100639975:0N)
+pur(107966140:0B.@entry, 103729951:0V.@pl)
+mod(103729951:0V.@pl, 100639975:0N)
+equ(500323581:16.@parenthesis, 103729951:0V.@pl)
+aoj(302927303:02, 107966140:0B.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11316]
+{org:en}
+ASTM International Directory of Testing Laboratories.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106423619:0L.@entry, 103629986:16.@pl)
+mod(103629986:16.@pl, 100639975:0Y)
+mod(106423619:0L.@entry, 103629986:16.@pl)
+mod(103629986:16.@pl, 100639975:0Y)
+aoj(301568375:07, 106423619:0L.@entry)
+mod(106423619:0L.@entry, 500323581:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11317]
+{org:en}
+Philadelphia HTM1 , ASTM.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(500004938:02.@entry, 500323581:0M)
+mod(500004938:02.@entry, 500323581:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11318]
+{org:en}
+354 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(115669681:06.@entry, "354":02)
+qua(115669681:06.@entry, "354":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11319]
+{org:en}
+Handbook on material testing in the HTM1 USA HTM2 and NAFTA countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000036:04, 106421301:02.@entry)
+mod:01(108168978:1T.@entry.@pl, 115692261:1N)
+mod(100639975:0N, 103729951:0E)
+aoj(600000036:04, 106421301:02.@entry)
+mod:01(108168978:1T.@entry.@pl, 115692261:1N)
+mod(100639975:0N, 103729951:0E)
+plc(100639975:0N, :01:01)
+obj(600000036:04, 100639975:0N)
+and:01(108168978:1T.@entry.@pl, 500323518:17.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11320]
+{org:en}
+Standards for water controlling, analytical instruments, and other laboratory equipment are presented.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200772967:37.@entry, 104301140:02.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(100173761:1K.@pl, 107935504:0J)
+mod:01(103294048:2P.@entry, 600000031:28)
+obj(200772967:37.@entry, 104301140:02.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(100173761:1K.@pl, 107935504:0J)
+mod:01(103294048:2P.@entry, 600000031:28)
+and:01(103294048:2P.@entry, 100173761:1K.@pl)
+agt:01(200663160:0P.@progress, 107935504:0J)
+pur(104301140:02.@topic.@pl, :01:01)
+aoj:01(303161396:19, 100173761:1K.@pl)
+aoj:01(303161396:19, 100173761:1K.@pl)
+mod:01(103294048:2P.@entry, 103629986:2E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11321]
+{org:en}
+Degremont Handbuch, Wasseraufbereitung Abwasserreinigung
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106421301:0C.@entry, 115694395:15)
+mod(106421301:0C.@entry, 115694395:15)
+mod(115694395:15, 115696310:0M)
+mod(106421301:0C.@entry, 500323798:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11322]
+{org:en}
+in German
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000051:0G.@entry, 109747722:05)
+obj(600000051:0G.@entry, 109747722:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11323]
+{org:en}
+Wiesbaden HTM1 Berlin, BAUVERL.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(102831335:0H.@entry, 500323998:0P)
+mod(102831335:0H.@entry, 500323998:0P)
+mod(102831335:0H.@entry, 500003293:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11324]
+{org:en}
+1090 pp.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(115669681:07.@entry, "1090":02)
+qua(115669681:07.@entry, "1090":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11325]
+{org:en}
+One of the best-known fundamental handbooks in the field of water and water treatment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pof(600000027:02.@entry, 106421301:10.@def.@pl)
+mod(101097119:1H.@def, :01)
+mod(106421301:10.@def.@pl, 301375174:0I)
+pof(600000027:02.@entry, 106421301:10.@def.@pl)
+mod(101097119:1H.@def, :01)
+mod(106421301:10.@def.@pl, 301375174:0I)
+man(301375174:0I, 300227507:0D)
+and:01(100658082:26.@entry, 107935504:1Q)
+plc(106421301:10.@def.@pl, 101097119:1H.@def)
+obj:01(100658082:26.@entry, 107935504:20)
+obj:01(100658082:26.@entry, 107935504:20)
+aoj(301856419:0O, 106421301:10.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11326]
+{org:en}
+The scientific, technological and engineering aspects of water preparation are presented.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200772967:2G.@entry, 104733118:1J.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(101143040:20, 107935504:1U)
+and:01(106125041:13.@entry, 302084979:0L)
+obj(200772967:2G.@entry, 104733118:1J.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(101143040:20, 107935504:1U)
+and:01(106125041:13.@entry, 302084979:0L)
+mod(104733118:1J.@topic.@def.@pl, :01.@entry)
+mod(104733118:1J.@topic.@def.@pl, 101143040:20)
+and:01(302084979:0L, 302084804:09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11327]
+{org:en}
+EEC. 1980.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(500323811:02.@entry, "1980":07)
+tim(500323811:02.@entry, "1980":07)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11328]
+{org:en}
+Drinking Water Directive 80/778/EEC No. L229/11 (August 29, 30).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(107170080:0H.@entry, :02:02.@parenthesis)
+mod(500323861:16, 107205104:12)
+mod(107935504:0B, 100843128:02)
+tim(107170080:0H.@entry, :02:02.@parenthesis)
+mod(500323861:16, 107205104:12)
+mod(107935504:0B, 100843128:02)
+obj(107170080:0H.@entry, 107935504:0B)
+and:01("29":1M.@entry, "30":1Q)
+mod(107170080:0H.@entry, "80/778/EEC":0R)
+tim:02(:01.@entry, 115212455:1F)
+tim:02(:01.@entry, 115212455:1F)
+mod("80/778/EEC":0R, 500323861:16)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11329]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 Brussels HTM2 , EEC.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(500324010:07.@entry, 500323811:0N)
+plc(500324010:07.@entry, 500323811:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11330]
+{org:en}
+The EC directive on drinking water quality, setting standards accepted by the European Community in 1980.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200298556:1A.@progress, 107170080:09.@entry.@def)
+mod(104723816:11, 107935504:0V)
+aoj(302968325:28, 107941729:2H.@def)
+agt(200668805:1S, 107941729:2H.@def)
+agt(200298556:1A.@progress, 107170080:09.@entry.@def)
+mod(104723816:11, 107935504:0V)
+aoj(302968325:28, 107941729:2H.@def)
+agt(200668805:1S, 107941729:2H.@def)
+mod(107170080:09.@entry.@def, 500323528:06)
+obj(200668805:1S, 104301140:1I.@pl)
+obj(600000036:0A, 104723816:11)
+obj(200298556:1A.@progress, 104301140:1I.@pl)
+aoj(600000036:0A, 107170080:09.@entry.@def)
+aoj(600000036:0A, 107170080:09.@entry.@def)
+tim(107941729:2H.@def, "1980":2U)
+mod(104723816:11, 100843128:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11331]
+{org:en}
+The main water pollutants for priority control in HTM1 Europe HTM2 are presented.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+EUROLAB.
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+EUROLAB Directory and Handbook
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+Testing in HTM1 Europe HTM2 Berlin, Beuth Verlag.
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+{org:en}
+Fomin, G. S.
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+[W]
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+[S:11338]
+{org:en}
+Encyclopedic Handbook
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+aoj(300527744:02, 106421301:0F.@entry)
+aoj(300527744:02, 106421301:0F.@entry)
+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+Water.
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+Inspection of Chemical, Bacteriological and Radiation Safety According to International Standards
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+in Russian
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+{org:en}
+HTM1 Moscow HTM2 , Protector.
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+plc(115669784:0L.@entry, 500004288:07)
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+[S:11343]
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+[S:11344]
+{org:en}
+Encyclopedic monograph on inspection of chemical, bacteriological, and radiation safety of water according to international standards for water quality.
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+pur(104301140:3I.@pl, 104723816:42)
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+Helferich, F. G.
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+[S:11346]
+{org:en}
+Ion Exchange
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+[S:11347]
+{org:en}
+Past, Present, and Future
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+
+[S:11348]
+{org:en}
+NATO ASI, Ser. E, 107, p. 23.
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+[S:11349]
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+Hernon, B. P.
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+[S:11351]
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+[W]
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+[S:11352]
+{org:en}
+Zhang, L.
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+[W]
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+[S:11353]
+{org:en}
+Sims, K. J.
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+[W]
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+[S:11354]
+{org:en}
+Siwak, L. R.
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+[W]
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+[S:11355]
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+Electrodeionization in Power Plant Applications, HTM1 Ultrapure Water HTM2
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+[S:11356]
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+No. 7/8, p. 33.
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+
+[S:11357]
+{org:en}
+A new method
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+aoj(300024996:04, 105660268:08.@entry.@indef)
+aoj(300024996:04, 105660268:08.@entry.@indef)
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+[S:11358]
+{org:en}
+electrodeionization for deep desalination and purification of water is described in the article.
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+[S:11359]
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+Jackman, A. P.
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+[S:11360]
+{org:en}
+Powell, R. L.
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+[W]
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+[S:11361]
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+Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies.
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+Biological Treatment, Wet Air Oxidation, Chemical Fixation, Chemical Oxidation.
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+{org:en}
+New Jersey HTM1 , and HTM2 Park Ridge HTM3 , Noyes Publications (NP).
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+[S:11364]
+{org:en}
+276 pp.
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+qua(115669681:06.@entry, "276":02)
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+Discusses the problems of reduction and regulation of hazardous wastes, including wastewaters.
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+[S:11366]
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+The scientific basis for modern waste treatment technologies is presented.
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+{org:en}
+Kardashina, L. F.
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+[W]
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+{org:en}
+Rosental, O. M.
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+[W]
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+[S:11369]
+{org:en}
+Chemistry, Technology and Certification of Drinking Water
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+[S:11370]
+{org:en}
+in Russian
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000051:0H.@entry, 109728403:05)
+obj(600000051:0H.@entry, 109728403:05)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:11371]
+{org:en}
+Ekaterinburg, URORAN.
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+plc(500324339:0G.@entry, 500324065:02)
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+[S:11372]
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+224 pp.
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+qua(115669681:06.@entry, "224":02)
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+The problems of chemistry, technology and certification of drinking water are considered by authors with long-standing experience in water preparation.
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+[S:11374]
+{org:en}
+Khamizov, R.
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+[W]
+500323146:02.@entry
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+[/S]
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+[S:11375]
+{org:en}
+Myasoedov, B.
+{/org}
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+[W]
+500323216:02.@entry
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+[W]
+500323216:02.@entry
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:11376]
+{org:en}
+Novitsky, E.
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+[W]
+500323265:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11377]
+{org:en}
+Vasilevsky, V. et al.
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+and(600001335:0H.@entry, 500323494:02)
+and(600001335:0H.@entry, 500323494:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11378]
+{org:en}
+Method for complex processing of sea-water.
+{/org}
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+[S:11379]
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+US Patent No. 5,814,224.
+{/org}
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+Kulsky L. A.
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+Technology of Natural Water Purification
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+Kiev HTM1 , Vischa Shkola.
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+Ion-Exchange Isothermal Supersaturation, HTM1 Solvent Extraction and Iron Exchange HTM2.
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+[S:11392]
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+Vol. 16, No. 1, p. 151.
+{/org}
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+The article describes new progressive ion exchange methods and processes, including the reagent-less "self-sustaining" softening-desalination cyclic processes.
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+[S:11396]
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+Ecknoff, T.
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+The Activated Sludge Process
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+HTM1 Ann Arbor HTM2 , HTM3 Michigan HTM4 , HTM5 Ann Arbor HTM6 Science.
+{/org}
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+Scientific and technological grounds for the biological treatment of wastewaters are described.
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+World Health Organization (WHO).
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+Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality HTM1 , Vol. 1.
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+HTM1 Geneva HTM2 , WHO.
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+Contains basic water quality standards recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1992.
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+
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+Biographical Sketches
+{/org}
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+[W]
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+Eduard G. Novitsky HTM1 was born in HTM2 N. Novgorod HTM3 , HTM4 Russia HTM5.
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+He was educated at the Moscow Institute of Fine Chemical Technology and obtained his Ph.D. in Chemistry from there in 1967.
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+His fields of work and study are investigations of processes, and design of equipment and installations for membrane and environment protection technologies.
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+Since 1978 he has been Chief of the Department of Membrane and Environmental Protection Technologies at the Russia Research and Design Institute of Chemical Engineering, and since 1991 the General Director of the "Pure Water", J. S. Company.
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+He has published forty-four articles and reports, and holds forty patents from HTM1 Russia HTM2 and others countries.
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+Ruslan Kh. Khamizov HTM1 was born in HTM2 Nalchik HTM3 , HTM4 Russia HTM5 , and educated in the Department of Physical Chemistry, HTM6 Moscow HTM7 State HTM8 University HTM9 , where he obtained his M.Sc. and Ph.D., and the Vernadsky Institute of the HTM10 Russian HTM11 Academy HTM12 of Sciences, HTM13 Moscow HTM14 , where he obtained his Dr. of Science (Chemistry).
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11413]
+{org:en}
+He has worked at the Vernadsky Institute (GEOKHI), HTM1 Moscow HTM2 , since 1983, as Research Fellow, Senior Researcher, and since 1998 as Leading Researcher.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11414]
+{org:en}
+His subjects are the physical chemistry of sorption and ion-exchange processes, theoretical and experimental study of thermodynamics and kinetics of ion exchange, modeling and computation of mass-transfer processes, and the chemical technology and application of ion-exchange processes for processing natural and industrial solutions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(104347225:06.@topic.@pl, 600000021:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11415]
+{org:en}
+He has published two chapters in monographs and sixty papers in national and international refereed journals, and holds twenty-five patents from HTM1 Russia HTM2 , HTM3 USA HTM4 , HTM5 Japan HTM6 , and other countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11416]
+{org:en}
+WATER AS A FACTOR IN SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000032:08, 107935504:02.@entry)
+aoj(303161054:0N, 100250259:12)
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+obj(600000032:08, 105858317:0D.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11417]
+{org:en}
+FUTURE TRENDS
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689677:09.@entry.@pl, 301294975:02)
+mod(115689677:09.@entry.@pl, 301294975:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11418]
+{org:en}
+WATER AS A FACTOR IN SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000032:08, 107935504:02.@entry)
+aoj(303161054:0N, 100250259:12)
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+scn(105858317:0D.@indef, 100250259:12)
+obj(600000032:08, 105858317:0D.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11419]
+{org:en}
+FUTURE TRENDS
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115689677:09.@entry.@pl, 301294975:02)
+mod(115689677:09.@entry.@pl, 301294975:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11420]
+{org:en}
+Carina van Rooyen
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323236:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323236:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11421]
+{org:en}
+Department of Anthropology and Development Studies, RAU, South Africa
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11422]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11423]
+{org:en}
+Water, development, human right, commodification, privatization, irrigation, food security, population growth, industrialization, poverty, inequality, power relations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100031921:4F.@entry.@pl, 104752221:3X)
+and(115668783:1G, 115690106:0Z)
+and(108438067:2X, 100823316:2C)
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+and(115690106:0Z, 100351000:0S)
+mod(100031921:4F.@entry.@pl, 105190804:49)
+and(115690106:0Z, 100351000:0S)
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+and(100695448:1V, 115668783:1G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11424]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11425]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11426]
+{org:en}
+Historical role of water in development
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100722061:0D.@entry, 107935504:0L)
+scn(107935504:0L, 100250259:0U)
+mod(100722061:0D.@entry, 301934284:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11427]
+{org:en}
+Current context
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106284898:0A.@entry, 300666058:02)
+mod(106284898:0A.@entry, 300666058:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11428]
+{org:en}
+Future challenges facing the role of water in development
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+scn(107935504:13, 100250259:1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11429]
+{org:en}
+What can be done?
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(201619014:0E.@entry.@interrogative.@ability, 600000048:02.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11430]
+{org:en}
+Conclusion
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11431]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11432]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11433]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11434]
+{org:en}
+Summary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11435]
+{org:en}
+Without water there can be no life and no development.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11436]
+{org:en}
+Although water is a necessary for sustainable development, by itself it is not sufficient to achieve development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11437]
+{org:en}
+This means that it is one factor in the process of socio-economic development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11438]
+{org:en}
+Broadly water fulfils an economic, social, cultural, political and ecological role in improving people's quality of life.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(202774185:2G.@progress, 104723816:2Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11439]
+{org:en}
+But millions of people do not even have access to clean drinking water and sanitation, never mind using water for development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man:02(200065370:11, 400017639:0W.@not)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11440]
+{org:en}
+An ever-increasing population, rapid urbanization and industrialization, the unsustainable type of development path followed and widespread poverties and growing inequalities, will only make this situation worse in the future.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11441]
+{org:en}
+Proposals on how to address these challenges and ensure access to water for all, has to do with viewing water as an economic commodity or enforcing it as a human right of all.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:11442]
+{org:en}
+But underlying all these challenges and views, are the reality of water being a source of power and wealth.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:11443]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11444]
+{org:en}
+With air and land, water is essential in any life support system.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11445]
+{org:en}
+All human life depends on water
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11446]
+{org:en}
+without water there can be no health, welfare or peace.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11447]
+{org:en}
+Water also plays a key role in sustaining livelihoods and ensuring social and economic development.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11448]
+{org:en}
+But blue gold, as some refer to water, is a finite and vulnerable resource.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11449]
+{org:en}
+Only three per cent of global water resources are fresh water, with the most of this water locked away in the polar ice caps of Antartica and Greenland, leaving as little as 0,3 per cent of fresh water in rivers, lakes and ground water available for human use.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11450]
+{org:en}
+Fresh water is also unevenly spread across the earth, leading to water shortages and scarcity in some areas.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11451]
+{org:en}
+Already 120 million people worldwide lack access to clean drinking water and nearly 300 million people do not have adequate sanitation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11452]
+{org:en}
+With global water consumption doubling every twenty years, water will become even more scare and vulnerable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua:02(115201505:1I.@pl.@entry, "20":1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11453]
+{org:en}
+;;Add to this the impact of water pollution, climate change, increased food production and industrialization, fresh water, which is needed for life and development, is under threat.To add to this the impact of water pollution, climate change, increased food production and industrialization, fresh water, which is needed for life and development, is under threat.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11454]
+{org:en}
+Water is therefore a growing issue in international development, with water scarcity being seen as a limiting factor in socio-economic development.
+{/org}
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+man(200662589:2L.@progress, 600000008:2Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11455]
+{org:en}
+A balance urgently needs to be found between water conservation and its use for socio-economic development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11456]
+{org:en}
+Sustainable development for all can only be reached if socio-economic development is based on the sustainable use of natural resources, especially water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+Water is a basic requirement for sustainable development and is essential in eradicating poverty.
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+It is obvious that water is central in fulfilling the most fundamental human need, thirst.
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+Furthermore, water is used in the production of food and for other domestic purposes.
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+It is also needed in the manufacturing process and it supports ecosystems that ensure life on earth.
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+The paper starts with these and other historical roles of water in development in Section Two.
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+But although water is necessary for socio-economic development, by itself it is not sufficient to bring about development.
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+The role that water can play in socio-economic development depends on who has access to water and who controls water.
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+The so-called water crisis has much more to do with the global management and distribution of water than with having too little water available globally.
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+Power and politics are therefore important in this discussion, together with issues of sustainable development, equity, justice and efficiency.
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+This will become clear in exploring the trends in water uses (in Section Three) and the challenges facing water in development (in Section Four).
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+This article will also highlight the different opinions on how these challenges should be faced in the last section.
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+The debates can broadly be summarized as those viewing water as an economic good that should be priced accordingly, and those arguing that water is a human right and a public good.
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+This often-dichotomous debate between efficiency and equity, social justice and environmental justice, is at the heart of the future role of water in the development of all.
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+Historical role of water in development
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+
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+;;How humans have used water over time for development has not changed much to today.How humans have used water over time for development has not changed much today.
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+The most basic human use of water is for drinking purposes.
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+Humans need a regular intake of water to ensure metabolic processes that sustain life.
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+
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+With water being distributed unevenly over the face of the earth, human settlement had historically evolved close to water resources like rivers and lakes.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11476]
+{org:en}
+The added benefit was that such water resources could also be used for transport.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11477]
+{org:en}
+Such surface water resources, together with rainfall, made household food production possible.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:11478]
+{org:en}
+Since water was seen as a free "gift" that could be used freely, people started to store water in, for example dams to make more irrigation possible.
+{/org}
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+man(301821266:4F, 100695448:44)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11479]
+{org:en}
+In drier areas they dug holes to find ground water and extracted this for use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11480]
+{org:en}
+But water also played a key role in making the Industrial Revolution possible.
+{/org}
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+mod(100722061:0U.@indef, 303161027:0Q)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:11481]
+{org:en}
+Over time an ever-growing human population and the spread of industrialization lead to increased demands for water - these two issues are still relevant as future challenges facing water and development (see HTM1 future challenges to the use of water HTM2 ).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:11482]
+{org:en}
+An indication of the role of water in economic development is that many of the poorest countries in the world are also experiencing water shortages and scarcity.
+{/org}
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+man:02(301128719:29, 400536271:5E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11483]
+{org:en}
+But although water is needed for economic development, water by itself is not sufficient to ensure development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11484]
+{org:en}
+Water is just one of many factors necessary in the process of development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(300343552:10, 105858317:0S.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11485]
+{org:en}
+As will be argued later, water must then be seen in a broader context and managed integrated.
+{/org}
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+man(200772189:0D.@will.@passive, 400508157:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11486]
+{org:en}
+The general uses of water are mainly for human consumption and sanitation, food production, industrialization, energy, transportation and environmental conservation.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11487]
+{org:en}
+Although crucial, water consumption and sanitation only make up ten per cent of the global water use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11488]
+{org:en}
+Other household or domestic uses of water are for cooking food, bathing and hygiene, and use in the construction of shelter.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:03(:02, 100021265:1O)
+or:01(301036754:0L.@entry, 303161369:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11489]
+{org:en}
+Water is also needed for the production of foods like livestock and fisheries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(600000058:1F, 100021265:19.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11490]
+{org:en}
+Irrigation is the largest use of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(100947128:0S.@entry.@def, 107935504:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11491]
+{org:en}
+It represents about 70 per cent of global water use.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200825447:05.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
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+mod(100947128:1E, 107935504:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11492]
+{org:en}
+Many therefore refer to the abuse of water by irrigated agriculture.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+Large dams are also useful in providing hydro-electricity in addition to be useful for water storage (hydropower accounts for 20 per cent of electricity production worldwide).
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+The number of large dams in the world, with a height of over 15 meters, have grown from 5 000 in 1950 to over 39 000 today.
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+In spite of these positives for development, dams have very negative impacts on ecosystems, people and development.
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+The well-known cases are the Three Gorges dam in China, which will displace 1,9 million people, and the Narmada Valley dams in India.
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+;;Criticisms against large dams by NGOs and groups such as Greenpeace and International Rivers Network have lead the World Bank and the World Conservation Union to jointly establish the World Commission on Dams, that has set guidelines on the building of dams for its impact on the social, economic and natural environment.Criticisms against large dams by NGOs and groups such as Greenpeace and International Rivers Network have led the World Bank and the World Conservation Union to jointly establish the World Commission on Dams, that has set guidelines on the building of dams for its impact on the social, economic and natural environment.
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+The silting up of dams over time is another concern.
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+As mentioned before, without water there can be no health.
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+There are many diseases closely related to the quantity and quality of water, like diarrhea, cholera and dysentery.
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+and:02(114129999:2Z.@entry, 114129579:2N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11510]
+{org:en}
+Every year about five million people, mostly children, die from such water-borne diseases, and about half of the population of the developing countries suffers from water-borne diseases.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200065070:4A.@entry, 200224295:1L)
+aoj(303162383:1Z, 114070360:2B.@pl)
+qua(101257969:37.@topic.@def, 600000810:2V)
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+qua(101257969:37.@topic.@def, 600000810:2V)
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+bas(400071165:0D, "1000000":0O)
+mod(114070360:2B.@pl, 600001411:1U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11511]
+{org:en}
+But the role of water is beyond simply providing water for healthy living.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000037:02.@entry, 600000203:0R)
+man(200406963:15.@progress, 400004967:0Y)
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+aoj(301170243:1P, 107945818:1X)
+obj(200406963:15.@progress, 107935504:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11512]
+{org:en}
+Except for these general, and mostly economic, uses of water, water has important social, cultural and spiritual roles in the life of communities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200065370:1Y.@entry, 600000221:02)
+mod(100947128:1D.@pl, 107935504:1L)
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+aoj(200065370:1Y.@entry, 107935504:1S.@topic)
+mod(100947128:1D.@pl, :01)
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+and:01(300487198:0J, 600000017:0D)
+obj(600000221:02, 100947128:1D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11513]
+{org:en}
+If people are healthy, they can be more productive and do better at school.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(:01.@entry, 301170243:0G)
+aoj:01(301865197:16.@ability, 600000041:0P.@topic)
+plc:01(201619014:1L.@entry, 104146050:1Y)
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+and:01(201619014:1L.@entry, 301865197:16.@ability)
+and:01(201619014:1L.@entry, 301865197:16.@ability)
+man:01(301865197:16.@ability, 400099341:11)
+man:01(201619014:1L.@entry, 300067379:1M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11514]
+{org:en}
+Access to water improves livelihood security, socio-economic status, gender empowerment, environmental conditions and community management.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202774185:0I.@entry, 100281132:02.@topic)
+mod:01(100823316:12, 115690536:0R)
+mod:01(105798863:2X.@pl, 302943151:2J)
+mod:01(101133281:3M.@entry, 107941729:3C)
+agt(202774185:0I.@entry, 100281132:02.@topic)
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+and:01(101133281:3M.@entry, 105798863:2X.@pl)
+mod:01(115669173:26, 106328643:1Z)
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+and:01(105798863:2X.@pl, 115669173:26)
+aoj:01(303161054:1C, 113945919:1R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11515]
+{org:en}
+Socio-economic status is improved because of increased self-esteem and increased household income levels from, for example food production.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774185:0R.@entry, 113945919:0H.@topic)
+mod:01(100522736:3M, 100021265:3H)
+mod:01(105093890:2S.@entry.@pl, 300880207:21)
+and:01(105093890:2S.@entry.@pl, 107508705:1L.@pl)
+obj(202774185:0R.@entry, 113945919:0H.@topic)
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+and:01(105093890:2S.@entry.@pl, 107508705:1L.@pl)
+aoj:01(600000144:35, :5Z)
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+mod:01(105093890:2S.@entry.@pl, 303161369:2B)
+mod:01(107508705:1L.@pl, 300880207:1B)
+mod:01(105093890:2S.@entry.@pl, 303161369:2B)
+frm:01(105093890:2S.@entry.@pl, :5Z)
+obj:01(600000144:35, 100522736:3M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11516]
+{org:en}
+Increased school attendance can be achieved through timesaving because of easier access to water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202526085:11.@entry.@ability, 101233397:0J.@topic)
+obj(100281132:2B, 107935504:2L)
+obj(600000026:1A, 115696211:1I)
+obj(202526085:11.@entry.@ability, 101233397:0J.@topic)
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+obj(600000026:1A, 115696211:1I)
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+man(202526085:11.@entry.@ability, 600000026:1A)
+man(300015097:24, 400099341:3F)
+rsn(202526085:11.@entry.@ability, 600000012:1T)
+aoj(300015097:24, 100281132:2B)
+aoj(300015097:24, 100281132:2B)
+obj(600000012:1T, 100281132:2B)
+mod(101233397:0J.@topic, 104146050:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11517]
+{org:en}
+The gender division of labor around water is that women must fetch water, on which they spend much of their time.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 100385791:0D.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000077:0V, 100620752:0P)
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+obj:01(201433674:1R.@entry.@obligation, 107935504:1X)
+mod:01(100028270:32, 600000020:2W.@pl)
+agt:01(201433674:1R.@entry.@obligation, 110787470:1G.@pl)
+obj(600000077:0V, 107935504:12)
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+obj(600000077:0V, 107935504:12)
+mod:01(600000224:2O, 100028270:32)
+agt:01(202267060:2I, 600000041:2D)
+mod(100385791:0D.@topic.@def, 106328643:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11518]
+{org:en}
+In Africa and Asia women have to walk on average six kilometers to collect water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201113473:16.@entry.@have_to, :01:01.@entry)
+qua(113659760:1Q.@pl, "6":1M)
+pur(201113473:16.@entry.@have_to, 201384439:24)
+plc(201113473:16.@entry.@have_to, :01:01.@entry)
+qua(113659760:1Q.@pl, "6":1M)
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+man(201113473:16.@entry.@have_to, 113659760:1Q.@pl)
+and:01(115690876:0J.@entry, 500005179:08)
+agt(201113473:16.@entry.@have_to, 110787470:0S.@topic.@pl)
+obj(201384439:24, 107935504:2C)
+obj(201384439:24, 107935504:2C)
+aoj(400536072:1B, 113659760:1Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11519]
+{org:en}
+Women are also responsible for food production, which requires water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161215:0K.@entry, 110787470:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202774169:1N, 107935504:1W)
+aoj(202774169:1N, 100522736:15)
+aoj(303161215:0K.@entry, 110787470:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202774169:1N, 107935504:1W)
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+obj(303161215:0K.@entry, 100522736:15)
+man(303161215:0K.@entry, 400047534:0F)
+mod(100522736:15, 100021265:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11520]
+{org:en}
+But in spite of this, they do not have much decision-making power in the household and the community, also around water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200065370:10.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 600000162:06)
+obj(600000162:06, 600000022:0I)
+plc(105190804:1Q, :01:01)
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+and:01(107941729:2L.@entry.@def, 115669720:23.@def)
+aoj(200065370:10.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 600000041:0O.@topic)
+mod(105190804:1Q, 105788149:1A)
+mod(105190804:1Q, 105788149:1A)
+man(200065370:10.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 400053744:15)
+obj(600000090:31, 107935504:38)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11521]
+{org:en}
+This is because water use is related to power relations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(600000022:02.@entry, 301971237:0V)
+mod(100031921:1C.@pl, 105190804:16)
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+aoj(301971237:0V, 100947128:0O.@topic)
+mod(100947128:0O.@topic, 107935504:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11522]
+{org:en}
+Water supply that takes into account the experiences, needs and interests of women, will go a long way in gender empowerment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202776450:2M.@entry.@will, 113563522:08.@topic)
+obj(202774261:0Q, :01)
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+obj(202774261:0Q, :01)
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+and:01(109367991:1K.@pl, 105758059:17.@def.@pl)
+mod(115669173:37, 106328643:30)
+and:01(100431552:1U.@entry.@pl, 109367991:1K.@pl)
+obj(202776450:2M.@entry.@will, 115669173:37)
+mod(:01, 110787470:27.@pl)
+mod(:01, 110787470:27.@pl)
+mod(113563522:08.@topic, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11523]
+{org:en}
+A reduction in stress levels, better family and community relations and increased ability to observe religious rites and customs are also benefits of access to water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105142641:3W.@entry.@pl, 100192300:04.@topic.@indef)
+mod:02(101029406:35.@pl, 301782981:2V)
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+and:02(101096873:3F.@entry.@pl, 101029406:35.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11524]
+{org:en}
+It is unfortunately these cultural and spiritual roles of water in development that is underrecognized.
+{/org}
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+scn(107935504:1O, 100250259:1X)
+and:01(300631193:15.@entry, 302248693:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11525]
+{org:en}
+Since time immemorial water has also fulfilled a function as one of the key social regulators.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(202774802:13.@entry.@complete, 100720565:1F.@indef)
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+obj(600000032:1O, 600000027:1R)
+aoj(301639973:0D, 100028270:08)
+mod(104072193:2D.@def.@pl, 301076634:26)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11526]
+{org:en}
+In any communities, life is organized around water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200404642:0U.@entry, 107941729:09.@pl)
+obj(600000090:14, 107935504:1B)
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+obj(200404642:0U.@entry, 100006269:0M.@topic)
+mod(107941729:09.@pl, 600000052:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11527]
+{org:en}
+This multi-facetness of water must be acknowledged.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200592883:14.@entry.@obligation, 115692127:07.@topic)
+mod(115692127:07.@topic, 303162033:04)
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+mod(115692127:07.@topic, 303162033:04)
+mod(115692127:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(115692127:07.@topic, 107935504:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11528]
+{org:en}
+Key aspects to these roles of water in development are the access and affordability of water, which relates closely to the quantity and quality of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@entry, 104733118:06.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100722061:0N.@pl, 107935504:0W)
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+man(200953058:2U, 400160440:32)
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+and:01(115694717:20.@entry.@def, 100281132:1P.@def)
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+mod(:02, 107935504:45)
+mod(100722061:0N.@pl, 600000017:0H)
+mod(:02, 107935504:45)
+gol(200953058:2U, :02)
+mod(104733118:06.@topic.@pl, 303161027:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11529]
+{org:en}
+Also, the different levels of development between different countries and different areas within countries mean that the demand for and role of water will be different.
+{/org}
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+This will be expanded in the analysis of the current context of water use, demand and scarcity.
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+{org:en}
+Current context
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+aoj(300666058:02, 106284898:0A.@entry)
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+[S:11532]
+{org:en}
+Lack of access to clean water and sanitation are mostly experienced in Africa and Asia, which are also the two poorest regions in the world, while in rich countries the issues are around water quality due to water pollution.
+{/org}
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+[S:11533]
+{org:en}
+In poor countries existing water infrastructure do not reach everyone
+{/org}
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+[S:11534]
+{org:en}
+many water leakage occur in the system
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+{/unl}
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+and water and sewerage treatment are inadequate.
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+{org:en}
+Such lack of water services includes sufficient quantity and quality of water, and reliability of water services.
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+[S:11537]
+{org:en}
+And despite many efforts to the contrary, the total population in Africa without access to water has increased by 15 million in the 1990s - see Figure 1 for access to water in the regions.
+{/org}
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+plc(101257969:1O.@topic.@def, 500005179:22)
+{/unl}
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+[S:11538]
+{org:en}
+As will become clear, although ecological, temporal and human factors play a role, such water scarcity is strongly related to political factors.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+This has lead some to distinguish between real water scarcity related to ecological, temporal and human factors, and socially constructed water scarcity, which is the result of overuse, inequalities and power relations.
+{/org}
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+[S:11540]
+{org:en}
+Figure 1
+{/org}
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+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "1":09)
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+{org:en}
+Lack of access to water supply and sanitation by world regions
+{/org}
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+An ecological factor that influences water availability is the hydrological cycle of evaporation, condensation and precipitation leading to water taking on variable forms (solid, gas or fluid).
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+Global warming, droughts, desertification, deforestation and soil erosion are other ecological factors that make water shortages worse.
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+Related to the ecological dimension is water scarcity that also has a temporal or cyclical dimension, leading to water uncertainty in many areas.
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+Such inequalities will be discussed in great detail in section 4, which addresses the challenges facing water and development.
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+These include
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+In March 1977 the United Nations Water Conference in Argentina produced the Mar del Plata Action Plan which lead to the proclamation by the UN General Assembly of 1981-1990 as the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade.
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+The Global Consultation on Safe Water and Sanitation for the 1990s was held in New Delhi in 1990.
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+The New Delhi Statement reaffirmed the goal of the International Decade of water and sanitation for all but now by 2000.
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+To achieve this it foresaw the role of government changing from a provider to becoming a facilitator.
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+In January 1992 the International Conference on Water and the Environment lead to the Dublin Statement on water and sustainable development.
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+The four guiding principles of the Dublin Statement were fresh water as a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to life, development and the environment
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+In June 1992 the Earth Summit took place in Rio de Janeiro.
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+The Dublin Statement provided the basis for Chapter 18 of Agenda 21 that looked at the Protection of the quality and supply of fresh water resources.
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+In this much was made of integrated approaches to the development, management and use of water resources.
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+[S:11570]
+{org:en}
+In December 1992 the General Assembly proclaimed 22 March of each year as World Water Day.
+{/org}
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+In 1994 the Ministerial Conference on Drinking Water and Environmental Sanitation was held in Noordwijk, the Netherlands.
+{/org}
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+The 1996 International Forum of Partner Cities for integrated water management was held in Montreal.
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+The First World Water Forum was held in Marrakesh in March 1997.
+{/org}
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+The United Nations General Assembly HTM1 Special Session (UNGASS) in June 1997 focused on the activities of the Commission for Sustainable Development
+{/org}
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+during this water was one of the major issues discussed.
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+The HTM1 World Water Congress on "Water resources outlook for the HTM2 century: Conflicts and opportunities" was held in 1997 in Montreal.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11577]
+{org:en}
+Public Service International (a confederation of hundreds of public service trade unions from across the world) adopted the Water Services Code in November 1997.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:11578]
+{org:en}
+This Code is based on the view of water as a human right.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The International Conference on Water and Sustainable Development took place in Paris in March 1998.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:11580]
+{org:en}
+This conference continued to reinforce the market-orientated approach to water use.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The UN Commission on Sustainable Development, created after the Rio Conference, increasing give priority to water issues.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+This continued at its sixth session in April 1998.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+In 1999 a draft of the World Water Vision (WWV) was released.
+{/org}
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+Contributions to the WWV came mainly from the World Commission on Water, the World Water Council (formed by the World Bank in 1996), the Global Water Partnership, the World Bank and water transnational corporations (TNCs).
+{/org}
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+Vision 21 of the Water Supply & Sanitation Collaborative Council aims to ensure water services to all within 25 years.
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+This increased role can be seen in the growing private sector investment in the water sector in developing countries between 1990 and 1997 of around 2 500 million.
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+The growth of the private sector involvement in water services has especially been in water TNCs.
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+This means that water users must pay for all the costs related to water systems, including capital expenditure, costs of operation and maintenance (O&M).
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+The tendency is to acknowledge the need for equity measures to ensure access to "sufficient" water for all, but then to argue against the "burden" of subsidies that should not rest on the service providers.
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+The central question, though, is whether cost-recovery can ensure the right to water of all, especially the poor.
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+This will be discussed in Section 5.1.
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+An integrated, holistic approach to water resource management is central to the sustainable use of water and to development.
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+The Dublin Statement, Chapter 18 of Agenda 21 and the 1994 Ministerial Conference stressed this.
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+{org:en}
+An integrated approach means that economic, social and environmental factors should be considered in water management.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+But it also implies that surface and groundwater should be seen as a holistic whole that must be managed together, many times across state boundaries.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11623]
+{org:en}
+If this is how water and its role in development are currently viewed, what can we expect of the future?
+{/org}
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+[S:11624]
+{org:en}
+Future challenges facing the role of water in development
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Unless there are radical thinking and quick actions, predictions are there will be 400 million people by 2025 that lack access to clean drinking water.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11626]
+{org:en}
+In 1950 12 countries faced water shortages
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11627]
+{org:en}
+by 1990 it has increased to 26 countries
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11628]
+{org:en}
+and by 2050 it might be 65 countries.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:11629]
+{org:en}
+As indicated in the previous section, the problems all people will face and challenges faced are unique to specific contexts, and will continue to be so in the future.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+Four broad and general, but closely related, future challenges can be identified.
+{/org}
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+[S:11631]
+{org:en}
+However, the impact of these forces will vary from context to context.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11632]
+{org:en}
+These are population growth, urbanization, the type of development, and poverties and inequalities.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:11633]
+{org:en}
+The first two relate strongly to the availability and quality of water, the third to how water is used, while the last challenge is about power relations and access to water.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11634]
+{org:en}
+Evident from this will be the growing competition between the different uses of fresh water.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11635]
+{org:en}
+Population growth
+{/org}
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+obj(108438067:0D.@entry, 101257969:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11636]
+{org:en}
+Some demographers predict that the world population will peak at around 900 billion by 2070.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11637]
+{org:en}
+With water consumption doubling every 20 years, such a growing population will add pressure to already stressed water systems.
+{/org}
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+[S:11638]
+{org:en}
+Most people, about 80 per cent of the world population, will be living in developing countries.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+As was indicated earlier, these countries already experience tremendous water scarcity
+{/org}
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+[/S]
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+[S:11640]
+{org:en}
+one in three people live in countries that are considered to be water-stressed or water scarce.
+{/org}
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+By 2025 this will have grown to two-thirds of all people.
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+One should be careful though not to fall into the trap of blaming too much on population growth - the highest population growth is in poor countries and the majority of people live there, but this is not where the largest amounts of water is consumed.
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+It is rather in the rich countries with advanced technology and industrialization, as will be seen in the next three sub-sections.
+{/org}
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+One example can highlight this
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+a child living in a rich, developed country consumes on average 50 to 60 times more water than a child living in a poor country.
+{/org}
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+More people mean that more food is needed.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+To produce more food, more water must be used, or water must be used more efficiently.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+In this context increases in irrigated land are seen as inevitable.
+{/org}
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+[S:11649]
+{org:en}
+Estimates are that by 2010 over half of the increased food production will have to come from irrigated land.
+{/org}
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+[S:11650]
+{org:en}
+;;With irrigation already accounting for 70 per cent of global water use, it difficult to imagine how more water could be used for this.With irrigation already accounting for 70 per cent of global water use, it is difficult to imagine how more water could be used for this.
+{/org}
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+The focus is then on "more crop per drop", to improve the productivity of water used for food and agricultural purposes.
+{/org}
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+Intensive irrigation though is linked to siltation and water pollution.
+{/org}
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+Water used for food production is closely associated with the idea of food security.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Food security refers to the secure access at all times to a nutritionally adequate diet.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+In the context of water scarcity in many countries, virtual water is being proposes as a solution to both water scarcity and food insecurity.
+{/org}
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+By virtual water is meant the importing of food from water-rich countries, so as to reduce the agricultural use of water in water-scare countries.
+{/org}
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+[S:11657]
+{org:en}
+But many poor, water-scare countries lack the means to import food.
+{/org}
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+[S:11658]
+{org:en}
+And then the debate between food security or food self-sufficiency (food independence) must also be addressed.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+In the light of very unequal power relations on an international level (which will continue in the foreseeable future), developing countries feel strong about the need for food self-sufficiency, which is not based on importing food, but rather producing it self.
+{/org}
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+Urbanization
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+By 2025 about 54 per cent of the population in developing countries, and 84 per cent of developed countries, will reside in urban areas.
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+Twenty-one cities already have over ten million inhabitants, 17 of which are in developing countries.
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+The inadequate infrastructure in huge cities like Sao Paolo, Mexico City and Lagos will be further strained by such rapid urbanization.
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+Current industrial and urban uses of water in Europe, for example, are already 55 per cent of water use there
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+the expectation is that this will double by 2025.
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+But the biggest growth in industries is expected in developing countries.
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+This will lead to increases in water demand for manufacturing and for energy.
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+This increased demand for industrial water use will continue to deteriorate the quality of water.
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+Although much of the water used for this can be re-used, its quality degrades with each use and recycling.
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+{org:en}
+The pollution of water with toxic chemicals by industries impacts negatively on freshwater eco-systems and holds health hazards for people.
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+[S:11675]
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+Type of development
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+The type of development or development path followed, influences the demand for water.
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+It also is a factor in determining how water issues and challenges are dealt with.
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+[S:11678]
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+The discussion in the previous sub-section on industrialization is relevant to this discussion, as is the process of globalization.
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+As people's basic needs are met and people modernize and industrialize more, they demand more water for usages other than consumption and sanitation.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11680]
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+This is evident from the fact that most water consumption is taking place in rich, industrialized, modern countries.
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+For example, to make one car (and there are over 50 million cars produced every year in the North) withdraws around 400 000 liters of water.
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+But such a development path for all is not sustainable, considering the scarcity of water.
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+One might therefore argue that in these rich countries there are overconsumption and excessive waste of water.
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+To use fresh water for washing cars, swimming pools and watering lavish gardens, while millions lack clean water, seems harsh and inhumane.
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+Some are going so far as calling this water theft.
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+If poor countries are to follow this path of development, to which they are encouraged, the use of water will not be sustainable.
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+One of the issues to be addressed then, is the overconsumption of water by some, while others underuse water - this is tackled in the next sub-section.
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+Modernization and industrialization have other very negative environmental impacts, leading to global warming, with glaciers melting, rising sea levels and some scientists speculating about the changing precipitation patterns.
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+Globalization, or more accurately corporate-led globalization, is enforcing this universal model of development on all.
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+Neo-liberalism, which underpins the current process of globalization, leads to public goods and commons being replaced by individual responsibility.
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+In this process the role of the state is being changed by liberalization and there is a growing trend towards the commodification of water and its privatization.
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+Water is more and more seen as a productive element and economic good that should be traded for profit.
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+The growing external debt of the developing countries, and refusal to cancel this debt, act as a hindrance for increased government spending on water and sanitation.
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+Part of this globalization is the speed of the development of new technology.
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+Especially technology development like biotechnology (for example genetically-modified organisms), better storage technology around dams and reservoirs, communication and information technology, technology improvements for the pumping and transportation of ground and surface water (like water-bag technology), the reclamation of used water and desaltation technology, should affect the use, availability and quality of water.
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+Poverties and inequalities
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+One of the major impacts of globalization is the increase in poverties and growing inequalities worldwide between rich and poor, both within and between countries.
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+And sustainable development and water use cannot be discussed without focusing on these poverties and inequalities.
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+Because of growing poverties, one should expect that more and more people will not have their basic human need of clean water and sanitation met.
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+Such numbers will increase even more if poor people have to pay for water services (because of the commodification and privatization of water, as discussed in the next section) which they cannot afford.
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+The growing inequalities between rich and poor will also make matter worse.
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+In many cities poor households already pay disproportionately more for water, with as much as 25 per cent of household income being spend on water.
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+Prices paid for water services from water tankers by poor urban people are in many places 20 to 30 times higher than prices for house connections for rich people.
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+An example of the unfairness and inequalities in water services, is the poor residents in Lima, Peru, who pay 3 for a cubic meter of water from buckets, while the rich pay only 30 cents per cubic meter for municipal tap water.
+{/org}
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+As was indicated earlier, most such inequalities are based on unequal power relations between and within countries, communities and households.
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+It is these realities that have lead Keynes to state that "the real test of any civilization lies in its treatment of the poor".
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+There are significant differences amongst authors on these four future challenges to water and its role in development.
+{/org}
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+Many liberal thinkers would argue that population growth and urbanization, especially occurring in developing countries, are the real challenges and must be addressed first.
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+Others feel strong that it is rather the current dominant type of development and its outcomes of poverties and inequalities that posed the biggest threat to water security and future life on earth.
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+[S:11712]
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+These tremendous disagreements about the nature of the challenges facing water are reflected in the different solutions offered to counter these challenges.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+What can be done?
+{/org}
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+[S:11714]
+{org:en}
+Water insecurities are not something new
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11715]
+{org:en}
+throughout the history of humankind there has been experiences of water scarcities and shortages.
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+
+[S:11716]
+{org:en}
+But if there is a continuation of the current suggestions of how to solve this, most people will probably never get access to safe, sufficient and secure drinking water and sanitation.
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+[S:11717]
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+As mentioned previously, there are major disagreements about the approaches and policies needed for water and sanitation supply and management.
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+[S:11718]
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+There are two main approaches, namely a market-based approach and a rights-based approach to water.
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+The distinction between these two approaches is based on their position on who owns water and who should therefore be responsible for water supply and sanitation.
+{/org}
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+A market-based approach
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+This approach favors the commodification and privatization of water and is also described as a neo-liberal approach to solving water issues.
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+[S:11722]
+{org:en}
+It is supported by the World Bank, the Global Water Partnership (initiated by World Bank), the World Water Council (a forum of major water corporations), the World Commission on Water, Business Partners for Development (an industry promoter of privatization) and water TNCs.
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+They argue that water is an economic and tradable good that should be paid for based on market principles.
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+They justify the shift towards a demand-driven approach based on the so-called failure of the supply-driven approach and the inefficiency of public sector providers.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11725]
+{org:en}
+The involvement of the private sector is seen as providing this efficiency and necessary for the growing need for investment in water and sanitation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:02(100254415:43.@entry, 107935504:3T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11726]
+{org:en}
+Providing water for free is thus inefficient and uneconomic.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11727]
+{org:en}
+The argument is that not recognizing the economic value of water has lead to wasteful and environmentally damaging uses of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:11728]
+{org:en}
+The assumption is that if water is priced, it will be valued more
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:11729]
+{org:en}
+increasing the price of water will lead to more water conservation.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11730]
+{org:en}
+This approach is based on the ecological, temporal and human dimensions of water scarcity, as discussed in Section 3, but it ignores the socially-constructed or political dimension of water scarcity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11731]
+{org:en}
+This approach should be understood in the light of corporatist globalization, which promotes corporate rule, deregulation, privatization and free trade as the solution for nearly every problem people face.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:11732]
+{org:en}
+In this context everything is up for sale
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11733]
+{org:en}
+some argue that even fresh air will be for sale in the near future.
+{/org}
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+man(600000419:19.@will, 400017639:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11734]
+{org:en}
+Free trade treaties like the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the North American Free Trade Agreement have made it possible for TNCs to claim rights over water, since GATS restricts the sovereignty of states in issues of trade in services.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11735]
+{org:en}
+It means that the rights of investors are protected.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11736]
+{org:en}
+An example is Sun Belt (an USA company) that, under NAFTA, is suing the Canadian government for 220 million for lost profits, for allowing the banning of water exports in British Columbia, and thus infringing on their investor rights.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11737]
+{org:en}
+In South Africa there is currently a court case between Nkonkobe (the former Fort Beaufort municipality) and Water and Sanitation South Africa (WSSA), a subsidiary of Suez-Lyonnaise, in which Nkonkobe is contesting the water contract with WSSA based (amongst other things) upon the financial unsustainability of the contract.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11738]
+{org:en}
+WSSA has refused to declare the contract invalid.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:11739]
+{org:en}
+The private sector has always been involved in water, either as consumers or as informal providers of water or as constructors in water projects or as suppliers of materials, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11740]
+{org:en}
+So the issues is not their involvement in water supply and sanitation but the extent of their involvement.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(113793504:2O, 600000020:2I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11741]
+{org:en}
+In addition to the privatization of water services, the tendency is towards the commodification and privatization of also other water issues like waste management, water transportation, hydropower and bottled-water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11742]
+{org:en}
+Some, for example, see the mass transportation of water as a solution to bring water to where there are water shortages - the private sector are seen as the key role-player to take this challenge up.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11743]
+{org:en}
+An example is the US Global Water Corporation that has signed an agreement with Sitka, Alaska, to export 1 800 million gallons of glacier water per year to China.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(201379097:2R, 107935504:3V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11744]
+{org:en}
+This is not because there is a water shortage in China, but because they want to bottle the water in China, using China's cheap labor.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(100620752:3Z, 103018209:3L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11745]
+{org:en}
+This bottled water industry is worth around 2 200 million annually worldwide.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302502016:0X.@entry, 100923444:0L.@topic)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11746]
+{org:en}
+However, this article will only focus on the privatization of water supply and services as an example of the commodification of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(105820620:2O.@indef, 115690106:33.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11747]
+{org:en}
+One should expect a continuation of the increased role for the private sector in the provision of water, especially in urban areas.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200059376:0D.@entry.@should, 600000316:02.@topic)
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+plc(400535221:2Z, 102735688:3J.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11748]
+{org:en}
+The eagerness of TNCs to enter this market is obvious
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161758:1C.@entry, 107555184:06.@topic.@def)
+gol(201082606:0R, 101097292:12)
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+mod(101097292:12, 600000017:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11749]
+{org:en}
+in the USA water market, which is still mainly in public hands, private companies already generate revenues of over 8 000 million a year, which is four times the annual sales of Microsoft.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201627355:2J.@entry, 101097292:0J.@def)
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+obj(600000025:5Z, 115201505:3T)
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+aoj(300678024:4R, 101114824:4Y.@def.@pl)
+qua("1000000":3J, "8000":3D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11750]
+{org:en}
+These so-called public-private partnerships (PPPs) or public sector participation means that the private sector and market forces are relied upon to solve the water challenges.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200708840:2Q.@entry, :01)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11751]
+{org:en}
+PPPs are co-operation agreements between the public and private sector to plan, finance, construct and operate water services.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104713428:0O.@entry.@pl, 500323648:02.@topic.@pl)
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+and:02(201583142:2J, 202217266:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11752]
+{org:en}
+PPPs are also part of the process of privatization of water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11753]
+{org:en}
+Various types of privatization contracts exist.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11754]
+{org:en}
+These are
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:0B.@entry, 600000022:02.@pl.@topic)
+aoj(:0B.@entry, 600000022:02.@pl.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11755]
+{org:en}
+service contracts
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100491366:0A.@entry.@pl, 100098625:02)
+mod(100491366:0A.@entry.@pl, 100098625:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11756]
+{org:en}
+In these governments keep the responsibility for O&M of water systems, but contract out certain aspects like meter reading or billing.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11757]
+{org:en}
+This many times is contracted out to small-scale, local businesses.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{org:en}
+management of assets
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+obj(101133281:02.@entry, 105154517:0G.@pl)
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+
+[S:11759]
+{org:en}
+These contracts mean that government gives the private sector the responsibility to manage water aspects like O&M, while government continues to finance investment and working capital, and decides on water pricing.
+{/org}
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+[S:11760]
+{org:en}
+Such contracts are generally three to five years long.
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+{org:en}
+lease agreements
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+{org:en}
+The French call these contracts "affermage" and they are widely used in Africa.
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+In these government rents out its facilities to a private operator who is responsible for the O&M of the state-owned system.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:11764]
+{org:en}
+Government still pays for capital investment, but the private operator sets tariffs.
+{/org}
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+[S:11765]
+{org:en}
+These contracts vary in length from five to fifteen years.
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+{org:en}
+concessions
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+
+[S:11767]
+{org:en}
+A concession means that a private operator is responsible for investment and O&M in water systems, with the assets remaining in the ownership of the public sector.
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+[S:11768]
+{org:en}
+Such concessions are usually substantial in scope, covering a whole city and they are long-term, 25-30 years long.
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+[S:11769]
+{org:en}
+BOT (Build, Operate, Transfer) agreements can be described as part of concessions.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:11770]
+{org:en}
+BOT means that a private operator finances, constructs, O&M a water facility before transferring it to the public sector.
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+[S:11771]
+{org:en}
+privatization
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+{org:en}
+The final stage of privatization is when the selling of state assets to the private sector takes place.
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+[S:11773]
+{org:en}
+The public sector then has no role or right in water services.
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+[S:11774]
+{org:en}
+This is not followed widely outside of Britain.
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+[S:11775]
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+Although there is much talk of the privatization of water, it is mainly the United Kingdom and France, of the developed countries, that strongly follow such privatization.
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+North America follows a public sector model, as in the majority of the rest of the world.
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+[S:11777]
+{org:en}
+But the Structural Adjustment Programs of the IMF and World Bank are pushing developing countries into water commodification and privatization.
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+Any type of privatization requires that the public sector must fulfil a strong regulatory function, but this is exactly the opposite of what the private sector advocates.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11779]
+{org:en}
+Opponents of the market-based approach to water include the Global Water Contract, the P-7 Declaration on Water (Vandana Shiva played a key role in drafting this), the Blue Planet Project in Canada and the Cochabamba Declaration (based on the struggle against water privatization in Bolivia).
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+[/S]
+
+[S:11780]
+{org:en}
+Their arguments against the commodification and privatization of water include
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11781]
+{org:en}
+The global water market of about 80 000 million is dominated by very few TNCs, especially French TNCs.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11782]
+{org:en}
+The three big ones are Vivendi, Suez-Lyonnaise des Eaux and SAUR/Bouygues
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11783]
+{org:en}
+together they have 70 per cent of the global water market.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11784]
+{org:en}
+There are often secret agreements between them in vying for contracts.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11785]
+{org:en}
+This means that no competition and free market exist, but rather a monopoly.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11786]
+{org:en}
+In C?´te d'Ivoire for example, SAUR got the concession for the entire country in 1987 without any competitive tender.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11787]
+{org:en}
+This can easily lead to inflated charges.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11788]
+{org:en}
+In monopolies, unless government regulation is strict, public interests will be discarded.
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+The assumption that the private sector is more efficient and less corrupt than public sector, is a false one.
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+[S:11790]
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+The tendency is to use efficiency, flexibility and innovation synonymous with the private sector, while associating inefficiency, bureaucracy and lethargy with the public sector.
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+[S:11791]
+{org:en}
+But corruption, favoritism and bribery are just as widespread in the private sector as in the public sector.
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+The awarding of contracts is especially open to corruption.
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+{org:en}
+For example, two French water TNCs have been convicted of paying bribes to be awarded contracts in France.
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+[S:11794]
+{org:en}
+The fact that TNCs usually insist on contracts remaining secret, undermines democracy, transparency and accountability.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:11795]
+{org:en}
+The example of the contract between WSSA and Nkonkobe in South Africa can be mentioned in this regard.
+{/org}
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+[S:11796]
+{org:en}
+The contract states that any detail of the contract cannot be disclosed to any third party without the written approval of WSSA.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:11797]
+{org:en}
+Furthermore, the long-term nature of many of the water contracts makes it is nearly impossible for the state to get out if a private provider is inefficient and unaffordable.
+{/org}
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+The principle of full cost-recovery, or use pay, adapted by the market-based approach, is based on the idea of economic efficiency.
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+This leads to decisions about water, especially its allocation, being based on commercial interests and profits, and not humanitarian and moral reasons.
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+Urban areas are then focused on, to the detriment of rural poor.
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+A cost-recovery policy demands that government subsidies must be done away with.
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+It is interesting to note is that although the USA subsidizes water, there is no pressure on them do away with this, as in the case of developing countries being forced by the IMF/World Bank to private.
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+In the light of development needs, the worst impact of the commodification and privatization of water is that commercial interests overrides development and equity objectives.
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+The reality of cost-recovery is that water is delivered to those who can pay for it.
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+This means that because the poor cannot pay, water networks are not extended to them.
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+The poor then end up paying more for water than the rich, who have existing water infrastructure.
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+But it is the rich who consume more water, and should thus pay more, if the logic of the economic value of water is followed.
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+{org:en}
+Cost-recovery also gives justification for water cut-offs based on outstanding bills.
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+[S:11810]
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+In the United Kingdom (UK), after water privatization in 1992 over 21 000 customers were disconnected, an increase of 200 per cent on the previous year.
+{/org}
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+For many reconnection fees are also unaffordable.
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+Such actions then rather play in the hands of growing inequalities.
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+[S:11813]
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+Although neo-liberal thinkers assume that a market-based approach and issues of equity are compatible, the market does not ensure equitable distribution of water.
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+Price hikes are also a common occurrence after privatization.
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+An example is Cochabamba in Bolivia where consumers protested violently against average price increases of 35 per cent, after a 40-year concession was given to Aguas del Tunari in 1999.
+{/org}
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+In Buenos Aires customers paid 20 per cent more for water after privatization and in France it was 13 per cent more.
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+This makes water even less affordable for the poor and further increases inequalities.
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+But pricing is also an instrument that should serve social and environmental objectives.
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+Price increases do not necessarily correlate with better service and improved water quality.
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+[S:11822]
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+In wanting to maximize profits, companies reduce expenditure, which can negatively affect maintenance and quality of water.
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+[S:11823]
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+In fact in France the government found that "bacterially unacceptable" water was provided for some 5,2 million people in the 1990s, after water privatization and higher prices.
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+In the UK the amount of water leakages has also increased by 30 per cent since privatization.
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+[S:11825]
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+Environmental damages of water privatization include water pollution.
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+Vivendi, for example, was found guilty in France in 1994 of supplying unsafe water, with excessive nitrates and pesticides, to people.
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+Between 1995 and 2000 the Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewers Authority (PRASA), privatized in 1995 to Compania de Aguas, a subsidiary of Vivendi, has been fined 6,2 million for violations of US environmental laws.
+{/org}
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+Excessive withdrawals of water to ensure more profits do occur.
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+Some contracts have so-called take-or-pay elements that oblige governments to buy bulk water irrespective of the water demand.
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+Consumption is thus encouraged regardless of whether the need for such consumption exist.
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+In this regard, a subsidiary of Suez-Lyonnaise was convicted in 1998 of illegal over-abstraction of water in Suffolk over a three-year period.
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+Most discussions around water pricing focus on domestic water use, yet this is where the least amount of water is consumed.
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+Irrigated agriculture is the biggest consumer of water - 70 per cent of global water use - yet they pay the least and experience very little regulation around water use.
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+Another aspect of the development impact of private sector providers, especially the TNCs, is that they usually are multi-utilities also involved in sectors other than water (the UK water companies are the only ones that specialize in water services).
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+Many TNCs also do not have good labor track records.
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+Lay-offs, disparity between domestic and foreign employees, exorbitant executive remuneration and discrimination against union members are some of the criticisms being mentioned.
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+Job lay-offs and retrenchments occur in spite of improved profits for companies.
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+It is argue that this is needed to ensure efficiency, but fewer staff does not automatically mean more efficiency.
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+Suez Lyonnaise, for example, in its operations in India, has different pay scales for local and foreign employees.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:11853]
+{org:en}
+And nothing can justify the high salary packages given to executives of water TNCs while millions poor people cannot afford water.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11854]
+{org:en}
+With these criticisms of the commodification and privatization in mind, many argue that inefficient public sector water services should not necessarily mean that the private sector should take over this responsibility.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+
+[S:11855]
+{org:en}
+It might simply mean that reform and restructuring of the public sector is needed.
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+mod(:01, 104165551:1V.@def)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:11856]
+{org:en}
+This can happen through public sector water undertakings (PWUs), public-public partnerships (PUPs) and corporatization (when a public utility forms a commercial enterprise that remains public ownership).
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11857]
+{org:en}
+In the developed countries such public sector responsibility is the norm for water and sanitation services
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11858]
+{org:en}
+the UK and France with their privatization models are the exceptions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100898804:19.@pl, 600000020:0P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11859]
+{org:en}
+PUPs are partnerships between public sectors which can involve capacity building and training, financial assistance and expertise provided by other public sector organizations that have experience in that field.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(106526291:0B.@entry.@pl, 101322343:02.@topic.@pl)
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+aoj(200401538:1L.@ability, 104165551:13.@pl)
+aoj(200065370:5K, 101008378:51.@pl)
+and:02(105154908:39, :01.@entry)
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+mod(101008378:51.@pl, 600000031:4H)
+mod:02(105154908:39, 303161150:2Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11860]
+{org:en}
+Local PUPs are between public sectors within the same country, while international PUPs are between public sectors from different countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(600000024:0H.@entry, 600000004:1T)
+obj(600000024:2M, 104165551:31.@pl)
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+aoj(300490413:3E, 108168978:3O.@pl)
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+obj(600000024:0H.@entry, 104165551:0W.@pl)
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+mod(101322343:08.@topic.@pl, 301106405:02)
+aoj(600000024:0H.@entry, 101322343:08.@topic.@pl)
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+aoj(301568375:1Z, 101322343:2D.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(600000024:2M, 101322343:2D.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11861]
+{org:en}
+An example of a local PUP is that of the local government authority in Odi, South Africa, and Rand Water, a parastatal providing bulk water, for the development of water services in Odi over a three year-period.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000030:0Y.@entry, 105820620:05.@topic.@indef)
+mod(105820620:05.@topic.@indef, 101322343:0O.@indef)
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+agt(200406963:3K.@progress, 115692969:39.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11862]
+{org:en}
+PWUs and PUPs are not less efficient than the private sector undertakings, and they do consider public interest, especially that of the poor and development objectives.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200691312:2H.@entry.@emphasis, 300839619:0T)
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+and:01(101322343:0B.@entry.@pl.@topic, 500323649:02.@pl.@topic)
+aoj(300839619:0T, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11863]
+{org:en}
+In spite of criticisms against the commodification and privatization of water, it is set to continue and increase in the future.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200298556:2F.@entry, 600000162:02)
+obj(600000162:02, 105734018:0E.@pl)
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+and:01(115668783:1L.@entry.@def, 115690106:11.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11864]
+{org:en}
+The reality is that markets operate in a framework of economic, social, cultural and political power.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 104762355:06.@topic.@def)
+and:01(301814385:2F.@entry, 302248693:22)
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+and:01(302248693:22, 301076634:1U)
+and:01(302248693:22, 301076634:1U)
+mod:02(105190804:2P, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11865]
+{org:en}
+By viewing water as only an economic good, the multifaceted aspects of water, like its cultural and social value, are ignored.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+met(200595505:3Q.@entry, 202130300:08.@progress)
+obj(202130300:08.@progress, 107935504:0G)
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+gol(202130300:08.@progress, 104849241:16.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11866]
+{org:en}
+A right-based approach to water claim not to do that.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200756076:0Y.@entry, 100280853:0G.@topic.@indef)
+obj(302126140:0A, 100351000:04)
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+agt(200756076:0Y.@entry, 100280853:0G.@topic.@indef)
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+obj(200756076:0Y.@entry, 201619014:1B.@not)
+aoj(302126140:0A, 100280853:0G.@topic.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11867]
+{org:en}
+A rights-based approach to water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+to(100280853:0H.@entry.@indef, 107935504:0T)
+to(100280853:0H.@entry.@indef, 107935504:0T)
+obj(302126140:0B, 100351000:04.@pl)
+aoj(302126140:0B, 100280853:0H.@entry.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11868]
+{org:en}
+In addition to water being a basic human need (for drinking, cooking, hygiene and food production), access to water is also a fundamental human right.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+This means that governments have a duty to protect and promote this right.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11870]
+{org:en}
+Although only the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child explicitly states in article 24 water as a human right, the other major human rights conventions make water implicitly part of, for example, the right of food, health and life.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:11871]
+{org:en}
+The Bill of Rights of the South African Constitution also explicitly states the right of access to sufficient water.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:11872]
+{org:en}
+According to a rights-based approach to water scarcity and shortages, the human right to water should take precedence over any other consideration in water management.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:11873]
+{org:en}
+The Global Water Contract, Vision 21, the Water Manifesto, many NGOs and civil society organizations argue for water to be viewed as a human right and a common global heritage.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:11874]
+{org:en}
+This approach argues that a new water ethic is needed.
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:11875]
+{org:en}
+Firstly, for humanitarian reasons and for justice and equality, water must be treated as a human right.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+This also implies that central in water issues should be public interests and not profits.
+{/org}
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+[S:11877]
+{org:en}
+Public interests include social justice and equity (that includes gender equity), public health and the environment.
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+Therefore this approach is both equitable and efficient.
+{/org}
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+[S:11879]
+{org:en}
+Secondly, the state has an important role to play in ensuring that access to water and sanitation are realized.
+{/org}
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+[S:11880]
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+The social contract between people and government implies that governments have the responsibility and obligation to ensure this right to water, and not simply aspire to do so.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+[S:11881]
+{org:en}
+Government should guarantee water services to the poor and regulate strongly any private sector involvement in water services.
+{/org}
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+[S:11882]
+{org:en}
+Although the private sector can be involved in water services, it should supplement, and not substitute, the public sector.
+{/org}
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+[S:11883]
+{org:en}
+Because water is a human right, it is thirdly the state's obligation to ensure minimum water consumption for free.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11884]
+{org:en}
+Such lifeline water services should be determined in specific national contexts, although a general guideline for reasonable access is the availability of between 20-50 liters per person per day from a source within one kilometer from the user's dwelling.
+{/org}
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+The South African government has adopted a policy for free basic water of 25 liters of safe water per person per day within 200m of their home.
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+Compare this with the per capita daily average usage of 700 liters in the USA
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+With rights go responsibilities
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+this means that free water provision should not mean that water can be used at free will.
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+The right to water implies the duty to maintain water resources.
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+Stepped or block tariffs can then be used to discourage overconsumption of water.
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+This simply means that lifeline water services are provided free of charge, but as consumption increases from that point upward, tariffs also increase steeply.
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+Cross-subsidization can then be used to cover the cost of the free water lifeline.
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+There are also arguments for the universality of water services rather than an indigence policy that give "special" status to certain groups of consumers.
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+Such special status is usually based on residential area, value of property or class.
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+This can lead to stereotypes and justifications for providing water to the "deserving", while not for the "undeserving".
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+Fourthly, because each specific context in which water is used, influences the rights to access of different people and how water is managed, water should be managed at a local level.
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+And not by international companies that known very little of the specific local context.
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+All stakeholders at this level - governments, civil society, NGOs, the private sector, etc. - must work together in partnerships to ensure water security and sustainable development for all.
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+At a local level water use associations, watershed committees and co-operatives have been very successful in doing this.
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+Co-operation and co-ordination between states that shares a water resource, is also priority.
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+From a rights-based approach it should be clear that the key challenge in water services is not financial in nature, but rather political.
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+mod(107191569:1R.@topic.@def, 303161027:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11902]
+{org:en}
+Conclusion
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11903]
+{org:en}
+Water is needed for human survival and life.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(100006269:15.@entry, 101022178:0S)
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+mod(:01, 301258617:0M)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11904]
+{org:en}
+Development of all people also depends on water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0X.@entry, 100250259:02.@topic)
+obj(100250259:02.@topic, 107942152:0L)
+aoj(202663848:0X.@entry, 100250259:02.@topic)
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+obj(202663848:0X.@entry, 107935504:18)
+qua(107942152:0L, 600000011:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11905]
+{org:en}
+Greater access to safe water and sanitation (especially in poor countries) and the sustainable use of water should be ensured.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj:03(301278818:02, 100281132:0A)
+aoj:03(302806261:2D, 100947128:2P.@entry.@def)
+and:01(100254415:0Z.@entry, 107935504:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11906]
+{org:en}
+This requires that all must redefine their use of water, their values and their lifestyles, so as to live sustainable lives.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(115691509:2O.@entry.@pl, 104979425:23.@pl)
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+agt(200957549:0U.@obligation, 600000121:0L)
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+obj(200957549:0U.@obligation, :01:01)
+obj:01(100947128:1C.@pl, 107935504:1J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11907]
+{org:en}
+To ensure this, the roles of both the public and private sector in water services have been debated.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(200714884:2M.@entry.@complete, 202774184:05)
+mod(104165551:1N.@def, :01)
+plc(104165551:1N.@def, 100098625:23.@pl)
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+mod(104165551:1N.@def, :01)
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+obj(202774184:05, 600000022:0C)
+obj(100722061:0M.@topic.@def.@pl, 104165551:1N.@def)
+obj(100098625:23.@pl, 107935504:1X)
+obj(200714884:2M.@entry.@complete, 100722061:0M.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(301769378:1F.@entry, 300493297:14)
+and:01(301769378:1F.@entry, 300493297:14)
+mod(104165551:1N.@def, 600000323:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11908]
+{org:en}
+In the light of millions of people lacking the most basic sustenance for life, water, selling water for profit is, to say the least, bizarre.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300608791:45.@entry, 400535290:02)
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+obj(400535290:02, 107942152:0U)
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+cnt(101216191:1U, 107935504:2J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11909]
+{org:en}
+Water should primarily support life, not provide profits for companies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200406963:17.@entry.@not, 201720773:0P.@should)
+obj(201720773:0P.@should, 100006269:0X)
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+man(201720773:0P.@should, 400138410:0F)
+agt(201720773:0P.@should, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11910]
+{org:en}
+Furthermore, development considerations have to receive priority above profit considerations, when decisions about water are made.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200117346:1E.@entry, 600000033:2O)
+aoj(600000013:33, 100162632:2T.@pl)
+bas(600000072:1V, 101229793:28.@pl)
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+obj(200012267:3J, 100162632:2T.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11911]
+{org:en}
+The social and economic benefits of providing basic water to all far outweigh any costs of providing it.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+gol(200406963:12.@progress, 600000121:1R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11912]
+{org:en}
+The question is really if the private sector has the will to deliver water to the poor.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000728:0F.@entry, 106783768:06.@topic.@def)
+pur(105652593:1J.@def, 200989602:1R)
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+gol(200989602:1R, 115690214:2C.@def)
+obj(200065370:1B, 105652593:1J.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11913]
+{org:en}
+Their proposed solution to the lack of access to water, namely to raise the price of water, will only further worsen lack of access to water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(100190783:0K.@topic, 114449405:10.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11914]
+{org:en}
+The water wars of the future might then not be between countries/communities sharing water resources, but probably rather between water TNCs and people.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+man(600000024:3N, 600000114:3G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11915]
+{org:en}
+The reality is that provision of water is driven by political economy rather than by free market forces.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(105035353:2R.@pl, 101097292:2K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11916]
+{org:en}
+The state should therefore be actively involved in ensuring the right to water of all.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11917]
+{org:en}
+Dublin+10 in Bonn in 2002, Rio+10 in September 2002 in Johannesburg and the Third World Water Forum in 2003 provide opportunities to all to address the challenges faced with water and development.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11918]
+{org:en}
+The General Assembly of the UN has also declared 2003 as the International Year of Fresh Water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11919]
+{org:en}
+In all these, and many other places, the following principles should underline the use and protection of water
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua:01(600000022:0C.@pl, 600000011:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11920]
+{org:en}
+Access to adequate clean water is a basic human right.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11921]
+{org:en}
+This implies that government must ensure the right to water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200929839:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11922]
+{org:en}
+Intra- and inter-generational equity must be ensured through the sustainable use of water by all.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000035:4X, 600000121:2N)
+aoj(302806261:1V, 100947128:27.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11923]
+{org:en}
+The links between water access and use, and power relations should be acknowledged clearly.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200592883:20.@entry.@should, 103673971:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+and:01(100947128:11.@entry.@pl, 100281132:0Q.@pl)
+and:02(100031921:1G.@entry.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11924]
+{org:en}
+Participation by water users, especially women is needed.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(400535221:0W, 110787470:17.@pl)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:11925]
+{org:en}
+This requires the decentralization of water management to local levels.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11926]
+{org:en}
+All stakeholders, government, civil society, NGOs, the private sector, etc., should participate.
+{/org}
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+and:01(115689145:28.@entry.@topic, 104165551:1W.@def.@topic)
+and:01(101124794:0K.@topic, 110646140:06.@pl.@topic)
+and:01(101124794:0K.@topic, 110646140:06.@pl.@topic)
+and:01(500323535:1B.@pl.@topic, 115669262:0W.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11927]
+{org:en}
+Holistic, integrated water management is needed to ensure sustainability.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj(301326148:0C, 101133281:0T.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11928]
+{org:en}
+The commodification and privatization of water are not sustainable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302806261:1L.@entry.@not, :01)
+aoj(302806261:1L.@entry.@not, :01)
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+obj(:01, 107935504:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11929]
+{org:en}
+Viable alternatives to privatization, like PUPs, PWUs, co-operatives, etc., should be found.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(101100877:1L.@pl, 500323649:1F.@pl)
+obj(600000123:14, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11930]
+{org:en}
+Everyone has the right to water to sustain their life and their livelihoods!
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(115690536:28.@entry.@pl, 100006269:1P.@pl)
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+obj(200818422:18, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11931]
+{org:en}
+And to echo the New Delhi Declaration in 1990, sustainable development requires "some for all rather than more for some".
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202774169:21.@entry, :02)
+tim(106725877:0S.@def, "1990":17)
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+obj(202675458:09, 106725877:0S.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11932]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11933]
+{org:en}
+Glossary and Abbreviations
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100359135:0F.@entry.@pl, 106420781:02)
+and(100359135:0F.@entry.@pl, 106420781:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11934]
+{org:en}
+Development
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100250259:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100250259:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11935]
+{org:en}
+improving the quality of life of all people in a holistic manner.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774185:02.@entry.@progress, 104723816:0G.@def)
+aoj(301680689:1F, 104910135:1O.@indef)
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+mod(100006269:0R, 107942152:13)
+mod(104723816:0G.@def, 100006269:0R)
+qua(107942152:13, 600000011:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11936]
+{org:en}
+This is not only an economic process but also social, political, cultural and ecological.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+and:01(301814385:1K, 301076634:1C)
+and:01(302906478:28.@entry, 302248693:1V)
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+mod:02(100029677:0V.@indef, 600000119:0A)
+and:01(302248693:1V, 301814385:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11937]
+{org:en}
+It is focused on people, and not things.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200314272:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+obj(200314272:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
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+gol(200314272:08.@entry, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11938]
+{org:en}
+Food security
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100823316:07.@entry, 100021265:02)
+mod(100823316:07.@entry, 100021265:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11939]
+{org:en}
+food consumption that is secure, sufficient and sustainable.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(302806261:1E.@entry, 302335828:0Z)
+obj(100356367:07.@entry, 100021265:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11940]
+{org:en}
+This differs from food self-sufficiency that refers to the food independence of a state.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202666239:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+gol(202774311:1B, 107474006:1U.@def)
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+obj(107474006:1U.@def, 100024720:2C.@indef)
+mod(105112609:0U, 302794670:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11941]
+{org:en}
+A country that is self-sufficient in food does not rely on others to have food security at a national level.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774350:1H.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 108168978:04.@topic.@indef)
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+mod(105093890:2W.@indef, 301105840:2N)
+plc(100823316:29, 105093890:2W.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11942]
+{org:en}
+Privatization
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668783:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115668783:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11943]
+{org:en}
+the many forms of private sector involvement in public responsibilities, with the ultimate being the sale of water and sanitation to private companies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(103384535:0B.@entry.@def.@pl, 113793504:0Z)
+to(:01, 108058098:3S.@pl)
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+mod(113793504:0Z, 301769378:0K)
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+mod(101114824:2O.@state.@def, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11944]
+{org:en}
+Sustainability
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105029594:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+105029594:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11945]
+{org:en}
+the use of a resource in such a manner that the resource is not threatened to disappear.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100947128:06.@entry.@def, 105154676:0F.@indef)
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+man(100947128:06.@entry.@def, 104910135:0Y.@indef)
+obj(200871405:1U.@not, 105154676:1E.@def.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11946]
+{org:en}
+Although sustainability is many times used in the context of natural resources, like water, human, capital and social resources should also be used in a sustainable way.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(201158572:48.@entry.@should, 600000038:02)
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+aoj(600000123:2A, 105154676:1Z.@pl)
+aoj(100028270:0Y.@pl, 105029594:0B.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11947]
+{org:en}
+Water scarcity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105116953:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+mod(105116953:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:11948]
+{org:en}
+Technically water scarcity is if there is less than 2 470 liters of water available per day per person (or 1 000 cubic meters per person per year), while water stress is less than 2 000 cubic meters of water per person per year.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+Water and development in Africa.
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+[S:11994]
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+Development Express, no. 9.
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+Working paper no. 111
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+[S:12002]
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+Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, UK.
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+[W]
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+The Water Manifesto
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+[S:12006]
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+Arguments for a world water contract.
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+[S:12008]
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+London
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+[S:12009]
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+Zed Books.
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+This books explains the current reality in the water industry and then critiques the market-based approach to water.
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+Public Services International (PSI) published a range of briefing notes in the run-up to the Second World Water Forum in 2000.
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+[S:12013]
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+These can be found at HTM1.
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+UNED (2001) Freshwater
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+[S:12016]
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+A global crisis of water security and basic water provision.
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+[S:12017]
+{org:en}
+Environment Briefing No.1.
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+UNED Forum.
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+[S:12020]
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+This briefing paper provides an overview of the global water crisis and key issues related to water security
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+[S:12021]
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+UN Economic and Social Council (2000) Report of the Secretary-General on Progress made in providing safe water supply and sanitation for all during the 1990s.
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+Washington
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+[/W]
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+UN Economic and Social Council.
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+Report on the progress with water supply and sanitation throughout the world in the 1990s.
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+[S:12025]
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+Include trends and future outlook for 2025
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+
+[S:12026]
+{org:en}
+WATER SUPPLY FOR AGRICULTURE
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+WATER SUPPLY FOR AGRICULTURE
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+WATER SUPPLY FOR AGRICULTURE
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+{org:en}
+S. Ya. Bezdnina
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+[W]
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+[/W]
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+{org:en}
+All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Hydraulic Engineering and Land Reclamation, Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Moscow, Russia
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+[W]
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+[S:12032]
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+water quality, water ecosystem, ecological safety, ecological stability, irrigation, soil, agriculture, animals, human being, underground water, construction, biogenesis, heavy metal, pesticide, pollutant, migration, accumulation, productivity, agriculture products quality.
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+mod(108368757:0N, 107935504:0H)
+and(107065149:4T, 100850260:4H)
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+mod(103748886:7A.@pl, 108075287:6Y)
+and(102472293:37, 100015388:2Y.@pl)
+and(108368757:0N, 104723816:08)
+and(114980215:56, 107065149:4T)
+and(104778401:1S, 100188620:19)
+mod(104723816:7J.@entry, 103748886:7A.@pl)
+and(115691626:3K, 102472293:37)
+aoj(302906478:0Y, 100188620:19)
+mod(104723816:7J.@entry, 103748886:7A.@pl)
+and(115691626:3K, 102472293:37)
+aoj(302906478:0Y, 100188620:19)
+and(114857278:5H, 114980215:56)
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+and(100372013:63, 101123095:5S)
+and(108075287:2L, 109335240:2F)
+mod(104723816:08, 107935504:02)
+and(100850260:4H, 100873381:43)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12033]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12034]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12035]
+{org:en}
+Water supply of rural units
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(115669704:02.@entry, 105869857:0O.@pl)
+obj(115669704:02.@entry, 105869857:0O.@pl)
+aoj(302050452:0I, 105869857:0O.@pl)
+aoj(302050452:0I, 105869857:0O.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12036]
+{org:en}
+Water quality in cattle breeding
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(104723816:08.@entry, 100914929:0Q)
+scn(104723816:08.@entry, 100914929:0Q)
+obj(100914929:0Q, 102402425:0J)
+mod(104723816:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+mod(104723816:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12037]
+{org:en}
+Water quality in irrigation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(104723816:08.@entry, 100695448:0J)
+scn(104723816:08.@entry, 100695448:0J)
+mod(104723816:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+mod(104723816:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12038]
+{org:en}
+Conclusions
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12039]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12040]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12041]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12042]
+{org:en}
+Summary
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106467007:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12043]
+{org:en}
+Natural water resources represent a vital biosphere component HTM1 an economic and industrial resource that possesses indispensable consumer properties.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200825447:0Q.@entry, 105154676:0G.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104012260:3Z.@pl, 109612848:3Q)
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+mod(108499504:18, 300095094:12)
+aoj(300849108:3C, 104012260:3Z.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12044]
+{org:en}
+Water pollution and water ecosystems degradation are increasing global problems which affects all aspects of human activity and influences human health, economics and social conditions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105687338:20.@entry.@pl, :01.@topic)
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+and:01(100271263:12.@entry, 114516743:07)
+mod:02(113923779:42.@pl, 301258617:3W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12045]
+{org:en}
+Water consumption on Earth during the twentieth century increased sevenfold while the population only increased three times.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+dur(200153263:1L.@entry.@past, 600000004:25)
+man(200153263:2V.@past, 400535197:2Q)
+dur(108562067:0M, 115205532:1D)
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+dur(200153263:1L.@entry.@past, 600000004:25)
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+qua(100028270:3B.@pl, "3":35)
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+man(200153263:2V.@past, 100028270:3B.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12046]
+{org:en}
+Agriculture is the greatest world water consumer.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(109612848:16.@entry.@def, 108075287:02.@topic)
+mod(109612848:16.@entry.@def, 107935504:10)
+aoj(109612848:16.@entry.@def, 108075287:02.@topic)
+mod(109612848:16.@entry.@def, 107935504:10)
+aoj(303161269:0U, 109612848:16.@entry.@def)
+aoj(301278818:0L, 109612848:16.@entry.@def)
+aoj(301278818:0L, 109612848:16.@entry.@def)
+man(301278818:0L, 400536271:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12047]
+{org:en}
+Development of agriculture including irrigation requires 65% of the total world water consumption.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774169:1E.@entry, 100250259:02.@topic)
+obj(:01, 107935504:2A)
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+obj(100250259:02.@topic, 108075287:0H)
+aoj(303161269:24, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12048]
+{org:en}
+Water quality is the most important factor of ecological safety and stability in agriculture development.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105858317:12.@entry, 104723816:08.@topic)
+aoj(302906478:1C, :01)
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+aoj(105858317:12.@entry, 104723816:08.@topic)
+aoj(302906478:1C, :01)
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+mod(105858317:12.@entry, :01)
+and:01(104778401:1Y.@entry, 100188620:1N)
+scn(:01, 100250259:2N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12049]
+{org:en}
+The quality of water used to supply rural units, cattle-breeding complexes and farms influences human health, stock viability and productivity, and the quality and safety of agriculture products.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202536557:2E.@entry, 104723816:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(104723816:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0H)
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+mod:01(105870365:1U.@pl, 100914929:1L)
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+and:01(103322099:28.@entry.@pl, 105870365:1U.@pl)
+mod:02(105056234:39.@def, 104321534:33)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12050]
+{org:en}
+One of the main problems in supplying water for agriculture is the disconnectedness of rural units, cattle-breeding complexes, farms and pastures, often over a vast area in arid regions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(115693605:1X.@entry.@def, 600000027:02.@topic)
+obj(600000049:4W, 102735688:58.@indef)
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+mod(115693605:1X.@entry.@def, :01.@entry)
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+mod:01(105870365:3N.@pl, 100914929:3E)
+mod(105687338:0I.@pl, 301512527:0D)
+and:01(103322099:42.@pl, 105870365:3N.@pl)
+pof(600000027:02.@topic, 105687338:0I.@pl)
+man(600000049:4W, 400059547:4Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12051]
+{org:en}
+The requirements for water quality for stock differ depending on the species, age, daily demand for each species, and the chemical elements added to stock feed in order to increase their weight and to decrease disease risk.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202666239:1B.@entry, 115669633:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(115669633:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 104723816:0T)
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+obj:02(101061333:2M, 105844881:32)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12052]
+{org:en}
+Water in the supply system of rural units and farms should be ecologically safe for animals and human beings.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+scn(107935504:02.@topic, 104377057:0M.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12053]
+{org:en}
+The chemical composition of irrigation water in agriculture influences soil productivity, water consumption, crop productivity, quality of agricultural products and, therefore, human health.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202536557:60.@entry, 202536557:1Q)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12054]
+{org:en}
+Water quality also influences the durability and reliable functioning of irrigation systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:01(115698415:1O.@entry, 104377057:2E.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12055]
+{org:en}
+Irrigated agriculture causes formation of a complex water-nutrition system
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:12056]
+{org:en}
+"waterâ€"soilâ€"plantsâ€"stockâ€"humans".
+{/org}
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+[W]
+:01.@entry.@single_quote
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+Pollutants are accumulated during each stage of this system
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+they may be transformed, either increasing or losing toxicity.
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+In accordance with this, we describe principles of regulation, criteria and quality evaluation for irrigation water.
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+The quality evaluation system of irrigation water permits evaluation of a water source with regard to risk of salinization, solonetzization, contamination of soils by heavy metals and pesticides, risk of corrosion, carbonate formation, algal blooms and choking of irrigation system elements.
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+Standardization of water quality is a key part of ecological safety and stability in agriculture, and an essential component of the complex of practical actions and mechanisms (economic, legislative, legal and technological) for realization of ecosystem water use in agriculture.
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+[/S]
+
+[S:12062]
+{org:en}
+Introduction
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+100238022:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
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+At the end of the twentieth century, pollution and degradation processes in soils, surface and underground waters acquired high importance and a global dimension.
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+Disorders in humans and animals, degradation of landscape and water ecosystems, decrease in productivity and quality of agricultural products demand an understanding of the role of water quality in these processes and creation of a unified system of ecological standardization of water quality use in agriculture.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Due to increasing pollution of surface and underground water, modern agriculture is increasingly dependent on the quality of water used for industrial and domestic purposes, as well as development of stockbreeding and irrigation.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Rural regions need water of a quality not less than that used in towns.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+This is most essential for drinking water and for water used in dairy production.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:12068]
+{org:en}
+Quality evaluation of water used for watering of stock has certain inherent problems due to the need to take account of factors such as quantity of water consumed by the animal, animal sex, age and size.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:12069]
+{org:en}
+Complex multifactor water-nutrition systems are created in irrigated cultivation
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:12070]
+{org:en}
+"waterâ€"soilâ€"plantsâ€"animalsâ€"humans", and "waterâ€"soilâ€"underground waterâ€"humans".
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
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+Pollutants are accumulated in each stage of the system and may be transformed, either increasing or reducing in toxicity.
+{/org}
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+Water supply of rural units
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+{org:en}
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+[S:12075]
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+Sanitary requirements for drinking water quality are based on safety conditions with regard to epidemiology, chemical composition, and organoleptic properties, and are the same for both urban and rural populations.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:12076]
+{org:en}
+The requirements for drinking water quality described in HTM1 Drinking Water Supply HTM2 are fully extended to water supplied by centralized systems for agricultural water supply.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:12077]
+{org:en}
+It is more difficult to provide delivery of water of required quality for agriculture than for urban municipal supplies because of the specific conditions of agricultural water supply (large geographical areas, dislocation of units, many of which are located in arid regions, and problems with qualified service personnel, instrumentation and equipment supply).
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+[/S]
+
+[S:12078]
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+As a result of the long lengths of pipelines, high pipe pressure, and difficult operating conditions, water quality is reduced, especially in the early stages
+{/org}
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+
+[S:12079]
+{org:en}
+the content of iron and lead is increased, unpleasant odors appear, the water color index may increase, bacterial contamination increases, and fluorine content decreases.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+The deterioration of water quality en route from the source to the consumer poses additional requirements for systems of water quality checking and control.
+{/org}
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+[S:12081]
+{org:en}
+Non-centralized industrial-drinking water systems, comprising both those with and without saw-settings, are common in water supplies of rural units and farms.
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+Dug and drilled wells and springs are used, as well as surface water sources and imported water, and these often contain undesirable impurities.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:12083]
+{org:en}
+Solid particles in water may be of organic and inorganic origin.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12084]
+{org:en}
+Particles of inorganic origin include sand, mud and clay particles.
+{/org}
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+and:01(106720137:1A, 115019030:14)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12085]
+{org:en}
+Dissolved inorganic salts and mineral substances may be found both in surface and underground waters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200715239:1M.@entry.@may, :01:01)
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+plc(200715239:1M.@entry.@may, 115689188:2O.@pl)
+plc(200715239:1M.@entry.@may, 115689188:2O.@pl)
+aoj:01(301680559:0W, 100019613:14.@entry.@pl)
+and:02(303160997:2C.@entry, 302471091:20)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12086]
+{org:en}
+Surface waters flowing down from catchments contain dissolved organic substances.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:1A.@entry, 115689188:0A.@topic.@pl)
+mod(115689188:0A.@topic.@pl, 302471091:02)
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+src(200217427:0H.@progress, 102983357:0Z.@pl)
+obj(200217427:0H.@progress, 115689188:0A.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12087]
+{org:en}
+Stagnant water is prone to growth of algae, including diatoms, and protozoa that impart an unpleasant odor and taste to water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202775518:0K.@entry, 107935504:0B.@topic)
+and:02(100882702:38.@entry.@indef, 104980008:2Z.@indef)
+agt(202079933:2B, :01)
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+obj(600000007:1A, :01)
+aoj(301801600:2L, :02.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12088]
+{org:en}
+Unpleasant odors are often due to the presence of sulfate-reducing bacteria in water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300137725:0T.@entry, 104980008:0D.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200045817:1O.@progress, 115689384:1X.@pl)
+obj(101233802:14.@def, 115689384:1X.@pl)
+aoj(300137725:0T.@entry, 104980008:0D.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200045817:1O.@progress, 115689384:1X.@pl)
+obj(101233802:14.@def, 115689384:1X.@pl)
+obj(300137725:0T.@entry, 101233802:14.@def)
+aoj(301801600:02, 104980008:0D.@topic.@pl)
+man(300137725:0T.@entry, 400059547:0N)
+man(300137725:0T.@entry, 400059547:0N)
+agt(200045817:1O.@progress, 115063493:1G)
+plc(115689384:1X.@pl, 107935504:29)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12089]
+{org:en}
+Growth of iron bacteria in pipes results in formation of slimy deposits that may cause pipe systems to clog, as well as unpleasant odors.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774178:0Y.@entry, 108438067:02.@topic)
+aoj(301801600:3D, 104980008:3O.@pl)
+obj(201645601:2A.@may, 104377057:2L.@pl)
+aoj(201645601:2A.@may, 100372448:1S.@pl)
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+obj(201645601:2A.@may, 104377057:2L.@pl)
+aoj(201645601:2A.@may, 100372448:1S.@pl)
+man(200182037:2W, 600000015:32)
+obj(100925207:19, 100372448:1S.@pl)
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+obj(108438067:02.@topic, 115693926:0C.@pl)
+obj(202774178:0Y.@entry, 100925207:19)
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+aoj(303163735:1M, 100372448:1S.@pl)
+obj(600000015:32, 104980008:3O.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12090]
+{org:en}
+Insufficient protection of non-centralized industrial-drinking water systems requires additional measures of control, purification and adjustment of drinking water quality in order to meet the stated levels.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774169:27.@entry, 100784755:0F.@topic)
+obj(600000044:51, 201079480:5D)
+obj(:02.@entry, 104723816:4T)
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+mod(100174412:2R.@pl, :02.@entry)
+obj(100784755:0F.@topic, 104377057:1Z.@pl)
+aoj(202774169:27.@entry, 100784755:0F.@topic)
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+mod(100174412:2R.@pl, :02.@entry)
+obj(100784755:0F.@topic, 104377057:1Z.@pl)
+aoj(303155687:4E, 104723816:4T)
+aoj(301107751:0X.@not, 104377057:1Z.@pl)
+obj(202774169:27.@entry, 100174412:2R.@pl)
+aoj(303162844:5M, 105093890:5T.@def)
+and:02(100252894:3F, 100803617:36)
+or:01(303155687:1K.@entry, 301188648:19)
+man(202774169:27.@entry, 600000044:51)
+obj(201079480:5D, 105093890:5T.@def)
+man(202774169:27.@entry, 600000044:51)
+obj(201079480:5D, 105093890:5T.@def)
+and:02(100999787:3W.@entry, 100252894:3F)
+mod(107935504:1T, :01)
+mod(100174412:2R.@pl, 303161014:2G)
+aoj(302336449:02, 100784755:0F.@topic)
+mod(104723816:4T, 107935504:4N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12091]
+{org:en}
+Water quality in cattle breeding
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(104723816:08.@entry, 100914929:0Q)
+scn(104723816:08.@entry, 100914929:0Q)
+obj(100914929:0Q, 102402425:0J)
+mod(104723816:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+mod(104723816:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12092]
+{org:en}
+Requirements provided for water quality used in watering of stock take into account animal species, animal age, daily water consumption for each species, chemical elements added to animal feed for faster weight growth and for decrease of diseases risk, as well as information about toxicity of particular substances for each species.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202774261:1W.@entry, 115669633:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(100802238:7K, 114070360:7C)
+mod:02(105844881:9U, 600000848:9P)
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+aoj:02(600000014:7U, 114622893:50.@entry.@pl)
+man:01(300323873:67, 400099341:C4)
+mod:02(100356367:3Z.@pl, 301968165:3N)
+scn(201158572:16, 100278403:1E)
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+man:01(300323873:67, 400099341:C4)
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+scn(201158572:16, 100278403:1E)
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+mod:02(105844881:2O.@pl, 301778572:2H)
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+pur:02(100019613:9A.@pl, 105844881:9U)
+mod:02(104924103:3B.@pl, 301778572:34)
+obj(202774261:1W.@entry, :02:02)
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+and:02(100356367:3Z.@pl, 104924103:3B.@pl)
+obj(201158572:16, 104723816:0Y)
+obj(202774261:1W.@entry, :02:02)
+aoj:01(300323873:67, 108438067:6L)
+and:02(100356367:3Z.@pl, 104924103:3B.@pl)
+obj(201158572:16, 104723816:0Y)
+pur:02(200182406:5I, :01:01)
+mod:02(113583478:8N, 100019613:9A.@pl)
+and:02(104924103:3B.@pl, 105844881:2O.@pl)
+obj:02(200182406:5I, 114622893:50.@entry.@pl)
+obj:02(600000014:7U, 105091527:85)
+mod:02(100356367:3Z.@pl, 107935504:3T)
+obj(100278403:1E, 104321534:1Q)
+obj:01(100351638:70.@entry, 100802238:7K)
+obj(200406963:0F, 115669633:02.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12093]
+{org:en}
+Water used in watering of stock should be transparent, colorless, and without any foreign odors or tastes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, 107935504:02.@topic)
+mod:01(104980008:2K.@pl, 301034457:2C)
+or:01(100882702:2T.@entry.@pl, 104980008:2K.@pl)
+aoj(:02.@entry, 107935504:02.@topic)
+mod:01(104980008:2K.@pl, 301034457:2C)
+or:01(100882702:2T.@entry.@pl, 104980008:2K.@pl)
+scn(201158572:08, 100278403:0G)
+obj:02(600000060:20.@entry.@should.@past, :01:01)
+obj(201158572:08, 107935504:02.@topic)
+and:02(600000060:20.@entry.@should.@past, 300404202:1L.@should.@past)
+and:02(600000060:20.@entry.@should.@past, 300404202:1L.@should.@past)
+and:02(300404202:1L.@should.@past, 301619689:18.@should.@past)
+mod:01(104980008:2K.@pl, 600000052:28)
+obj(100278403:0G, 104321534:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12094]
+{org:en}
+It should not contain decay products of organic substances, toxic chemical impurities, pathogenic microorganisms or helminth cysts.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:0G.@entry.@should.@past.@not, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj:01(302692624:1W, 114487184:25.@pl)
+mod:01(114202996:3J.@entry.@pl, 101922717:3A)
+mod(103748886:0U.@pl, 111444643:0O)
+aoj(202701210:0G.@entry.@should.@past.@not, 600000016:02.@topic)
+aoj:01(302692624:1W, 114487184:25.@pl)
+mod:01(114202996:3J.@entry.@pl, 101922717:3A)
+mod(103748886:0U.@pl, 111444643:0O)
+or:01(114487184:25.@pl, 100019613:1E.@pl)
+mod(103748886:0U.@pl, :01)
+aoj:01(303161307:2H, 101326291:2S.@pl)
+obj(202701210:0G.@entry.@should.@past.@not, 103748886:0U.@pl)
+aoj:01(301093142:16, 100019613:1E.@pl)
+obj(202701210:0G.@entry.@should.@past.@not, 103748886:0U.@pl)
+aoj:01(301093142:16, 100019613:1E.@pl)
+or:01(101326291:2S.@pl, 114487184:25.@pl)
+or:01(114202996:3J.@entry.@pl, 101326291:2S.@pl)
+aoj:01(302449430:1Q, 114487184:25.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12095]
+{org:en}
+Temperature of water used for animals is of great importance as a physiological factor.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105168261:1G.@entry, 105011790:02.@topic)
+mod(105011790:02.@topic, 107935504:0H)
+obj(600000032:1R, 105858317:2A.@indef)
+aoj(105168261:1G.@entry, 105011790:02.@topic)
+mod(105011790:02.@topic, 107935504:0H)
+obj(600000032:1R, 105858317:2A.@indef)
+aoj(301278818:1A, 105168261:1G.@entry)
+pur(201158572:0N, 100015388:0W.@pl)
+aoj(600000032:1R, 105168261:1G.@entry)
+aoj(600000032:1R, 105168261:1G.@entry)
+obj(201158572:0N, 107935504:0H)
+mod(105858317:2A.@indef, 302949082:1W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12096]
+{org:en}
+For adult stock the temperature should be between 8 and 20 HTM1 , and for young stock, from 15 to 30 HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(HTM2:3M.@entry.@should, 600000024:18.@should)
+and:01("20":1M.@entry, "8":1G)
+aoj(301643480:24, 104321534:2A)
+qua(HTM2:3M, :02:02)
+and(HTM2:3M.@entry.@should, 600000024:18.@should)
+and:01("20":1M.@entry, "8":1G)
+aoj(301643480:24, 104321534:2A)
+qua(HTM2:3M, :02:02)
+obj(600000024:18.@should, HTM1:1P)
+aoj(HTM2:3M.@entry.@should, 105011790:0M.@topic.@def)
+aoj(600000024:18.@should, 105011790:0M.@topic.@def)
+pur(HTM2:3M.@entry.@should, 104321534:2A)
+aoj(301488616:06, 104321534:0C)
+pur(HTM2:3M.@entry.@should, 104321534:2A)
+aoj(301488616:06, 104321534:0C)
+pur(600000024:18.@should, 104321534:0C)
+fmt:02("30":3F.@entry, "15":39)
+qua(HTM1:1P, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12097]
+{org:en}
+Low water quality has a negative influence on stock, causing diseases, reducing optimal stock weight, and resulting in milk and meat unsuitability.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200065370:0K.@entry, 104723816:0C.@topic)
+and:02(200045817:21.@progress, 201645601:1J.@progress)
+and:02(202774178:30.@entry.@progress, 200045817:21.@progress)
+aoj(301206474:02, 104723816:0C.@topic)
+aoj(300075515:0Q, 100157081:0Z.@indef)
+aoj:02(303161279:2A, 104571088:2O)
+aoj(200065370:0K.@entry, 104723816:0C.@topic)
+and:02(200045817:21.@progress, 201645601:1J.@progress)
+and:02(202774178:30.@entry.@progress, 200045817:21.@progress)
+aoj(301206474:02, 104723816:0C.@topic)
+aoj(300075515:0Q, 100157081:0Z.@indef)
+aoj:02(303161279:2A, 104571088:2O)
+mod:02(104715487:3T, 303161781:3R)
+obj(100157081:0Z.@indef, 104321534:1C)
+obj:02(200045817:21.@progress, 104571088:2O)
+mod:02(104715487:3T, :01)
+obj(200065370:0K.@entry, 100157081:0Z.@indef)
+obj:02(201645601:1J.@progress, 114070360:1R.@pl.@progress)
+obj(200065370:0K.@entry, 100157081:0Z.@indef)
+obj:02(201645601:1J.@progress, 114070360:1R.@pl.@progress)
+obj:02(202774178:30.@entry.@progress, 104715487:3T)
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+mod:02(104571088:2O, 104321534:2I)
+and:01(107649854:3M.@entry, 105399034:3D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12098]
+{org:en}
+The most important water quality indexes are mineralization, chlorides, sulfates (Table 1), nitrates, some heavy metals and pesticides (Table 2).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:03.@entry, 105567381:0Z.@topic.@pl)
+and:03(115016852:1R.@pl, 115689274:1B.@pl)
+qua:03(107065149:3B.@pl, 600000034:36)
+mod:02(104379243:4B.@entry, "2":4H)
+mod(104723816:0R, 107935504:0L)
+aoj(:03.@entry, 105567381:0Z.@topic.@pl)
+and:03(115016852:1R.@pl, 115689274:1B.@pl)
+qua:03(107065149:3B.@pl, 600000034:36)
+mod:02(104379243:4B.@entry, "2":4H)
+mod(104723816:0R, 107935504:0L)
+cnt:03(115063493:25.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+cnt:03(114980215:3Z.@entry.@pl, :02.@parenthesis)
+mod(105567381:0Z.@topic.@pl, 104723816:0R)
+and:03(115063493:25.@pl, 115016852:1R.@pl)
+and:03(114980215:3Z.@entry.@pl, 107065149:3B.@pl)
+aoj(301275562:0B, 105567381:0Z.@topic.@pl)
+and:03(114980215:3Z.@entry.@pl, 107065149:3B.@pl)
+aoj(301275562:0B, 105567381:0Z.@topic.@pl)
+and:03(115015501:2T.@pl, 115063493:25.@pl)
+and:03(107065149:3B.@pl, 115015501:2T.@pl)
+man(301275562:0B, 400536271:06)
+mod:01(104379243:2F.@entry, "1":2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12099]
+{org:en}
+Table 1
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "1":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "1":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12100]
+{org:en}
+Water mineralization standards for watering of animals
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(104301140:0N.@entry.@pl, 100278403:11)
+obj(100278403:11, 100015388:1D.@pl)
+pur(104301140:0N.@entry.@pl, 100278403:11)
+obj(100278403:11, 100015388:1D.@pl)
+mod(115689274:08, 107935504:02)
+mod(104301140:0N.@entry.@pl, 115689274:08)
+mod(104301140:0N.@entry.@pl, 115689274:08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12101]
+{org:en}
+Table 2
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "2":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "2":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+Water quality in irrigation
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+The total area of irrigated lands increased from 50 billion hectares in 1900 to 250 billion hectares at the end of the twentieth century.
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+The quality and quantity of agricultural products, and therefore the welfare and health of the human population on Earth is very dependent on the quality of water used in irrigation.
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+;;At the beginning of the twentieth century, Russia and USA identified the problem of quality standardization for irrigation water, and they demonstrated the risks resulting from soil salinization and solonetzation HTM1 affecting water mineralization and ion ratio.At the beginning of the twentieth century, Russia and USA identified the problem of quality standardization for irrigation water, and they demonstrated the risks resulting from soil salinization and solonetzization HTM1 affecting water mineralization and ion ratio.
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+This field was further developed in Europe, Canada, India, China and other countries.
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+A number of other countries have developed their own standards for quality of irrigation water, standards for heavy metals, pesticides, radioactive and other pollutant substances, as well as conditions for use of water with various chemical compositions.
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+Standardization principles and water quality criteria evaluation in irrigation
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+
+[S:12119]
+{org:en}
+The quality of water used in irrigation is a very important factor of ecologically safety of irrigation systems
+{/org}
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+it has influence on processes of soil salinization, solonetzization and pollution, on water consumption, productivity and quality of agricultural products, and on reliability of irrigation systems.
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+[S:12121]
+{org:en}
+Presence of pollutants in irrigation water causes pollution of soils and groundwaters, and subssequent transportation of these substances to plants, animal and humans.
+{/org}
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+[S:12122]
+{org:en}
+Standardization of water quality for use in irrigation involves standardization of water quality in reservoirs (irrigation source), chemical elements and other substances in soil and plants (irrigation object), and in agricultural outputs.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:12123]
+{org:en}
+At the same time, standardization of irrigation water quality represents an independent field of scientific research effort that has been conducted in various countries over recent decades.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:12124]
+{org:en}
+The problem is very complex because the processes in the "water - plant", "water - soil - plant", "water - soil - groundwater", and "water - construction" systems is influenced by climate, drainage, composition, properties and capacity of soils, depth and chemical composition of groundwater, stability of agriculture towards salts and pollutants, and irrigation technology.
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+{/unl}
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+[S:12125]
+{org:en}
+Migration of exogenous chemicals from water to soil, plants and groundwater results in complex processes of extra-reservoir bioaccumulation and biodegradation.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:12126]
+{org:en}
+In accord with this, the following principles form the basics of water quality standardization for use in irrigation
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12127]
+{org:en}
+principle of dependence of soil richness, water consumption, productivity and quality of agriculture production on water quality, chemical composition, ion ratio, and content of polluting substances in irrigation water
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+[S:12128]
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+principle of dependence of preservation, durability of materials and operational reliability of irrigation system constructions on chemical composition, properties of irrigation water, on content of suspended particles
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+principle of regional approach that takes account of specificity of climate, territory drainage, depth and chemical composition of groundwater, composition and properties of soils, irrigation technology, and cultivated agricultural phytocenosis
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+principle of risk limitation, according to which the maximum permissible concentrations of pollutant substances in water are stated, and
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+principle of directional formation of chemical composition and properties for irrigation water in order to optimize the basic indexes of soil irrigation procedure and to provide micro-elements required for soil and agriculture.
+{/org}
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+In accord with the above-stated basic principles, the ecological, agronomic and technical criteria have been developed for evaluation of irrigation water quality.
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+Ecological criteria have been proposed for evaluation of water quality with regard to environmental protection from pollution and for maintenance of public health, as well as due to close relation between irrigated cultivation and surface and underground waters HTM1 in order to evaluate water quality from the point of view of influence on surface and underground waters.
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+{org:en}
+The agronomic criteria are intended for evaluation of water quality with regard to maintenance of soil fertility (prevention of soil salinization, soda-formation and solonetzization processes, and disorders in microbiological regimes), for providing the desired scope (productivity, intensive development) and quality of agricultural production (full value, high quality, safety).
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+Technical criteria are intended for evaluation of water quality with regard to preservation and durability of irrigation systems constructions, for prevention of processes of corrosion, fouling, and biological overgrowth.
+{/org}
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+[S:12136]
+{org:en}
+Along with ecological, agronomic and technical criteria, economic ones may also be used.
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+The principles of water quality evaluation according to economic criteria are based on the acceptable risk concept.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+When evaluating the possibility of irrigation water having increased mineralization and undesirable composition, one should take into account the cost of water quality improvement on one hand, and, on the other, the losses arising from loss of soil fertility, productivity and product quality, and from higher investments in water, material and labor.
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+When the water source contains toxic substances and metabolites thereof that are able to migrate through the water-nutrition chain, evaluation of its utilization in irrigation should be mainly based on ecological and agronomic criteria.
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+{org:en}
+Requirements for water quality in various soils irrigation
+{/org}
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+Irrigation water quality influences first of all the "soil solution -soil absorbing complex" system, and consequently practically all components of the soil ameliorative regime
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+aqueous, saline, nutritional, aerial, thermal and microbiological.
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+In combination with irrigation regime and with agricultural technology procedures, irrigation water quality may be considered one of the main factors in controlling the ameliorative soil regime, in development of optimal conditions for growth of agriculture and increase in biological productivity of irrigated fields.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12144]
+{org:en}
+As a result, it seems advisable when creating the basics of a soil-ameliorative classification for irrigation water quality to state the priority of special (first) class of water quality that should be characterized by favorable composition and properties so that its use can be free of any limitations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12145]
+{org:en}
+Said class of water in accord with the fifth standardization principle ( HTM1 section 4.1 HTM2 ) may be placed as a base in formation of irrigation water composition and properties so as to optimize the main indexes of ameliorative soil regime and to provide soils with required microelements.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12146]
+{org:en}
+Soil solution is a liquid phase of the ion-salt complex that is in equilibrium with the solid phase, with adsorbed ions and partial pressure of HTM1 and HTM2 in an elementary soil volume.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12147]
+{org:en}
+The following substances are present in soil solution
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100019613:0G.@topic.@def.@pl, 300127815:06)
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+plc(301731351:0V.@entry, 100190783:1B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12148]
+{org:en}
+free ions of HTM1 , HTM2 , HTM3 , HTM4 , HTM5 , HTM6 , HTM7 , charged or neutral ion associates such as HTM8 , HTM9 , HTM10 , HTM11 , HTM12 , HTM13 , HTM14 , HTM15 , HTM16 , HTM17 , HTM18 , as well as free molecules of HTM19 , HTM20 , and HTM21 in solution.
+{/org}
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+and:03(HTM14:48, HTM13:40)
+obj:03(600000014:5C, 114682133:5S.@pl)
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+and:02(HTM20:6D, HTM19:65)
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+and:03(HTM11:3K, HTM10:3C)
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+and:04(HTM5:17.@pl, HTM4:10.@pl)
+and:03(HTM15:4G, HTM14:48)
+and:04(107284848:2F.@entry.@pl, HTM7:1L.@pl)
+and:03(HTM12:3S, HTM11:3K)
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+obj:04(600000029:2Q, :03)
+and:04(HTM6:1E.@pl, HTM5:17.@pl)
+and:03(HTM16:4O, HTM15:4G)
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+and:03(HTM17:4W, HTM16:4O)
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+and:03(HTM10:3C, HTM9:35)
+and:02(HTM21:6P.@entry, HTM20:6D)
+aoj:03(600000014:5C, HTM18:54.@entry)
+and:04(HTM4:10.@pl, HTM3:0T.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12149]
+{org:en}
+The ratio between the free ions and ion associates is defined by dissociation constants of the compounds that make possible calculations of real solution composition.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200957378:1K.@entry, 113819207:06.@topic.@def)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12150]
+{org:en}
+The soil absorbing complex (SAC) is composed mainly of cations such as HTM1 , HTM2 , HTM3 , HTM4 , HTM5 , and less commonly of anions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12151]
+{org:en}
+As total soil salinization increases, the proportion of salts in the SAC decreases.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+In non-salinized soils up to 90% of the total water-soluble mineral portion is related to the soil-absorbing complex
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+in medium salinized soils the content of absorbed anions is decreased to 40%.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Cations are mainly in the soil-absorbing complex while anions are located in the soil solution.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+Quantitative expression of the soil-absorbing complex is the capacity of absorption or of cation exchange (CEC).
+{/org}
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+This capacity depends on granulometric and mineralogical compositions, on content and composition of organic matter, and it characterizes the exchanged absorbed cations’ supply.
+{/org}
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+Action of irrigation water on soils results in formation of novel composition of soil solution that alters in relation to daily changes in temperature of irrigation water and soil, and in relation to evaporation of soil solution during the evapotranspiration process.
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+Heating of irrigation water and soil solution during the day time results in changes in ionic structure
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+calcium activity reduces, while that of sodium remains unchanged.
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+This results in a sharp increase of alkalinity.
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+Evaporation of soil solution during the evapotranspiration process also causes changes in ionic structure because the concentration (solubility) of calcium is limited by the solubility of calcium salts, and sodium concentration increases in proportion to evaporation, leading to increase in soil solution alkalinity.
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+Investigations of acid-alkaline regime of irrigation water and of soil solution indicate that the pH value is a very dynamic index both for soils and for irrigation waters.
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+The optimal acid-alkaline regime for irrigation water is at a pH within a range from 6.5 to 8.0, and at temperature from 15 to 25 HTM1 in the case of surface watering, and from 15 to 30 HTM2 in the case of overhead irrigation.
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+[S:12166]
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+Along with the pH index, the most important chemical features of irrigation waters are defined by the total amount of dissolved salts, primarily Na, Ca, Mg cations and by HTM1 anion.
+{/org}
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+When the total mineralization decreases, the content of Na and Ca cations is decreased while HTM1 concentration increases
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+this may result in soda formation.
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+Irrigation water with very low mineralization causes decomposition of the mineral portion and decrease in water permeability of soil.
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+The latter fact defines the necessity of standardizing the lowest limit of permissible content of salts in irrigation water HTM1 currently at a level of 0.2 HTM2.
+{/org}
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+Increase of mineralization in irrigation water leads to soil salinization and increase of osmotic pressure in soil solution, and this results in unfavorable conditions for agricultural crops.
+{/org}
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+and(202774178:3S.@entry, 202774203:1D)
+and:01(100363260:28.@entry, 115690051:1R)
+aoj(302790222:4U, 115689438:57)
+obj(100363260:02.@topic, 115689274:0E)
+pur(105798863:4F.@pl, 115689438:57)
+mod(100190783:39, 109335240:34)
+obj(202774203:1D, :01)
+obj(202774178:3S.@entry, 105798863:4F.@pl)
+aoj(303000608:2K, 100113113:2S)
+plc(202774203:1D, 100190783:39)
+aoj(202774178:3S.@entry, 600000022:3N.@topic)
+mod:01(115690051:1R, 109335240:1M)
+aoj(202774178:3S.@entry, 600000022:3N.@topic)
+mod:01(115690051:1R, 109335240:1M)
+aoj(202774203:1D, 100363260:02.@topic)
+mod(107935504:17, 100695448:0W)
+aoj(300995468:43, 105798863:4F.@pl)
+plc(100363260:02.@topic, 107935504:17)
+obj(:01, 100113113:2S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12172]
+{org:en}
+In soils with HTM1 increase of soil solution concentration causes desorption of hydrogen ions and absorption of Ca, Mg and Na cations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(201645601:1W.@entry, 109335240:05.@pl)
+obj(100363260:0S.@topic, 100375071:1I)
+obj:02(113423922:39.@entry, 109238294:41.@pl)
+man(201645601:1W.@entry, 600000018:0E)
+obj(600000018:0E, HTM1:0J)
+plc(201645601:1W.@entry, 109335240:05.@pl)
+obj(100363260:0S.@topic, 100375071:1I)
+obj:02(113423922:39.@entry, 109238294:41.@pl)
+man(201645601:1W.@entry, 600000018:0E)
+obj(600000018:0E, HTM1:0J)
+and:01(115669302:3R, 500323524:3N)
+obj(201645601:1W.@entry, :02:02)
+mod(100190783:19, 109335240:14)
+and:01(115669300:3Y.@entry, 115669302:3R)
+aoj(201645601:1W.@entry, 100363260:0S.@topic)
+mod(100375071:1I, 100190783:19)
+aoj(201645601:1W.@entry, 100363260:0S.@topic)
+mod(100375071:1I, 100190783:19)
+mod:02(109238294:41.@pl, :01)
+and:02(113423922:39.@entry, 113463490:26)
+obj:02(113463490:26, 109307719:2K.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12173]
+{org:en}
+Utilization of water with increased mineralization (up to a certain level) in irrigation of soils with HTM1 causes a rise in pH and degree of alkaline saturation, and this is favorable for soil fertility.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300604978:4V.@entry, 201645601:30)
+mod(109335240:2K.@pl, 100695448:28)
+obj(114580476:02.@topic, 107935504:0H)
+obj(201645601:30, 100324384:39.@indef)
+mod(115689274:12, 300880207:0S)
+mod(114051494:5E, 109335240:59)
+plc(115689274:12, 109335240:2K.@pl)
+and(300604978:4V.@entry, 201645601:30)
+mod(109335240:2K.@pl, 100695448:28)
+obj(114580476:02.@topic, 107935504:0H)
+obj(201645601:30, 100324384:39.@indef)
+mod(115689274:12, 300880207:0S)
+mod(114051494:5E, 109335240:59)
+plc(115689274:12, 109335240:2K.@pl)
+and:02(105094565:3O.@entry, 105039106:3H)
+aoj(600000019:2Q, 109335240:2K.@pl)
+pur(300604978:4V.@entry, 114051494:5E)
+obj(600000019:0N, 115689274:12)
+mod(:02, 100402671:47)
+aoj:01(300309740:1Q, 105093890:1Y.@indef)
+obj(600000019:2Q, HTM1:2V)
+aoj(300604978:4V.@entry, 600000022:4N.@topic)
+aoj(600000019:0N, 107935504:0H)
+aoj(300604978:4V.@entry, 600000022:4N.@topic)
+aoj(600000019:0N, 107935504:0H)
+obj(100324384:39.@indef, :02:02)
+obj:01(600000086:1I.@entry, 105093890:1Y.@indef)
+aoj(201645601:30, 114580476:02.@topic)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 115689274:12)
+aoj(300025728:3Y, 100402671:47)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12174]
+{org:en}
+In the case of soils with high absorption capacity, increase of soil solution concentration results in absorption of HTM1 , HTM2 ions and desorption of HTM3
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774178:2M.@entry, 600000134:02)
+mod(100190783:1Z, 109335240:1U)
+obj:01(113463490:3W.@entry, HTM3:4A)
+mod(100720951:18, 113423922:0X)
+obj(113423922:2X, :01)
+obj(600000019:0N, 100720951:18)
+man(202774178:2M.@entry, 600000134:02)
+mod(100190783:1Z, 109335240:1U)
+obj:01(113463490:3W.@entry, HTM3:4A)
+mod(100720951:18, 113423922:0X)
+obj(113423922:2X, :01)
+obj(600000019:0N, 100720951:18)
+obj(100363260:1I.@topic, 100375071:28)
+obj(202774178:2M.@entry, 113423922:2X)
+aoj(600000019:0N, 109335240:0H.@pl)
+mod:01(109315159:3N.@pl, HTM2:3I)
+aoj(202774178:2M.@entry, 100363260:1I.@topic)
+obj(600000134:02, 109335240:0H.@pl)
+aoj(202774178:2M.@entry, 100363260:1I.@topic)
+obj(600000134:02, 109335240:0H.@pl)
+and:01(109315159:3N.@pl, HTM1:3B)
+and:01(113463490:3W.@entry, 109315159:3N.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:0S, 100720951:18)
+mod(100375071:28, 100190783:1Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12175]
+{org:en}
+the rate of HTM1 and HTM2 absorption increases with increased soil absorption capacity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200153263:13.@entry, 113325010:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100720951:28, 113423922:1X)
+mod(100720951:28, 300880207:1I)
+obj(200153263:13.@entry, 113325010:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100720951:28, 113423922:1X)
+mod(100720951:28, 300880207:1I)
+and:01(HTM2:0N.@entry, HTM1:0E)
+obj(600000018:1D, 100720951:28)
+mod(113423922:0S, :01)
+man(200153263:13.@entry, 600000018:1D)
+man(200153263:13.@entry, 600000018:1D)
+mod(113325010:06.@topic.@def, 113423922:0S)
+mod(100720951:28, 109335240:1S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12176]
+{org:en}
+The use of irrigation waters with increased mineralization in steppe and dry steppe zones therefore leads to salinization and solonetzization of soils, and this is related to high absorbance capacity, with intrusion of HTM1 and HTM2 ions into SAC.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100720951:5C.@entry, 202774203:2T)
+obj(600000019:0V, 115689274:1A)
+and:03(HTM2:6D.@entry, HTM1:64)
+mod(100720951:5C.@entry, 115669588:51)
+mod:01(105611062:2D.@entry.@pl, 109445289:26)
+and:02(115689971:3J.@entry, 115690051:32)
+aoj(303161005:4L, 100720951:5C.@entry)
+and:01(105611062:2D.@entry.@pl, 109445289:1S.@pl)
+man(202774203:2T, 400043003:2J)
+and(100720951:5C.@entry, 202774203:2T)
+obj(600000019:0V, 115689274:1A)
+and:03(HTM2:6D.@entry, HTM1:64)
+mod(100720951:5C.@entry, 115669588:51)
+mod:01(105611062:2D.@entry.@pl, 109445289:26)
+and:02(115689971:3J.@entry, 115690051:32)
+aoj(303161005:4L, 100720951:5C.@entry)
+and:01(105611062:2D.@entry.@pl, 109445289:1S.@pl)
+man(202774203:2T, 400043003:2J)
+gol(100049530:5R, 105515670:6S)
+mod(115689188:0O.@pl, 100695448:0D)
+aoj(600000019:5M, 100720951:5C.@entry)
+mod(115689274:1A, 300880207:10)
+obj(202774203:2T, :02)
+obj(100049530:5R, 109315159:6I.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:0V, 115689188:0O.@pl)
+plc(115689274:1A, :01:01)
+aoj(100720951:5C.@entry, 600000022:4D.@topic)
+aoj(202774203:2T, 100947128:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(100720951:5C.@entry, 600000022:4D.@topic)
+aoj(202774203:2T, 100947128:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000019:5M, 100049530:5R)
+obj(100947128:06.@topic.@def, 115689188:0O.@pl)
+aoj(300705498:4W, 100720951:5C.@entry)
+aoj:01(300799953:23, 105611062:2D.@entry.@pl)
+mod(:02, 109335240:42.@pl)
+mod(109315159:6I.@pl, :03)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12177]
+{org:en}
+The use of irrigation waters with increased mineralization in deserts is determined by salinization processes and magnesium solonetzization under certain conditions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:23.@entry, 100947128:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(115689188:0O.@pl, 100695448:0D)
+obj:01(600000361:3Y, 105798863:4C)
+mod:01(115689971:3I.@entry, 600000361:3Y)
+mod(115689274:1A, 300880207:10)
+obj(200699815:23.@entry, 100947128:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(115689188:0O.@pl, 100695448:0D)
+obj:01(600000361:3Y, 105798863:4C)
+mod:01(115689971:3I.@entry, 600000361:3Y)
+mod(115689274:1A, 300880207:10)
+obj(100947128:06.@topic.@def, 115689188:0O.@pl)
+and:01(115689971:3I.@entry, 100029677:2U.@pl)
+plc(115689274:1A, 108505573:1S.@pl)
+mod:01(100029677:2U.@pl, 115690051:2H)
+aoj(200699815:23.@entry, :01)
+obj(600000019:0V, 115689274:1A)
+aoj(200699815:23.@entry, :01)
+obj(600000019:0V, 115689274:1A)
+aoj:01(300309740:44, 105798863:4C)
+mod:01(115689971:3I.@entry, 114644249:38)
+aoj(600000019:0V, 115689188:0O.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12178]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the permissible higher level of the total content of soluble salts in irrigation water (mineralization) is determined by two main soil characteristics
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200699815:2V.@entry, 600000141:02)
+qua(105809192:1C.@def, 303160907:16)
+mod(104731497:3N.@pl, 109335240:3I)
+qua(104731497:3N.@pl, "2":39)
+man(200699815:2V.@entry, 600000141:02)
+qua(105809192:1C.@def, 303160907:16)
+mod(104731497:3N.@pl, 109335240:3I)
+qua(104731497:3N.@pl, "2":39)
+aoj(300705498:0O, 105093890:0T.@def.@topic)
+aoj(200699815:2V.@entry, 104731497:3N.@pl)
+cnt(107935504:25, 115689274:2C.@parenthesis)
+aoj(301760944:0C, 105093890:0T.@def.@topic)
+obj(200699815:2V.@entry, 105093890:0T.@def.@topic)
+obj(115691901:1N.@pl, 107935504:25)
+obj(200699815:2V.@entry, 105093890:0T.@def.@topic)
+obj(115691901:1N.@pl, 107935504:25)
+mod(105093890:0T.@def.@topic, 105809192:1C.@def)
+mod(104731497:3N.@pl, 301512527:3D)
+mod(105809192:1C.@def, 115691901:1N.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12179]
+{org:en}
+mechanical composition and absorption capacity.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100720951:1B.@entry, 103081660:0G)
+and(100720951:1B.@entry, 103081660:0G)
+aoj(301499686:05, 103081660:0G)
+mod(100720951:1B.@entry, 113423922:10)
+mod(100720951:1B.@entry, 113423922:10)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12180]
+{org:en}
+These characteristics are integral ones and represent permeability (drainage ability), mineralogical composition, physical and chemical as well as ion exchange soil properties.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200825447:1A.@entry, 600000027:11.@pl)
+and:03(103081660:35, 104940496:1N)
+mod:03(104012260:58.@entry, 109335240:53)
+aoj(300515870:0S, 600000027:11.@pl)
+and:03(104012260:58.@entry, 103081660:35)
+mod:01(105200169:2A.@entry, 115668933:21)
+and(200825447:1A.@entry, 600000027:11.@pl)
+and:03(103081660:35, 104940496:1N)
+mod:03(104012260:58.@entry, 109335240:53)
+aoj(300515870:0S, 600000027:11.@pl)
+and:03(104012260:58.@entry, 103081660:35)
+mod:01(105200169:2A.@entry, 115668933:21)
+obj:03(600000015:4B, 100167063:4Q)
+obj(200825447:1A.@entry, :03:03)
+cnt:03(104940496:1N, :01.@parenthesis)
+and:02(302692624:3Z.@entry, 300627004:3M)
+agt(200825447:1A.@entry, 104731497:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:03(303157994:2R, 103081660:35)
+agt(200825447:1A.@entry, 104731497:08.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:03(303157994:2R, 103081660:35)
+man:03(:02, 600000015:4B)
+mod(104731497:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+aoj:03(:02, 104012260:58.@entry)
+aoj(600000027:11.@pl, 104731497:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod:03(100167063:4Q, 109315159:4M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12181]
+{org:en}
+With regard to mechanical composition, the soil absorption capacity may be divided into three main groups
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200642098:25.@entry.@may, 600000180:02)
+mod(100720951:1P.@topic.@def, 113423922:1E)
+qua(100031264:2T.@pl, "3":2I)
+man(200642098:25.@entry.@may, 600000180:02)
+mod(100720951:1P.@topic.@def, 113423922:1E)
+qua(100031264:2T.@pl, "3":2I)
+aoj(301499686:0H, 103081660:0S)
+gol(200642098:25.@entry.@may, 100031264:2T.@pl)
+obj(600000180:02, 103081660:0S)
+obj(200642098:25.@entry.@may, 100720951:1P.@topic.@def)
+obj(200642098:25.@entry.@may, 100720951:1P.@topic.@def)
+obj(113423922:1E, 109335240:19)
+mod(100031264:2T.@pl, 301512527:2O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12182]
+{org:en}
+soils with heavy mechanical composition and with HTM1 mg-equiv. per 100 g
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01, 109335240:02.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(301499686:0J, 103081660:0U)
+mod:01(115669302:1K, HTM1:1F)
+aoj:01(600000025:1T, 115669302:1K)
+aoj(:01, 109335240:02.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(301499686:0J, 103081660:0U)
+mod:01(115669302:1K, HTM1:1F)
+aoj:01(600000025:1T, 115669302:1K)
+obj:01(600000019:08, 103081660:0U)
+obj:01(600000019:1A.@entry, 115669302:1K)
+qua:01(106831819:21, "100":1X)
+and:01(600000019:1A.@entry, 600000019:08)
+and:01(600000019:1A.@entry, 600000019:08)
+obj:01(600000025:1T, 106831819:21)
+aoj:01(115690591:1N, 115669302:1K)
+aoj:01(300462409:0D, 103081660:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12183]
+{org:en}
+soils with medium mechanical composition and with SAC 15-30 mg-equiv. per 100 g, and
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01, 109335240:02.@entry)
+aoj:01(300617752:0C, 103081660:0K)
+aoj:01(600000025:1O, 115669302:1F)
+qua:01(105515670:15, 115669302:1F)
+aoj(:01, 109335240:02.@entry)
+aoj:01(300617752:0C, 103081660:0K)
+aoj:01(600000025:1O, 115669302:1F)
+qua:01(105515670:15, 115669302:1F)
+qua:01(106831819:1W, "100":1S)
+obj:01(600000019:10.@entry, 105515670:15)
+obj:01(600000025:1O, 106831819:1W)
+and:01(600000019:10.@entry, 600000019:07)
+and:01(600000019:10.@entry, 600000019:07)
+aoj:01(115690591:1I, 115669302:1F)
+qua:01(115669302:1F, "15-30":19)
+obj:01(600000019:07, 103081660:0K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12184]
+{org:en}
+soils with light mechanical composition and with SAC HTM1 mg-equiv. per 100 g.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01, 109335240:02.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(300269989:0D, 103081660:0U)
+aoj:01(115690591:1R, 115669302:1O)
+qua:01(105515670:1F, 115669302:1O)
+aoj(:01, 109335240:02.@entry.@pl)
+aoj:01(300269989:0D, 103081660:0U)
+aoj:01(115690591:1R, 115669302:1O)
+qua:01(105515670:1F, 115669302:1O)
+qua:01(106831819:25, "100":21)
+obj:01(600000019:1A.@entry, 105515670:1F)
+obj:01(600000025:1X, 106831819:25)
+and:01(600000019:1A.@entry, 600000019:08)
+aoj:01(301499686:0J, 103081660:0U)
+and:01(600000019:1A.@entry, 600000019:08)
+aoj:01(301499686:0J, 103081660:0U)
+qua:01(115669302:1O, HTM1:1J)
+aoj:01(600000025:1X, 115669302:1O)
+obj:01(600000019:08, 103081660:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12185]
+{org:en}
+With increasing SAC and muddy fraction content the permissible amount of salts in irrigation water decreases.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200151689:2J.@entry, 600000018:02)
+mod(107935504:2D, 100695448:22)
+qua(105717342:1T.@topic.@pl, 100033615:1J.@def)
+man(200151689:2J.@entry, 600000018:02)
+mod(107935504:2D, 100695448:22)
+qua(105717342:1T.@topic.@pl, 100033615:1J.@def)
+aoj:01(303162702:0G, 105809192:0V.@entry)
+plc(105717342:1T.@topic.@pl, 107935504:2D)
+and:01(105809192:0V.@entry, 105515670:08)
+obj(200151689:2J.@entry, 105717342:1T.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200151689:2J.@entry, 105717342:1T.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000018:02, :01:01)
+aoj(301760944:17, 100033615:1J.@def)
+mod:01(105809192:0V.@entry, 103390207:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12186]
+{org:en}
+In the case of close level of underground water bedding ( HTM1 ) the permissible mineralization of irrigation water depends not only on soil absorption capacity and mechanical composition, but also on the chemical composition of the groundwater.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202663848:3A.@entry, 600000134:02)
+mod(115669773:1E, 107935504:18)
+mod:01(113423922:3X, 109335240:3S)
+mod:02(115669150:5N.@entry.@def, 115669379:6F.@def)
+mod(105093890:0N, 115669773:1E)
+and:02(115669150:5N.@entry.@def, :01)
+mod(107935504:34, 100695448:2T)
+man(202663848:3A.@entry, 600000134:02)
+mod(115669773:1E, 107935504:18)
+mod:01(113423922:3X, 109335240:3S)
+mod:02(115669150:5N.@entry.@def, 115669379:6F.@def)
+mod(105093890:0N, 115669773:1E)
+and:02(115669150:5N.@entry.@def, :01)
+mod(107935504:34, 100695448:2T)
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+{org:en}
+Magnesium concentration in irrigation water influences soils and plants
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
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+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Taking into account different roles of Na, Mg and Ca cations in soil formation processes during irrigation, equivalent concentration ratios HTM1 , HTM2 in irrigation water are used for risk evaluation of sodium and magnesium soil solonetzization.
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+[S:12190]
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+Expression of cation ratio using concentration rather than ion activity is explained by the fact that activity coefficients of bivalent cations (Ca, Mg) are decreased faster with concentration increase, than those of monovalent cations, Na in particular.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+The ratio of ion concentrations is less dependent on salts concentration that activity or concentration of separate cations within the same range of salt concentration.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Growth of HTM1 ratio increases soil dispersion and reduces agricultural productivity.
+{/org}
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+[S:12193]
+{org:en}
+The influence of magnesium is unfavorable in soils where its content is more than 30% in the soil-absorption complex.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+The effects of magnesium on soils includes notions such as "magnesium solonetzization" and "magnesium salinization".
+{/org}
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+[S:12195]
+{org:en}
+Review of many investigations into the role of exchangeable magnesium in soil formation processes makes it possible to utilize the "magnesium solonetzization" notion.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12196]
+{org:en}
+The main contradictions in the description of the influence of magnesium on soil formation properties are concerned with the fact that magnesium is more easily included than sodium in the soil-absorption complex but is substituted with more difficulty.
+{/org}
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+[S:12197]
+{org:en}
+The solonetzization action of magnesium is connected with its higher hydration degree than calcium, with the ability to reduce resistance to alkaline hydrolysis and to increase hydrophilicity of soil colloids.
+{/org}
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+Magnesium increases total biological activity and activity of hydrolytical enzymes
+{/org}
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+the process of mineralization and transformation of organic substances are accelerated, there is an increase of microscopic fungi that influence biochemical processes and decomposition of organic substances, forming acidic products.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Humus under the influence of magnesium gains properties of solonetzic soil humus.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+Magnesium ions penetrate into a crystal lattice of hydrated mica and substitute interlayer potassium.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:12202]
+{org:en}
+Combination of magnesium and sodium therefore leads to development of soil solonetzization, which is based on formation of peptization processes of soil colloids and a highly dispersed mineral soil fragment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12203]
+{org:en}
+Exchangeable magnesium, both independently and in combination with exchangeable sodium, has a negative influence on soils, and its role in soil formation processes, particularly irrigated ones, is very significant.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200079951:57.@past, 600000027:5H.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12204]
+{org:en}
+Residual sodium carbonate (RSC) reflects the process of carbonate formation, calcium dissolution and coagulation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200821580:0Y.@entry, 114798450:0I.@topic)
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+and:01(100215314:2F, 100925207:1W)
+mod(114655371:0B, 302835654:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12205]
+{org:en}
+Precipitation of carbonates increases sodium content in irrigation water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200153263:0U.@entry, 105061149:02.@topic)
+obj(105061149:02.@topic, 114798450:0J.@pl)
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+obj(200153263:0U.@entry, 105809192:1B)
+mod(107935504:1X, 100695448:1M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12206]
+{org:en}
+Residual sodium carbonate is determined according to the formula
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0V.@entry, 114798450:0I.@topic)
+mod(114798450:0I.@topic, 114655371:0B)
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+mod(114798450:0I.@topic, 114655371:0B)
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+man(200699815:0V.@entry, 600000046:16)
+mod(114655371:0B, 302835654:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12207]
+{org:en}
+wherein ion concentration is expressed in mg-equiv/l.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(400535290:02.@entry, 200940384:0V)
+mod(100375071:0E.@topic, 109315159:0A)
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+mod(100375071:0E.@topic, 109315159:0A)
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+obj(200940384:0V, 100375071:0E.@topic)
+obj(200940384:0V, 100375071:0E.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12208]
+{org:en}
+Four classes of irrigation water quality are distinguished with regard to character and degree of irrigation water influence
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200650353:1B.@entry, 100884466:07.@topic.@pl)
+mod(107935504:0T, 100695448:0I)
+mod(100157081:39, 107935504:33)
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+man(200650353:1B.@entry, 600000180:1P)
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+mod(104723816:0Z, 107935504:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12209]
+{org:en}
+these classes represent risk of development of general and chloride solonetzization, sodium ( HTM1 ) and magnesium ( HTM2 ) solonetzization as well as soda formation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000014:43, 100925207:4J)
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+and:01(115016852:1Q.@entry, 300487198:1E)
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+and:01(115016852:1Q.@entry, 300487198:1E)
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+mod(100884466:08.@topic, 600000022:02.@pl)
+cnt:02(114655371:2K, HTM1:2T.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12210]
+{org:en}
+Utilization of class I water has no limitations, but the use of water of classes II, III and IV is accompanied by increasing limitations, (see Tables 3 and 4).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(:03.@parenthesis, 200065370:0V.@entry)
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+mod(107935504:1U, 100884466:23)
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+obj(200065370:0V.@entry, 100808182:12.@pl)
+mod(107935504:1U, 100884466:23)
+obj(600000037:1F, 202025550:2R)
+mod:03(104379243:3Z.@pl, :02)
+aoj(200065370:0V.@entry, 114580476:02.@topic)
+obj(100947128:1N.@def.@topic, 107935504:1U)
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+man(200065370:0V.@entry, 600000037:1F)
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+man(200065370:0V.@entry, 600000037:1F)
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+mod(107935504:0P, 100884466:0H)
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+mod(100808182:12.@pl, 600001330:0Z)
+mod(100884466:23, :01)
+obj(202025550:2R, 100947128:1N.@def.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12211]
+{org:en}
+Table 3
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "3":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "3":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12212]
+{org:en}
+Soil-ameliorative classification of irrigation water quality
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(101148904:0K.@entry, 104723816:1J)
+mod(104723816:1J, 100695448:12)
+obj(101148904:0K.@entry, 104723816:1J)
+mod(104723816:1J, 100695448:12)
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+aoj(303161797:07, 101148904:0K.@entry)
+mod(104723816:1J, 107935504:1D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12213]
+{org:en}
+Table 4
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "4":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "4":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12214]
+{org:en}
+Characteristics of quality classes of irrigation water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104731497:02.@entry.@pl, 100884466:0T.@pl)
+mod(107935504:1F, 100695448:14)
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+mod(107935504:1F, 100695448:14)
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+mod(100884466:0T.@pl, 107935504:1F)
+mod(100884466:0T.@pl, 107935504:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12215]
+{org:en}
+Stability of crops towards salts, pollutants in irrigation water and soil
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000104:0S, 104778401:05.@entry)
+plc:01(114857278:1A.@pl, 107935504:1Z)
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+and:01(114857278:1A.@pl, 105717342:10.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12216]
+{org:en}
+Stability of crops towards salt and pollutants arises from natural or artificial selection of populations that are adapted for cultivation on soils that are salinized or polluted to various extents.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200339738:1D.@entry.@past, 104778401:02.@topic)
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+gol(:03, 105123416:5B.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12217]
+{org:en}
+Presence of rather significant distinctions of agricultural crops with regard to salt tolerance and stability towards polluting substances provides a basis for their classification and for formation of corresponding requirements for permissible content of salts and pollutants in the root zone and in irrigation water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200406963:4I.@entry, 101233802:02.@topic)
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+plc:04(:02.@entry, :03:03)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12218]
+{org:en}
+The negative influence of soil solution salts on plants is based firstly on increase of osmotic pressure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(302351064:1W.@entry, 100157081:0I.@topic.@def)
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+mod(100190783:10, 109335240:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12219]
+{org:en}
+This results in decrease of water input to plants and its cessation at high osmotic pressure.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774178:07.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+aoj:01(300705498:21, 100113113:2E)
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+mod:01(103573154:10, 107935504:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12220]
+{org:en}
+The so-called physiological drought approaches, which retards or completely stops plant growth and can result in death.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100280853:12.@def.@pl.@entry, 303161064:06)
+obj(202774178:2X.@ability, 100219575:37)
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+{org:en}
+Soil solution osmotic pressure depends on the composition and quantity of salts in soil, as well as on soil water capacity and its saturation degree.
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+In overhead irrigation the quality of the water used directly affects agricultural crops, but the effect is indirect in surface irrigation, and is a combination thereof during flooding.
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+Increase of areas and types of agricultural crops with overhead irrigation, salt absorption by leaves and the losses caused by these factors, determine the necessity of standardization of irrigation water quality with respect to salt tolerance of agricultural crops and to irrigation technology.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:12227]
+{org:en}
+Along with the combined action of salts in soil and in irrigation water on physiological processes in plants, chlorine, sodium and boron ions also act separately.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12228]
+{org:en}
+With overhead irrigation, when leaves readily absorb salts and certain ions, salt tolerance is significantly decreased.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Grassy plants that are stable towards chlorine and sodium at surface irrigation can be damaged by overhead irrigation.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:12230]
+{org:en}
+Overhead irrigation of cotton plant with mineralized water in the daytime causes a fertility decrease of up to 50%, but overhead irrigation at night or furrow watering under the same conditions does not cause any losses.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Excess exchangeable sodium in soil causes soil dusting and thickening, and this complicates water infiltration and root penetration.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+The plants that are stable towards physiological toxicity of sodium are then depressed and may die as a result of unfavorable soil properties.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Moreover, high content of sodium, calcium and magnesium deficiency upsets the nutrient balance.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12234]
+{org:en}
+In the case of overhead irrigation, toxicity of sodium and chlorine depends on weather HTM1 during cool weather periods high concentrations of sodium and chlorine ions may be present in leaves without any toxicity features, but during hot and dry weather periods a sudden blackening of leaves takes place.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:12235]
+{org:en}
+On the basis of salt tolerance analysis of agricultural crops, plants can be arranged in the following four groups of salt tolerance (see Table 5)
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:12236]
+{org:en}
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+{/org}
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+man(301736883:0E.@entry, 400089267:07)
+man(400089267:07, 400536271:02)
+man(400089267:07, 400536271:02)
+{/unl}
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+
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+{org:en}
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+{/org}
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+man(301736883:09.@entry, 400089267:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12238]
+{org:en}
+medium tolerant
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+303163471:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+303163471:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12239]
+{org:en}
+low tolerant
+{/org}
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+man(301736883:06.@entry, 400393149:02)
+man(301736883:06.@entry, 400393149:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12240]
+{org:en}
+Table 5
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "5":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "5":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12241]
+{org:en}
+Gradation of cultivated plants according to salt tolerance groups
+{/org}
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+aoj(600000111:0X, 100017222:0Q.@pl)
+mod(100031264:1P.@pl, 101071090:1F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12242]
+{org:en}
+Agricultural crops are characterized by an 8- to 10-fold stability interval, and this enables substantial enlargement of the water mineralization range admissible for irrigation without soil limitations.
+{/org}
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+aoj(600000060:50, 100695448:4P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12243]
+{org:en}
+The productivity potential of agricultural crops may vary significantly in relation to water quality because other factors also influence fertility.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12244]
+{org:en}
+Most plants in early growth stages have increased sensitivity to salts in soil and irrigation water.
+{/org}
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+mod(100306900:0T.@pl, 108438067:0M)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12245]
+{org:en}
+Agricultural crops cultivated in cool climate regions demonstrate higher salt tolerance compared to analogous types cultivated in hot climates, wherein water consumption by plant roots during periods of intense evapotranspiration may be insufficient due to fast evaporation of soil moisture and to increase of salt concentration near the roots.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12246]
+{org:en}
+Along with salt tolerance of agricultural crops, another important characteristic is stability towards boron in irrigation water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(104778401:2F.@entry, 600000115:02)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12247]
+{org:en}
+For certain crops a boron concentration of 0.2 HTM1 in irrigation water is needed, but boron concentration from 1 to 2 HTM2 is harmful.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+fmt:01("2":3B.@entry, "1":36)
+obj(600000037:2D, 301160031:3L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12248]
+{org:en}
+Boron acts negatively on almost all crops, but some possess a certain boron tolerance (Table 6).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(202632167:1L, 101071090:29.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12249]
+{org:en}
+Table 6
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "6":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "6":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12250]
+{org:en}
+Classification of irrigation water with regard to boron content hazard degree ( HTM1 )
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(101148904:02.@entry, 107935504:0V)
+mod(105094565:21, 103501152:1U)
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+cnt(105094565:21, HTM1:2A.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12251]
+{org:en}
+and boron tolerance of crops.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(101071090:0C.@entry, :02)
+and(101071090:0C.@entry, :02)
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+mod(101071090:0C.@entry, 115689438:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12252]
+{org:en}
+Plant tolerance to pollutants depends on growth phase, root depth, and growing season duration, and on supply of plant nutrients.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:0W.@entry, 101071090:08.@topic)
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+obj:02(113563522:2X.@entry, 100021734:3D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12253]
+{org:en}
+Agricultural technical measures (e.g. fertilizing, liming) may both increase and decrease the toxic action of pollutants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(:03.@entry, 100174412:0P.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(201603732:1H.@entry.@progress, 200502757:14.@progress)
+aoj(302449430:2O, 100037396:2U.@def)
+and:03(200151689:2B.@entry.@may, 200153263:1Y.@may)
+agt(:03.@entry, 100174412:0P.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(201603732:1H.@entry.@progress, 200502757:14.@progress)
+aoj(302449430:2O, 100037396:2U.@def)
+and:03(200151689:2B.@entry.@may, 200153263:1Y.@may)
+aoj(300484070:0F, 100174412:0P.@topic.@pl)
+man(:03.@entry, 600000074:1T)
+aoj(302790222:02, 100174412:0P.@topic.@pl)
+obj(:03.@entry, 100037396:2U.@def)
+obj(:03.@entry, 100037396:2U.@def)
+aoj(:02.@parenthesis, 100174412:0P.@topic.@pl)
+obj(100037396:2U.@def, 114857278:34.@pl)
+obj:02(115699356:0Z.@entry, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12254]
+{org:en}
+With regard to microelements, plants possess various sensitivities to content of excessive water in soil and various sensitivities to its deficiency.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202632167:13.@entry, 600000180:02)
+aoj:01(303160904:33, 104842993:3B.@entry.@pl)
+mod(105809192:20, 107935504:2L)
+to(104842993:1J.@pl, 105809192:20)
+man(202632167:13.@entry, 600000180:02)
+aoj:01(303160904:33, 104842993:3B.@entry.@pl)
+mod(105809192:20, 107935504:2L)
+to(104842993:1J.@pl, 105809192:20)
+and:01(104842993:3B.@entry.@pl, 109335240:2U.@pl)
+obj(202632167:13.@entry, 104842993:1J.@pl)
+obj(600000180:02, 115690208:0H.@pl)
+aoj(301533974:2B, 107935504:2L)
+aoj(202632167:13.@entry, 100017222:0W.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(105113133:3W, 600000016:3S)
+aoj(202632167:13.@entry, 100017222:0W.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(105113133:3W, 600000016:3S)
+plc(107935504:2L, :01:01)
+aoj(303160904:1B, 104842993:1J.@pl)
+to:01(104842993:3B.@entry.@pl, 105113133:3W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12255]
+{org:en}
+Zinc deficiency is a significant problem in fruit production, and such cultures as apricot, cherry, pear, peach, apple, walnut, citrus and grape are highly sensitive.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(300416164:4E.@entry, 105687338:0Z.@indef)
+and:01(107751004:30, 107767847:2U)
+obj(600000117:2A, :01)
+aoj(300625055:0N, 105687338:0Z.@indef)
+aoj(600000117:2A, 100917759:21.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(105687338:0Z.@indef, 105113133:07.@topic)
+and(300416164:4E.@entry, 105687338:0Z.@indef)
+and:01(107751004:30, 107767847:2U)
+obj(600000117:2A, :01)
+aoj(300625055:0N, 105687338:0Z.@indef)
+aoj(600000117:2A, 100917759:21.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(105687338:0Z.@indef, 105113133:07.@topic)
+aoj:01(303159179:3M, 107771212:3E)
+man(300416164:4E.@entry, 400089267:47)
+and:01(107757132:2M, 107750872:2D)
+and:01(107771212:3E, 107739125:37)
+mod(105113133:07.@topic, 114661977:02)
+aoj(300416164:4E.@entry, 100917759:21.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(107767847:2U, 107757132:2M)
+aoj(300416164:4E.@entry, 100917759:21.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(107767847:2U, 107757132:2M)
+and:01(107758680:3X.@entry, 107771212:3E)
+mod(100522736:1G, 107294550:1A)
+mod(100917759:21.@topic.@pl, 600001411:1W)
+scn(105687338:0Z.@indef, 100522736:1G)
+and:01(107739125:37, 107751004:30)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12256]
+{org:en}
+The following groups are distinguished with regard to zinc deficiency sensitivity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200650353:0R.@entry, 100031264:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(100031264:0G.@topic.@def.@pl, 300127815:06)
+mod(104842993:20, 105113133:1P)
+obj(200650353:0R.@entry, 100031264:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(100031264:0G.@topic.@def.@pl, 300127815:06)
+mod(104842993:20, 105113133:1P)
+obj(600000180:15, 104842993:20)
+man(200650353:0R.@entry, 600000180:15)
+man(200650353:0R.@entry, 600000180:15)
+mod(105113133:1P, 114661977:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12257]
+{org:en}
+non-sensitive
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+303163532:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+303163532:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12258]
+{org:en}
+oats, wheat, barley, rye, pea, asparagus, mustard, carrot, cereals, peppermint
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(107606538:1Y.@entry, 115692036:1P)
+and(107725376:0S, 107907429:0N)
+and(107713763:18, 107719213:0X)
+and(107606538:1Y.@entry, 115692036:1P)
+and(107725376:0S, 107907429:0N)
+and(107713763:18, 107719213:0X)
+and(107803545:08, 115692951:02)
+and(101219722:1H, 107713763:18)
+and(112123244:0F, 107803545:08)
+and(115692036:1P, 101219722:1H)
+and(115692036:1P, 101219722:1H)
+and(107907429:0N, 112123244:0F)
+and(107719213:0X, 107725376:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12259]
+{org:en}
+low sensitive
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300416164:06.@entry, 400393149:02)
+man(300416164:06.@entry, 400393149:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12260]
+{org:en}
+potato, tomato, onion, lucerne, cereal sorghum, Sudan grass, sugar beet, red clover
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(111753355:24.@entry, 111832214:1Y)
+mod(107860103:15, 107702796:0Y)
+and(500323925:1F, 107860103:15)
+and(111753355:24.@entry, 111832214:1Y)
+mod(107860103:15, 107702796:0Y)
+and(500323925:1F, 107860103:15)
+and(107734017:0A, 107710616:02)
+mod(111832214:1Y, 107859284:1S)
+and(107722217:0I, 107734017:0A)
+and(111832214:1Y, 500323925:1F)
+and(111832214:1Y, 500323925:1F)
+and(115669214:0P, 107722217:0I)
+and(107860103:15, 115669214:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12261]
+{org:en}
+highly sensitive
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300416164:09.@entry, 400089267:02)
+man(300416164:09.@entry, 400089267:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12262]
+{org:en}
+bean, soy, maize, hops, grape, flax.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(112486574:0X.@entry, 107758680:0Q)
+and(115690537:0D, 107729485:08)
+and(112486574:0X.@entry, 107758680:0Q)
+and(115690537:0D, 107729485:08)
+and(100120010:0K.@pl, 115690537:0D)
+and(107758680:0Q, 100120010:0K.@pl)
+and(107758680:0Q, 100120010:0K.@pl)
+and(107729485:08, 107724943:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12263]
+{org:en}
+Insufficient content of copper causes lodging and non-ripening of grain crops, and stag-headedness of fruit trees.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201645601:0X.@entry, 105809192:0F.@topic)
+obj:01(113551965:1K.@entry, 115689438:22)
+mod:02(115694457:2I.@entry, 112651821:2W.@pl)
+aoj(201645601:0X.@entry, 105809192:0F.@topic)
+obj:01(113551965:1K.@entry, 115689438:22)
+mod:02(115694457:2I.@entry, 112651821:2W.@pl)
+mod(105809192:0F.@topic, 102282385:0Q)
+and:02(115694457:2I.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(115689438:22, 104950713:1W)
+obj(201645601:0X.@entry, :02:02)
+obj(201645601:0X.@entry, :02:02)
+mod:01(113551965:1K.@entry, 303161142:1G)
+and:01(113551965:1K.@entry, 101054227:14)
+aoj(302336449:02, 105809192:0F.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12264]
+{org:en}
+Manganese deficiency causes chlorosis and necrosis of plants, punctate yellows of sugar beet
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201645601:0N.@entry, 105113133:0C.@topic)
+cnt(:01, 104965661:20.@pl)
+and:01(111486708:18.@entry, 114166775:0U)
+aoj(201645601:0N.@entry, 105113133:0C.@topic)
+cnt(:01, 104965661:20.@pl)
+and:01(111486708:18.@entry, 114166775:0U)
+mod(111832214:2H, 107859284:2B)
+mod(:01, 100017222:1K)
+aoj(303163648:1R, 104965661:20.@pl)
+obj(201645601:0N.@entry, :01:01)
+obj(201645601:0N.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(104965661:20.@pl, 111832214:2H)
+mod(105113133:0C.@topic, 114644654:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12265]
+{org:en}
+zinc deficiency causes chlorosis and small leaves, and boron deficiency causes dying of plants and root growth spots, beet pith rot, and brown rot of cabbage flower and Swedish turnip.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(201645601:22.@entry, 201645601:0I)
+mod(105113133:07.@topic, 114661977:02)
+mod:02(108438067:38, 105308310:33)
+and:03(115693065:43, :02)
+aoj(201645601:0I, 105113133:07.@topic)
+mod(:03, :04.@entry)
+mod:04(111669335:54, 107713895:4W)
+and(201645601:22.@entry, 201645601:0I)
+mod(105113133:07.@topic, 114661977:02)
+mod:02(108438067:38, 105308310:33)
+and:03(115693065:43, :02)
+aoj(201645601:0I, 105113133:07.@topic)
+mod(:03, :04.@entry)
+mod:04(111669335:54, 107713895:4W)
+and:02(104286128:3F.@entry.@pl, 115693636:2C.@pl)
+aoj:01(301391351:13, 103652226:19.@entry.@pl)
+obj(201645601:22.@entry, :03:03)
+and:04(500324306:5F.@entry, 111669335:54)
+mod:03(113096159:3Y, 111832214:3T)
+and:01(103652226:19.@entry.@pl, 114166775:0P.@pl)
+aoj(201645601:22.@entry, 105113133:1R.@topic)
+obj:02(115693636:2C.@pl, 100017222:2L.@pl)
+aoj(201645601:22.@entry, 105113133:1R.@topic)
+obj:02(115693636:2C.@pl, 100017222:2L.@pl)
+mod:03(115693065:43, 113096159:3Y)
+obj(201645601:0I, :01)
+and:03(114278773:4G.@entry, 115693065:43)
+obj(105113133:1R.@topic, 114631871:1L)
+mod:02(104286128:3F.@entry.@pl, 108438067:38)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12266]
+{org:en}
+Oats, rye, sugar beet, celery, and beans are tolerant towards manganese.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301736883:1B.@entry, :01)
+and:01(111832214:0J.@topic.@pl, 107907429:08.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(107724943:11.@entry.@pl.@topic, 107730406:0P.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(301736883:1B.@entry, :01)
+and:01(111832214:0J.@topic.@pl, 107907429:08.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(107724943:11.@entry.@pl.@topic, 107730406:0P.@topic.@pl)
+obj(600000080:1K, 114644654:1S)
+and:01(107907429:08.@topic.@pl, 115692951:02.@topic.@pl)
+man(301736883:1B.@entry, 600000080:1K)
+man(301736883:1B.@entry, 600000080:1K)
+mod:01(111832214:0J.@topic.@pl, 107859284:0D)
+and:01(107730406:0P.@topic.@pl, 111832214:0J.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12267]
+{org:en}
+Medium tolerance is demonstrated by barley, potato, and red clover, and low stability, by cabbage.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202521816:2I.@entry, 202521816:0M)
+agt(202521816:0M, :01)
+aoj(301206474:22, 104778401:26.@topic)
+and(202521816:2I.@entry, 202521816:0M)
+agt(202521816:0M, :01)
+aoj(301206474:22, 104778401:26.@topic)
+aoj(300617752:02, 101071090:09.@topic)
+agt(202521816:2I.@entry, 107713895:2Y)
+and:01(107710616:1A, 112123244:12)
+obj(202521816:2I.@entry, 104778401:26.@topic)
+obj(202521816:2I.@entry, 104778401:26.@topic)
+and:01(111753355:1M.@entry, 107710616:1A)
+obj(202521816:0M, 101071090:09.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12268]
+{org:en}
+The high toxicity of cadmium, and the similarity of the chemical properties of cadmium and zinc define the complex character of cadmium behavior and its action on plants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200957378:2Q.@entry, :02)
+mod:02(104012260:1V.@def.@pl, :01)
+mod:03(100037396:4B.@entry, 600000016:47)
+aoj(302176178:31, 104616916:39.@def)
+mod:02(113583478:0B.@def.@topic, 114632444:0N)
+agt(200957378:2Q.@entry, :02)
+mod:02(104012260:1V.@def.@pl, :01)
+mod:03(100037396:4B.@entry, 600000016:47)
+aoj(302176178:31, 104616916:39.@def)
+mod:02(113583478:0B.@def.@topic, 114632444:0N)
+and:02(104743605:14.@entry.@def.@topic, 113583478:0B.@def.@topic)
+mod(104616916:39.@def, :03)
+and:01(114661977:2L.@entry, 114632444:29)
+mod:03(101220984:3U, 114632444:3M)
+obj(200957378:2Q.@entry, 104616916:39.@def)
+aoj:02(302692624:1M, 104012260:1V.@def.@pl)
+obj(200957378:2Q.@entry, 104616916:39.@def)
+aoj:02(302692624:1M, 104012260:1V.@def.@pl)
+obj:03(100037396:4B.@entry, 100017222:4L.@pl)
+and:03(100037396:4B.@entry, 101220984:3U)
+aoj:02(300705498:06, 113583478:0B.@def)
+mod:02(104743605:14.@entry.@def.@topic, 104012260:1V.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12269]
+{org:en}
+Substitution of zinc by cadmium in plants leads to zinc deficiency, and this leads to oppression and death of plants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202774203:27.@entry, 202774203:18)
+plc(114632444:0Q, 100017222:11.@pl)
+aoj(202774203:18, 100196485:02.@topic)
+obj(:01, 100017222:34.@pl)
+and(202774203:27.@entry, 202774203:18)
+plc(114632444:0Q, 100017222:11.@pl)
+aoj(202774203:18, 100196485:02.@topic)
+obj(:01, 100017222:34.@pl)
+obj(100196485:02.@topic, 114661977:0I)
+obj(202774203:27.@entry, :01:01)
+obj(105113133:1M, 114661977:1H)
+aoj(202774203:27.@entry, 600000022:22.@topic)
+aoj(202774203:27.@entry, 600000022:22.@topic)
+obj(202774203:18, 105113133:1M)
+and:01(100219575:2V.@entry, 100421047:2G)
+agt(100196485:02.@topic, 114632444:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12270]
+{org:en}
+With regard to stability towards cadmium, plants can be arranged as follows
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200735571:1M.@entry.@ability, 600000180:02)
+obj(600000104:0R, 114632444:0Z)
+obj(600000180:02, 104778401:0H)
+man(200735571:1M.@entry.@ability, 600000180:02)
+obj(600000104:0R, 114632444:0Z)
+obj(600000180:02, 104778401:0H)
+man(200735571:1M.@entry.@ability, 600000181:1V)
+obj(200735571:1M.@entry.@ability, 100017222:18.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200735571:1M.@entry.@ability, 100017222:18.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(600000104:0R, 104778401:0H)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12271]
+{org:en}
+spinach
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+107736692:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+107736692:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12272]
+{org:en}
+pea
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+107725376:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+107725376:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12273]
+{org:en}
+bean
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+107724943:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+107724943:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12274]
+{org:en}
+radish
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+107735687:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+107735687:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12275]
+{org:en}
+carrot
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+101219722:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+101219722:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12276]
+{org:en}
+meadow grasses
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115695630:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+115695630:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12277]
+{org:en}
+lettuce
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+107723559:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+107723559:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12278]
+{org:en}
+oats
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115692951:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115692951:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12279]
+{org:en}
+tomato.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+107734017:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+107734017:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12280]
+{org:en}
+Tolerance of agricultural crops towards heavy metals and other elements represent an important characteristic.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200825447:22.@entry, 101071090:02.@topic)
+aoj(302790222:0F, 115689438:0S)
+mod(101071090:02.@topic, 115689438:0S)
+aoj(200825447:22.@entry, 101071090:02.@topic)
+aoj(302790222:0F, 115689438:0S)
+mod(101071090:02.@topic, 115689438:0S)
+mod:01(105868954:1T.@entry.@pl, 600000053:1N)
+aoj(301275562:2F, 104731497:2P.@indef)
+and:01(105868954:1T.@entry.@pl, 107065149:16.@pl)
+obj(200825447:22.@entry, 104731497:2P.@indef)
+obj(200825447:22.@entry, 104731497:2P.@indef)
+obj(600000104:0Y, :01)
+aoj(600000104:0Y, 115689438:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12281]
+{org:en}
+Toxicity of a metal in pure form is lower than that in combination with other metals
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301206474:12.@entry, 113583478:02.@topic)
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+Critical concentrations have been identified for heavy metals in plant leaves resulting in 10% productivity decrease (mg per kg of dry substance)
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+[/W]
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+[/S]
+
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+[/S]
+
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+
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+{org:en}
+uranium
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+114661977:02.@entry
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12291]
+{org:en}
+selenium
+{/org}
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+[W]
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+[/W]
+[W]
+114654175:02.@entry
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+[/S]
+
+[S:12292]
+{org:en}
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+{org:en}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12296]
+{org:en}
+Standards for pollutants in irrigation water
+{/org}
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+pur(104301140:02.@entry.@pl, 114857278:0G.@pl)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12297]
+{org:en}
+In standardization of pollutants in irrigation water, it is important to recognize that chemical substances may influence agricultural crops and humans in the following ways
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{org:en}
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+gol(106401328:02.@entry, 106254475:10.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12300]
+{org:en}
+migration to subsoil water, evaporation to air, accumulation in soil
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+alteration of nutritional value of agricultural products.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Phytotoxicity of heavy metals and crop tolerance are dependent on concentration of metals in soil, pH of soil solution, cation exchange ability of soils and also on content of organic substances.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:12304]
+{org:en}
+Tolerance of plants towards heavy metals is also dependent on provision with nutrition elements, on growth phase, depth of root penetration, and duration of growth season.
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+The migration and translocation ability of metals, as well as interaction of heavy metals and plants, is influenced by climatic indexes (temperature, illumination), watering (irrigation) degree and character, soil factors (pH, cation exchange ability of soils, and content of organic substance).
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+{/unl}
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+
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+[/S]
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+{org:en}
+Heavy metals retained by organic and colloidal soil fractions limit biological processes and inhibit nitrification processes, and this has a negative influence on soil fertility.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12308]
+{org:en}
+Sandy and acid soils that are characterized by low absorption ability have a low capacity for retaining heavy metals, except for selenium and molybdenum.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:12309]
+{org:en}
+Under these conditions plants readily absorb heavy metals.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(105798863:0E.@pl, 600000017:08)
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+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Accumulation of heavy metals is most significant in roots, then in stems and leaves, seeds, tubers and root crops.
+{/org}
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+
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+{org:en}
+Cadmium and zinc are accumulated in generative plant organs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:12312]
+{org:en}
+The phytotoxicity of metals depends on the form of their occurrence in soil and water.
+{/org}
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+obj(113959069:1N, 600000020:1H.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12313]
+{org:en}
+If a metal is in an absorbed state or in a state of undissolved compounds, there is a potential phytotoxicity hazard and it may be developed later.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12314]
+{org:en}
+Acidification and mineralization of organic substances increases efficiency of phytotoxicity, i.e. the latter enters an active phase.
+{/org}
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+aoj(300031974:3E, 104676540:3L.@indef)
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+gol(201082606:34, 104676540:3L.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12315]
+{org:en}
+Phytotoxicity of heavy metals is developed in various ways.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200234057:0Z.@entry, 115690715:02.@topic)
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+plc(200234057:0Z.@entry, 100172710:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12316]
+{org:en}
+For example, copper and mercury inhibit enzyme activity, and form complex compounds with organic molecules that permeate through cell membranes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000107:02.@entry, :02:02)
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+obj:02(600000026:3F, 103743761:3S.@pl)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:12317]
+{org:en}
+Some heavy metals compete with microelements necessary for plants
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+pur(300343552:1B, 100017222:1P.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12318]
+{org:en}
+lithium competes with sodium and infringes its most important functions
+{/org}
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+man(301275562:1I, 400536271:1D)
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:12319]
+{org:en}
+barium and strontium replace calcium, and cadmium replaces zinc.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:12320]
+{org:en}
+Heavy metal mobility depends significantly on soil pH.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:12321]
+{org:en}
+Toxicity of iron, lithium, zinc, manganese, nickel, and aluminum appears in acidic soils ( HTM1 ), and at HTM2 the toxicity of these elements is decreased.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:12322]
+{org:en}
+Toxicity of molybdenum, selenium and chromium increases at higher pH value.
+{/org}
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+{org:en}
+It is estimated that the toxicity of pure metals is less than that of their combination.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:12324]
+{org:en}
+Input intensity of heavy metals to plants with irrigation water depends on irrigation technology.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
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+{org:en}
+Input intensity is higher with overhead irrigation than with surface watering.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:12326]
+{org:en}
+When metals travel through root systems, they firstly absorb onto root surface, then permeate to plant tissues and take part in biochemical reactions.
+{/org}
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+Development of highest permissible standards for content of polluting substance is a long and expensive process.
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+Costs of laboratory investigations in Germany in relation to evaluation of standards for just one substance are about 200,000 German marks.
+{/org}
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+Due to such high costs, some countries try to use standards developed by others.
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+[S:12331]
+{org:en}
+A method of risk evaluation was developed in the Netherlands that provides for the possibility of evaluation of water standards with the use of toxicity data in national and international literature.
+{/org}
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+[S:12332]
+{org:en}
+This helps to decrease the number of investigations in the toxicity field and reduces costs.
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+[S:12333]
+{org:en}
+Analysis of polluting substance standards in irrigation water in various countries, properties of 14 heavy metals and eight other elements, processes of migration, transformation and translocation of polluting substances, made it possible to develop the "Classification of heavy metals and other elements with regard to hazard level of their content in irrigation water" (see Table 7).
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+:06.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+Three classes are indicated
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12335]
+{org:en}
+I -low hazard, II -medium hazard, III -high hazard, according to four limiting features
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+{org:en}
+phytotoxic
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+[/W]
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+ability to produce a negative effect on plant germination, growth and fertility, and quality of agricultural products
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+ability to be assimilated into plant tissue and to accumulate there to a level above the permissible limit
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+water-migration
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+ability to migrate through the soil profile and pollute underground and surface water, and
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+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+Table 7
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+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "7":08)
+{/unl}
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+{org:en}
+Classification of heavy metals and other elements with regard to the hazard level of their content in irrigation water.
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+mod:01(107935504:37, 100695448:2W)
+{/unl}
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+Evaluation with regard to these limiting hazard features is executed within a three-point system
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+1 -low hazardous, 2 -medium hazardous, 3 -hazardous.
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+{/unl}
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+Hazard indexes are developed with respect to soil pH.
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12349]
+{org:en}
+Pesticide input to soil and plants via irrigation water occurs as a result of pollution of water sources, and use of the collected-drainage water, especially from rice fields.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200723349:1M.@entry, 103573154:0C.@topic)
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+and:02(100947128:34.@entry, 114516743:28)
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+obj:02(100947128:34.@entry, 107935504:3Y.@def)
+aoj(600000164:11, 103573154:0C.@topic)
+frm:02(:50, 101097119:4Q.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12350]
+{org:en}
+Pesticides having decreased solubility (less than 0.1 HTM1 ) possess high accumulation ability; they are easily absorbed by plants from sandy soils.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202632167:1X.@entry, 114980215:02.@topic.@pl)
+src(200395698:3C.@entry, 109335240:46.@pl)
+obj(200151689:0K.@progress.@complete, 105210221:0X)
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+qua:01(HTM1:1M, "0.1":1I)
+aoj(300705498:25, 105200169:2N)
+man(200395698:3C.@entry, 400054435:35)
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+obj(202632167:1X.@entry, 105200169:2N)
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+agt(200151689:0K.@progress.@complete, 114980215:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200395698:3C.@entry, 600000020:2W.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12351]
+{org:en}
+This process becomes less intense in soils that are rich in organic substances.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200149583:0F.@entry, 100029677:07.@topic)
+obj(303161590:1H, 100019613:1Z.@pl)
+man(300393683:0S, 400099868:0N)
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+obj(303161590:1H, 100019613:1Z.@pl)
+man(300393683:0S, 400099868:0N)
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+plc(200149583:0F.@entry, 109335240:13)
+aoj(301093142:1R, 100019613:1Z.@pl)
+aoj(303161590:1H, 109335240:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12352]
+{org:en}
+Soil accumulation and translocation of pesticides depend on the properties of the pesticide, the dose, application method, climate, territory drainage, depth of groundwater, composition and properties of soils, type of agricultural crops, growth phase, nutrient availability, and intensity of growth processes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202663848:1N.@entry, :01)
+and:04(114519366:3V, 105660268:3N)
+mod:04(104504486:6L, 115689438:76)
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+and:01(113569464:0R.@entry.@topic, 100372013:07.@topic)
+and:04(105094725:4O, 115668933:4E)
+mod:04(105036394:8P.@entry, 100029677:99.@pl)
+and:04(103225238:35.@def, 104012260:24.@def.@pl)
+mod:03(:02.@entry, 109335240:67.@pl)
+aoj(202663848:1N.@entry, :01)
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+mod:04(104504486:6L, 115689438:76)
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+and:01(113569464:0R.@entry.@topic, 100372013:07.@topic)
+and:04(105094725:4O, 115668933:4E)
+mod:04(105036394:8P.@entry, 100029677:99.@pl)
+and:04(103225238:35.@def, 104012260:24.@def.@pl)
+mod:03(:02.@entry, 109335240:67.@pl)
+mod:04(104676540:7O, 108438067:7H)
+mod:04(115668933:4E, 105999134:44)
+and:04(105036394:8P.@entry, 115668897:84)
+mod:04(105660268:3N, 100036061:3B)
+and:04(:03, 105094725:4O)
+and:04(104676540:7O, 104504486:6L)
+mod:01(100372013:07.@topic, 109335240:02)
+and:04(115668933:4E, 114519366:3V)
+obj(202663848:1N.@entry, :04:04)
+and:04(105660268:3N, 103225238:35.@def)
+aoj:04(302790222:6T, 115689438:76)
+obj(202663848:1N.@entry, :04:04)
+and:04(105660268:3N, 103225238:35.@def)
+aoj:04(302790222:6T, 115689438:76)
+mod:01(113569464:0R.@entry.@topic, 114980215:18.@pl)
+mod:04(115668897:84, 100021734:7V)
+mod:04(105094725:4O, 115669379:4X)
+mod:04(100029677:99.@pl, 108438067:92)
+mod:04(104012260:24.@def.@pl, 114980215:2M.@def)
+and:02(104012260:5T.@entry.@pl, 103081660:5D.@pl)
+and:04(104504486:6L, :03)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12353]
+{org:en}
+Analysis of migration, translocation and accumulation of pesticides in plants, and known properties of 20 pesticides with a developed MPC in soils and plants permitted development of a "Classification of pesticides with regard to hazard level in irrigation water, soil and plants" (Table 8).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200802318:4U.@entry.@past, :04)
+and:03(100017222:4J.@entry.@pl, 109335240:49.@pl)
+mod:05(107935504:7X.@pl, 100695448:7M)
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+qua:04(114980215:3A.@pl, "20":37)
+aoj:06(600000100:6R, 101148904:5U.@entry)
+and:01(100372013:1A.@entry, 113569464:0S)
+aoj:04(301375174:2N, 104012260:2T.@entry.@pl)
+agt(200802318:4U.@entry.@past, :04)
+and:03(100017222:4J.@entry.@pl, 109335240:49.@pl)
+mod:05(107935504:7X.@pl, 100695448:7M)
+obj:06(600000100:6R, 105093890:7D)
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+qua:04(114980215:3A.@pl, "20":37)
+aoj:06(600000100:6R, 101148904:5U.@entry)
+and:01(100372013:1A.@entry, 113569464:0S)
+aoj:04(301375174:2N, 104012260:2T.@entry.@pl)
+and:05(100017222:8D.@entry.@pl, 109335240:84.@pl)
+aoj:04(300741867:3S, 500323533:42.@indef)
+obj(100250259:54, :06.@single_quote)
+obj:02(:01.@entry, 114980215:1Q.@pl)
+mod:04(104012260:2T.@entry.@pl, 114980215:3A.@pl)
+mod:06(105093890:7D, 103501152:76)
+plc:04(500323533:42.@indef, :03:03)
+obj(200802318:4U.@entry.@past, 100250259:54)
+obj:04(100634276:02, :02:02)
+and:04(104012260:2T.@entry.@pl, 100634276:02)
+obj(200802318:4U.@entry.@past, 100250259:54)
+obj:04(100634276:02, :02:02)
+and:04(104012260:2T.@entry.@pl, 100634276:02)
+plc:06(105093890:7D, :05:05)
+obj:04(600000019:3L, 500323533:42.@indef)
+mod:06(101148904:5U.@entry.@indef, 114980215:6C.@pl)
+and:01(113569464:0S, 101123095:0H)
+aoj:04(600000019:3L, 114980215:3A.@pl)
+and:05(109335240:84.@pl, 107935504:7X.@pl)
+[W]
+:07.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12354]
+{org:en}
+Three pesticides classes are indicated
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200923793:0V.@entry, 100884466:0J.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200923793:0V.@entry, 100884466:0J.@topic.@pl)
+mod(100884466:0J.@topic.@pl, 114980215:08.@pl)
+qua(100884466:0J.@topic.@pl, "3":02)
+qua(100884466:0J.@topic.@pl, "3":02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12355]
+{org:en}
+I -low hazardous, II -medium hazardous, and III -hazardous, according to four limiting hazard factors
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:04.@entry, 600000046:20)
+aoj(302004385:2I, 103501152:2R)
+man:01(302059811:0D.@entry, 400393149:09)
+shd:03(302059811:1L.@entry, 600000303:1F)
+man(:04.@entry, 600000046:20)
+aoj(302004385:2I, 103501152:2R)
+man:01(302059811:0D.@entry, 400393149:09)
+shd:03(302059811:1L.@entry, 600000303:1F)
+qua(105858317:2Y.@pl, "4":2D)
+and:04(:02, :01)
+obj(600000046:20, 105858317:2Y.@pl)
+and:04(:03.@entry, :02)
+and:04(:03.@entry, :02)
+shd:01(302059811:0D.@entry, 500324406:05)
+shd:02(303162262:0T.@entry, 500323598:0O)
+mod(105858317:2Y.@pl, 103501152:2R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12356]
+{org:en}
+phytotoxicity, translocation, water-migration and sanitary-toxic.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115694537:1P.@entry, 101123095:12)
+mod(101123095:12, 107935504:0W)
+and(115694537:1P.@entry, 101123095:12)
+mod(101123095:12, 107935504:0W)
+and(101123095:12, 113569464:0H)
+mod(115694537:1P.@entry, 302112976:1G)
+mod(115694537:1P.@entry, 302112976:1G)
+and(113569464:0H, 115690715:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12357]
+{org:en}
+Table 8
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "8":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "8":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12358]
+{org:en}
+Classification of pesticides with regard to hazard level in irrigation water, soil and plants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101148904:02.@entry, 114980215:0K.@pl)
+and:01(100017222:27.@entry.@pl, 109335240:1Y.@pl)
+mod(105093890:1H, :01)
+mod(101148904:02.@entry, 114980215:0K.@pl)
+and:01(100017222:27.@entry.@pl, 109335240:1Y.@pl)
+mod(105093890:1H, :01)
+obj(600000100:0V, 105093890:1H)
+mod:01(107935504:1R.@pl, 100695448:1P)
+aoj(600000100:0V, 114980215:0K.@pl)
+aoj(600000100:0V, 114980215:0K.@pl)
+and:01(109335240:1Y.@pl, 107935504:1R.@pl)
+mod(105093890:1H, 103501152:1A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12359]
+{org:en}
+For plants nitrogen is a nutrition element and a migratory element that defines the potential of soils and water, but it is also present in many pollutants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(:02.@entry, 100017222:09.@pl)
+aoj:02(301731351:3U, 600000016:3J.@topic)
+man:02(200957378:29, 600000037:3F)
+agt:02(200957378:29, 105868954:1W.@entry.@indef)
+qua:02(114857278:4A.@pl, 600000028:45)
+pur(:02.@entry, 100017222:09.@pl)
+aoj:02(301731351:3U, 600000016:3J.@topic)
+man:02(200957378:29, 600000037:3F)
+agt:02(200957378:29, 105868954:1W.@entry.@indef)
+qua:02(114857278:4A.@pl, 600000028:45)
+and:01(107935504:38.@entry, 109335240:2Y.@pl)
+and:02(105868954:1W.@entry.@indef, 105868954:18.@indef)
+man:02(301731351:3U, 400047534:3P)
+mod:02(114482620:2L.@def, :01)
+aoj(:02.@entry, 114647235:0K.@topic)
+plc:02(301731351:3U, 114857278:4A.@pl)
+aoj(:02.@entry, 114647235:0K.@topic)
+plc:02(301731351:3U, 114857278:4A.@pl)
+obj:02(200957378:29, 114482620:2L.@def)
+aoj:02(302129007:1M, 105868954:1W.@entry.@indef)
+mod:02(105868954:18.@indef, 106135915:0Y)
+obj:02(600000037:3F, 301731351:3U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12360]
+{org:en}
+The most readily available forms of nitrogen are nitrates and ammonium, but irrigation water usually contains more nitrate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(:01.@entry, 600000037:22)
+man(202701210:2V, 400535718:2N)
+man(300183053:0J, 400161193:0B)
+mod(103384535:0T.@topic.@pl, 114647235:12)
+man(:01.@entry, 600000037:22)
+man(202701210:2V, 400535718:2N)
+man(300183053:0J, 400161193:0B)
+mod(103384535:0T.@topic.@pl, 114647235:12)
+aoj(202701210:2V, 107935504:2H)
+and:01(114744120:1S.@entry, 115015501:1F.@pl)
+mod(107935504:2H, 100695448:26)
+obj(600000037:22, 202701210:2V)
+aoj(:01.@entry, 103384535:0T.@topic.@pl)
+qua(115015501:39, 400099341:34)
+aoj(:01.@entry, 103384535:0T.@topic.@pl)
+qua(115015501:39, 400099341:34)
+man(400161193:0B, 400536271:06)
+aoj(300183053:0J, 103384535:0T.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202701210:2V, 115015501:39)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12361]
+{org:en}
+The most important index for plants is total nitrogen (N) content independently of its form
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105809192:1R.@entry, 105567381:0L.@topic.@def)
+man(400536271:06, 400536271:2J)
+obj(400180611:1Z, 103384535:2K)
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+aoj(105809192:1R.@entry, 105567381:0L.@topic.@def)
+man(400536271:06, 400536271:2J)
+obj(400180611:1Z, 103384535:2K)
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+aoj(301275562:0B, 105567381:0L.@topic.@def)
+mod(105809192:1R.@entry, 114647235:1E)
+pur(105567381:0L.@topic.@def, 100017222:0V.@pl)
+aoj(400180611:1Z, 105809192:1R.@entry)
+aoj(400180611:1Z, 105809192:1R.@entry)
+mod(103384535:2K, 600000016:2G)
+qua(114647235:1E, 303160907:18)
+man(301275562:0B, 400536271:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12362]
+{org:en}
+nitrate ( HTM1 ), ammonium ( HTM2 ), and organic (org-N).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+cnt(301093142:17.@entry, 115695774:1G.@parenthesis)
+cnt(114744120:0K, HTM2:0V.@parenthesis)
+cnt(301093142:17.@entry, 115695774:1G.@parenthesis)
+cnt(114744120:0K, HTM2:0V.@parenthesis)
+and(114744120:0K, 115015501:02)
+and(301093142:17.@entry, 114744120:0K)
+and(301093142:17.@entry, 114744120:0K)
+cnt(115015501:02, HTM1:0C.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12363]
+{org:en}
+Nitrogen concentration in irrigation water of 5 HTM1 negatively influences nitrogen-sensitive crops.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202536557:1U.@entry, 100375071:0B.@topic)
+mod(100375071:0B.@topic, 114647235:02)
+aoj(303163528:25, 115689438:2O)
+agt(202536557:1U.@entry, 100375071:0B.@topic)
+mod(100375071:0B.@topic, 114647235:02)
+aoj(303163528:25, 115689438:2O)
+qua(HTM1:1E, "5":1C)
+man(202536557:1U.@entry, 400004184:1J)
+mod(107935504:13, 100695448:0S)
+obj(202536557:1U.@entry, 115689438:2O)
+obj(202536557:1U.@entry, 115689438:2O)
+mod(107935504:13, HTM1:1E)
+plc(100375071:0B.@topic, 107935504:13)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12364]
+{org:en}
+When nitrogen content is increased, crops such as sugar beet and grapes may continue growth but at the expense of productivity and sugar content.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200118523:26.@entry.@may, 600000033:02)
+and:01(107758680:1V.@entry.@pl, 111832214:1M.@pl)
+obj(600000244:2Q, 105809192:3V)
+obj(200118523:26.@entry.@may, 108438067:2F)
+obj(200153263:0R, 105809192:0G)
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+obj(200118523:26.@entry.@may, 108438067:2F)
+obj(200153263:0R, 105809192:0G)
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+mod:01(111832214:1M.@pl, 107859284:1G)
+agt(200118523:26.@entry.@may, 115689438:12.@topic)
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+man(600000244:2Q, 600000098:2M)
+mod(105809192:0G, 114647235:07)
+obj(600000029:18, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12365]
+{org:en}
+Excessive vegetative growth in cereals causes lodging.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201645601:15.@entry, 108438067:0N.@topic)
+aoj(301533974:02, 108438067:0N.@topic)
+aoj(201645601:15.@entry, 108438067:0N.@topic)
+aoj(301533974:02, 108438067:0N.@topic)
+plc(108438067:0N.@topic, 115692036:0X)
+obj(201645601:15.@entry, 101054227:1C)
+obj(201645601:15.@entry, 101054227:1C)
+aoj(302523092:0C, 108438067:0N.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12366]
+{org:en}
+With higher nitrogen concentration in irrigation water or excessive input with fertilizers, the plants accumulate nitrates that cannot be involved in metabolism or converted into useful protein compounds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200158804:3B.@entry, 600000018:02)
+or:01(103573154:28.@entry, 100375071:0Q)
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12367]
+{org:en}
+Nitrogen accumulated in various plant organs as nitrate salts makes them unsuitable for both humans and animals.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200012267:1Z.@entry, 114647235:05.@topic)
+mod(103854065:17.@pl, 100017222:11)
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+aoj(303160904:0T, 103854065:17.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12368]
+{org:en}
+Accumulation of nitrogen in plants depends on a number of factors such as weather conditions, age, strain, species, plant organ, and particularly, dose and form of nitrogen fertilizers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(100624553:2W, 104924103:2R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12369]
+{org:en}
+Plants accumulate excess nitrogen that is not used by plants for formation of vegetative mass.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200158804:09.@entry, 114647235:0R)
+obj(100925207:1V, 101042242:2J)
+pur(201158572:1C.@not, 100925207:1V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12370]
+{org:en}
+Agricultural crops accumulate nitrate at different rates.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200158804:0L.@entry, 115689438:0F.@topic)
+aoj(300490413:17, 113325010:1H.@pl)
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+man(200158804:0L.@entry, 113325010:1H.@pl)
+aoj(302790222:02, 115689438:0F.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12371]
+{org:en}
+For example, pea does not accumulate more nitrogen if the fertilizer dose is increased from HTM1 to HTM2 , while its content in rape increased 4.8 times, and in sweet clover almost 8 times.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000107:02.@entry, 200158804:0S.@emphasis.@not)
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+qua:01(100028270:5E.@entry.@pl, 400073033:55)
+mod(103225238:1Z.@def, 114859344:1O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12372]
+{org:en}
+Nitrate content in the morning is 25-30% higher than that in the evening.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300705498:17.@entry, 105809192:0A)
+tim(105809192:0A, 115165289:0P.@def)
+man(300705498:17.@entry, 400099341:18)
+aoj(300705498:17.@entry, 105809192:0A)
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+man(300705498:17.@entry, "25-30%":10.@entry)
+mod(105809192:0A, 115015501:02)
+tim(600000030:1H, 115166462:1T.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12373]
+{org:en}
+Increase of nitrogen fertilizers doses lead to decrease in vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and total sugar content.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774203:15.@entry, 100363260:02.@topic)
+mod(103225238:0Z.@pl, 114859344:0N.@pl)
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+obj(100363260:02.@topic, 103225238:0Z.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12374]
+{org:en}
+Nitrate accumulation is located mainly in green organs of plants so it is very important to standardize nitrates in production of vegetables and fresh forage.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(600000110:1V, 202286204:0Q.@entry)
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+man(301275562:29, 400031899:24)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12375]
+{org:en}
+Vegetables such as onion, garlic, cabbage, spinach, lettuce, garden radish, and blue eggplant accumulate significant amounts of nitrate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200158804:2O.@entry, 107707451:02.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(107723559:1I, 107736692:19)
+obj(600000029:0D, :01:01)
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+and:01(107818277:0S, 107722217:0L)
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+qua(115015501:3M, 100033615:3B.@pl)
+and:01(107713895:10, 107818277:0S)
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+mod:01(107735687:1Y, 303163283:1R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12376]
+{org:en}
+An insignificant amount of nitrogen is accumulated in tomato and pepper
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200158804:15.@entry, 114647235:0T.@topic)
+qua(114647235:0T.@topic, 100033615:0J.@indef)
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+plc(200158804:15.@entry, :01:01)
+aoj(301288298:05, 100033615:0J.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12377]
+{org:en}
+potato and cucumbers are intermediates.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(114921272:0R.@entry.@pl, :01)
+aoj(114921272:0R.@entry.@pl, :01)
+and:01(107718472:0D.@entry.@pl.@topic, 107710616:02.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(107718472:0D.@entry.@pl.@topic, 107710616:02.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12378]
+{org:en}
+The permissible concentration of nitrate nitrogen in irrigation water is 5 HTM1 in USA, Hungary and various other countries.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(HTM1:25.@entry, 100375071:0I.@topic.@def)
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+plc(114647235:17, 107935504:1U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12379]
+{org:en}
+It is necessary to standardize levels of nitrate in water and plant products because their reduction results in nitrites which in turn can form nitrosoamines, and these have carcinogenic and mutagenic properties.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12380]
+{org:en}
+Increased nitrate content in feed causes acute and chronic toxic effects in farm animals, as well as disorders in metabolism and productivity decrease.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(600000015:2K, 200151689:40)
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+mod(105809192:0K.@topic, 115015501:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12381]
+{org:en}
+Moreover, lactating cows produce milk containing nitrates, nitrites and nitrosoamines.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(115015963:1P.@pl, 115015501:1F.@pl)
+obj(202701210:14.@progress, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12382]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the phytotoxicity of pollutants, their translocation and influence on agricultural crops necessitate standardizing permissible levels of these substances in irrigation water, as well as improvement of technology and procedures preventing pollutant input to soils, waters and plants.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+Water from certain underground and surface sources may be corrosive for concrete constructions of irrigation systems.
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+Ion exchange corrosion forms as a result of exchange reaction between alkaline cations in water (calcium, magnesium, potassium, and ammonium) and soluble compounds in the solidified concrete.
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+This causes internal stress and swelling, leading eventually to destruction of the concrete.
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+The strongest negative action is demonstrated by magnesium and ammonium sulfates because in addition to interaction with aluminum and calcium hydroxide in concrete, they also decompose hydrated calcium silicates.
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+obj(202521816:0Z.@entry, 100037396:0P.@topic.@def)
+man(200209174:4P, 400047534:4K)
+aoj(300075515:0G, 100037396:0P.@topic.@def)
+obj(202521816:0Z.@entry, 100037396:0P.@topic.@def)
+man(200209174:4P, 400047534:4K)
+aoj(300075515:0G, 100037396:0P.@topic.@def)
+mod(114914670:40, :02)
+and:01(114744120:1T.@entry, 114644249:1F)
+obj(600000099:2J, 100039021:2Y)
+agt(200209174:4P, 600000020:4F.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12397]
+{org:en}
+The action of ammonium sulfates is enhanced in the presence of nitrates.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200229605:11.@entry, 100037396:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(100037396:06.@topic.@def, 115063493:0P.@pl)
+obj(200229605:11.@entry, 100037396:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(100037396:06.@topic.@def, 115063493:0P.@pl)
+obj(600000361:1A, 115015501:1T.@pl)
+man(200229605:11.@entry, 600000361:1A)
+man(200229605:11.@entry, 600000361:1A)
+mod(115063493:0P.@pl, 114744120:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12398]
+{org:en}
+Irrigation systems are subjected to clogging and sealing with various ingredients in irrigation water and being of physical, chemical and biological character.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(600000150:3D.@entry.@state, 201118292:0P)
+man:01(200698732:1I.@entry.@progress, 600000018:1Q)
+and:02(302692624:3Q, 300627004:3G)
+aoj(:02, 104616916:4E)
+aoj:01(303160904:1V, 103570709:23.@pl)
+gol(201118292:0P, :01.@progress)
+and(600000150:3D.@entry.@state, 201118292:0P)
+man:01(200698732:1I.@entry.@progress, 600000018:1Q)
+and:02(302692624:3Q, 300627004:3G)
+aoj(:02, 104616916:4E)
+aoj:01(303160904:1V, 103570709:23.@pl)
+gol(201118292:0P, :01.@progress)
+obj(600000150:3D.@entry.@state, 104616916:4E)
+plc:01(103570709:23.@pl, 107935504:2T)
+obj(201118292:0P, 104377057:0D.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(600000150:3D.@entry.@state, 104377057:0D.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(600000018:1Q, 103570709:23.@pl)
+mod(104377057:0D.@topic.@pl, 100695448:02)
+aoj(600000150:3D.@entry.@state, 104377057:0D.@topic.@pl)
+obj:01(600000018:1Q, 103570709:23.@pl)
+mod(104377057:0D.@topic.@pl, 100695448:02)
+and:02(301405904:43.@entry, 302692624:3Q)
+mod:01(107935504:2T, 100695448:2I)
+and:01(200698732:1I.@entry.@progress, 200182037:15.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12399]
+{org:en}
+Physical factors include suspended substances
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0I.@entry, 105858317:0B.@topic)
+aoj(300627004:02, 105858317:0B.@topic)
+aoj(200183879:0I.@entry, 105858317:0B.@topic)
+aoj(300627004:02, 105858317:0B.@topic)
+aoj(302351692:0Q, 100019613:10.@pl)
+obj(200183879:0I.@entry, 100019613:10.@pl)
+obj(200183879:0I.@entry, 100019613:10.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12400]
+{org:en}
+sand, slime, clay, and organic substances.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100019613:0X.@entry.@pl, 114813182:0F)
+and(115690053:08, 115019030:02)
+and(100019613:0X.@entry.@pl, 114813182:0F)
+and(115690053:08, 115019030:02)
+and(114813182:0F, 115690053:08)
+aoj(301093142:0P, 100019613:0X.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301093142:0P, 100019613:0X.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12401]
+{org:en}
+Suspended substances represent the main reason for clogging of pipes when surface water sources are used for irrigation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200825447:0N.@entry, 600000033:1Z)
+mod(104263614:2I.@pl, 115689665:24.@pl)
+obj(200182037:1H.@progress, 103944672:1T.@pl)
+pur(105651680:16, 200182037:1H.@progress)
+obj(201158572:2U, 104263614:2I.@pl)
+tim(200825447:0N.@entry, 600000033:1Z)
+mod(104263614:2I.@pl, 115689665:24.@pl)
+obj(200182037:1H.@progress, 103944672:1T.@pl)
+pur(105651680:16, 200182037:1H.@progress)
+obj(201158572:2U, 104263614:2I.@pl)
+obj(200825447:0N.@entry, 105651680:16)
+obj(600000033:1Z, 201158572:2U)
+agt(200825447:0N.@entry, 100019613:0C.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302351692:02, 100019613:0C.@topic.@pl)
+agt(200825447:0N.@entry, 100019613:0C.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302351692:02, 100019613:0C.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105651680:16, 301512527:11)
+pur(201158572:2U, 100695448:33)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12402]
+{org:en}
+However, they may also be present with groundwater sources when pumps take water together with slime and sand.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(301731351:0S.@entry.@may, 600000033:1P)
+obj(200523095:20, 107935504:25)
+obj(600000018:10, 104263614:1H.@pl)
+man(301731351:0S.@entry.@may, 600000018:10)
+agt(200523095:20, 104021798:1U.@pl)
+tim(301731351:0S.@entry.@may, 600000033:1P)
+obj(200523095:20, 107935504:25)
+obj(600000018:10, 104263614:1H.@pl)
+man(301731351:0S.@entry.@may, 600000018:10)
+agt(200523095:20, 104021798:1U.@pl)
+aoj(301731351:0S.@entry.@may, 600000020:0B.@topic)
+and:01(115019030:2Z.@entry, 115690053:2P)
+obj(600000033:1P, 200523095:20)
+man(301731351:0S.@entry.@may, 400027384:02)
+obj(600000113:2B, :01)
+mod(104263614:1H.@pl, 115669379:15)
+man(301731351:0S.@entry.@may, 400027384:02)
+obj(600000113:2B, :01)
+mod(104263614:1H.@pl, 115669379:15)
+man(301731351:0S.@entry.@may, 400047534:0K)
+man(200523095:20, 600000113:2B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12403]
+{org:en}
+Chemical factors of clogging and sealing of pipes include precipitation of salts
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:1N.@entry, 105858317:0B.@pl)
+obj(:01, 103944672:1H.@pl)
+mod(105858317:0B.@pl, :01)
+aoj(200183879:1N.@entry, 105858317:0B.@pl)
+obj(:01, 103944672:1H.@pl)
+mod(105858317:0B.@pl, :01)
+obj(105061149:1V, 105717342:2C.@pl)
+obj(200183879:1N.@entry, 105061149:1V)
+and:01(200698732:12.@entry.@progress, 200182037:0P.@progress)
+obj(200183879:1N.@entry, 105061149:1V)
+and:01(200698732:12.@entry.@progress, 200182037:0P.@progress)
+aoj(302692624:02, 105858317:0B.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12404]
+{org:en}
+calcium and magnesium carbonates, calcium sulfate, heavy metals hydroxides, oxides, carbonates, silicates and sulfates as well as phosphates, and aqueous ammonia solutions of iron, zinc, copper, and manganese.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115063493:3B.@entry.@pl, 115040033:2X.@pl)
+and(115040033:2X.@pl, 114798450:2L.@pl)
+aoj:03(301355089:4B, 100190783:4R.@entry.@pl)
+mod(114914670:1X.@pl, 114625458:1Q.@pl)
+and:03(100190783:4R.@entry.@pl, 107928578:3V.@pl)
+and(114914670:1X.@pl, 115693405:10)
+and:02(102282385:5G, 114661977:5A)
+and(115063493:3B.@entry.@pl, 115040033:2X.@pl)
+and(115040033:2X.@pl, 114798450:2L.@pl)
+aoj:03(301355089:4B, 100190783:4R.@entry.@pl)
+mod(114914670:1X.@pl, 114625458:1Q.@pl)
+and:03(100190783:4R.@entry.@pl, 107928578:3V.@pl)
+and(114914670:1X.@pl, 115693405:10)
+and:02(102282385:5G, 114661977:5A)
+and:01(114644249:0E.@entry, 114632648:02)
+obj(600000014:3K, :03)
+and(114971519:2D.@pl, 114914670:1X.@pl)
+and:02(114644654:5S.@entry, 102282385:5G)
+mod(114798450:0O.@pl, :01)
+aoj(600000014:3K, 115063493:3B.@entry.@pl)
+and(114798450:2L.@pl, 114971519:2D.@pl)
+mod:03(100190783:4R.@entry.@pl, 114743582:4J)
+aoj(600000014:3K, 115063493:3B.@entry.@pl)
+and(114798450:2L.@pl, 114971519:2D.@pl)
+mod:03(100190783:4R.@entry.@pl, 114743582:4J)
+and(115693405:10, 114798450:0O.@pl)
+mod:03(100190783:4R.@entry.@pl, :02)
+man(114914670:1X.@pl, 115695551:1K)
+and:02(114661977:5A, 103584829:54)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12405]
+{org:en}
+And finally, the biological factors of clogging and sealing of pipes comprise bacteria and algae in the form of fibers, mucus, microbe depositions, and larvae.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774449:2D.@entry, 400048138:06)
+mod(105858317:0X.@topic.@def.@pl, :01.@entry)
+obj(600000075:35, :03)
+obj(202774449:2D.@entry, :02:02)
+and:01(200698732:1O.@entry.@progress, 200182037:1B.@progress)
+obj:03(100208943:47.@pl, 101384491:3Z)
+man(202774449:2D.@entry, 400048138:06)
+mod(105858317:0X.@topic.@def.@pl, :01.@entry)
+obj(600000075:35, :03)
+obj(202774449:2D.@entry, :02:02)
+and:01(200698732:1O.@entry.@progress, 200182037:1B.@progress)
+obj:03(100208943:47.@pl, 101384491:3Z)
+man(202774449:2D.@entry, 600000075:35)
+mod(:01.@entry, 103944672:23.@pl)
+and:03(100208943:47.@pl, 105415395:3S.@pl)
+aoj(202774449:2D.@entry, 105858317:0X.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301405904:0M, 105858317:0X.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:03(102311060:4O.@entry.@pl, 100208943:47.@pl)
+aoj(202774449:2D.@entry, 105858317:0X.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301405904:0M, 105858317:0X.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:03(102311060:4O.@entry.@pl, 100208943:47.@pl)
+and:02(115668556:2Z.@entry, 115689384:2M.@pl)
+and:03(105415395:3S.@pl, 103331244:3K.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12406]
+{org:en}
+Algae propagate quickly under conditions of excessive nutrition elements (nitrogen and phosphorous) content and optimal temperature, and they may clog pipes, valves and irrigation equipment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200182037:4B.@entry.@may, 200055539:08)
+obj(105798863:0W.@pl, :02:02)
+and:03(101904461:4N.@pl, 103944672:4G.@pl)
+mod:02(105868954:1X.@pl, 106135915:1N)
+and:03(103294048:59.@entry, 101904461:4N.@pl)
+mod:02(105809192:2X, 105868954:1X.@pl)
+man(200055539:08, 400085811:0I)
+and(200182037:4B.@entry.@may, 200055539:08)
+obj(105798863:0W.@pl, :02:02)
+and:03(101904461:4N.@pl, 103944672:4G.@pl)
+mod:02(105868954:1X.@pl, 106135915:1N)
+and:03(103294048:59.@entry, 101904461:4N.@pl)
+mod:02(105809192:2X, 105868954:1X.@pl)
+man(200055539:08, 400085811:0I)
+obj(200182037:4B.@entry.@may, :03:03)
+aoj:02(303161279:3D, 105011790:3L.@entry)
+man(200055539:08, 600000003:0Q)
+and:01(303099742:2K.@entry, 114647235:27)
+agt(200182037:4B.@entry.@may, 600000020:42.@topic)
+and:02(105011790:3L.@entry, 105809192:2X)
+obj(200055539:08, 115668556:02.@topic)
+agt(200182037:4B.@entry.@may, 600000020:42.@topic)
+and:02(105011790:3L.@entry, 105809192:2X)
+obj(200055539:08, 115668556:02.@topic)
+aoj:02(301533974:1D, 106135915:1N)
+mod:03(103294048:59.@entry, 100695448:4Y)
+cnt:02(105868954:1X.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000003:0Q, 105798863:0W.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12407]
+{org:en}
+Physical, chemical and biological factors of clogging and sealing of irrigation systems are often interrelated, thus complicating the whole process.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(303161340:36.@entry, 105858317:13.@topic.@pl)
+obj(:02, 104377057:2K.@pl)
+mod(100029677:4C.@def, 300514884:46)
+man(200400883:3P.@progress, 400121135:3K)
+and:01(301405904:0S.@entry, 302692624:0F)
+aoj(303161340:36.@entry, 105858317:13.@topic.@pl)
+obj(:02, 104377057:2K.@pl)
+mod(100029677:4C.@def, 300514884:46)
+man(200400883:3P.@progress, 400121135:3K)
+and:01(301405904:0S.@entry, 302692624:0F)
+man(303161340:36.@entry, 400059547:30)
+mod(104377057:2K.@pl, 100695448:29)
+aoj(:01, 105858317:13.@topic.@pl)
+obj(400121135:3K, 303161340:36.@entry)
+and:02(200698732:1U.@entry.@progress, 200182037:1H.@progress)
+mod(105858317:13.@topic.@pl, :02)
+obj(400121135:3K, 303161340:36.@entry)
+and:02(200698732:1U.@entry.@progress, 200182037:1H.@progress)
+mod(105858317:13.@topic.@pl, :02)
+obj(200400883:3P.@progress, 100029677:4C.@def)
+and:01(302692624:0F, 300627004:05)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12408]
+{org:en}
+For example, occurrence and growth of bacterial pollution in a delivery system and water-discharge equipment promote further clogging due to adhesion of suspended particles.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000107:02.@entry, 201080235:33)
+plc(114516743:1E, 103294048:2T.@indef)
+obj(600000001:3S, 105584008:3Z)
+mod:02(104377057:22, 100042541:1T)
+man(200182037:3J.@progress, 600000168:3B)
+obj:02(100123234:2J.@entry, 107935504:2D)
+mod(:01, 114516743:1E)
+obj(600000107:02.@entry, 201080235:33)
+plc(114516743:1E, 103294048:2T.@indef)
+obj(600000001:3S, 105584008:3Z)
+mod:02(104377057:22, 100042541:1T)
+man(200182037:3J.@progress, 600000168:3B)
+obj:02(100123234:2J.@entry, 107935504:2D)
+mod(:01, 114516743:1E)
+obj(201080235:33, 200182037:3J.@progress)
+mod(103294048:2T.@indef, :02)
+aoj(302351692:4B, 106326406:4L.@pl)
+agt(201080235:33, :01)
+aoj(302833544:14, 114516743:1E)
+mod(105584008:3Z, 106326406:4L.@pl)
+agt(201080235:33, :01)
+aoj(302833544:14, 114516743:1E)
+mod(105584008:3Z, 106326406:4L.@pl)
+rsn(200182037:3J.@progress, 600000001:3S)
+and:02(100123234:2J.@entry, 104377057:22)
+and:01(108438067:0U.@entry, 113959069:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12409]
+{org:en}
+The most common reason for clogging and sealing of pipes is precipitation of calcium and magnesium carbonates, sulfates and phosphates, by conversion of the bivalent ion into a trivalent form upon oxidation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105061149:24.@entry, 105651680:0L.@def.@topic)
+aoj(301546826:4T, 109315159:52.@def)
+mod:03(114798450:37.@pl, :02)
+aoj(300485711:0E, 105651680:0L.@def.@topic)
+and:03(107928578:3W.@entry.@pl, 115063493:3J.@pl)
+obj(600000239:5S, 113530408:5X)
+aoj(105061149:24.@entry, 105651680:0L.@def.@topic)
+aoj(301546826:4T, 109315159:52.@def)
+mod:03(114798450:37.@pl, :02)
+aoj(300485711:0E, 105651680:0L.@def.@topic)
+and:03(107928578:3W.@entry.@pl, 115063493:3J.@pl)
+obj(600000239:5S, 113530408:5X)
+obj(100094788:4B, 109315159:52.@def)
+and:01(200698732:1C.@entry.@progress, 200182037:0Z.@progress)
+aoj(600000035:8S, :03)
+aoj(303126399:5D, 103384535:5N.@indef)
+obj(600000035:8S, 100094788:4B)
+obj(:01, 103944672:1R.@pl)
+obj(105061149:24.@entry, :03:03)
+aoj(600000239:5S, 103384535:5N.@indef)
+obj(105061149:24.@entry, :03:03)
+aoj(600000239:5S, 103384535:5N.@indef)
+and:02(114644249:2X.@entry, 114632648:2L)
+man(300485711:0E, 400536271:09)
+and:03(115063493:3J.@pl, 114798450:37.@pl)
+pur(105651680:0L.@def.@topic, :01:01)
+gol(100094788:4B, 103384535:5N.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12410]
+{org:en}
+Prediction of precipitation of calcium salts and corrosion is possible on the basis of the Langelier index ( HTM1 ):
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(301821266:1S.@entry, 105775081:02.@topic)
+obj(105775081:02.@topic, 105061149:0G)
+cnt(105567381:2V.@colon.@def, HTM1:33.@parenthesis)
+aoj(301821266:1S.@entry, 105775081:02.@topic)
+obj(105775081:02.@topic, 105061149:0G)
+cnt(105567381:2V.@colon.@def, HTM1:33.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(105717342:15.@pl, 114632648:0X)
+obj(600000085:21, 105567381:2V.@colon.@def)
+and:01(113453428:1F.@entry, 105717342:15.@pl)
+man(301821266:1S.@entry, 600000085:21)
+man(301821266:1S.@entry, 600000085:21)
+obj(105061149:0G, :01)
+mod(105567381:2V.@colon.@def, 500322985:2L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12411]
+{org:en}
+where pH is water hydrogen value measured by pH-meter
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(104979425:0T, 115689346:02.@entry)
+agt(200647094:0Z, 103753077:1E)
+mod(104979425:0T, 114640434:0K)
+man(104979425:0T, 115689346:02.@entry)
+agt(200647094:0Z, 103753077:1E)
+mod(104979425:0T, 114640434:0K)
+obj(200647094:0Z, 104979425:0T)
+aoj(104979425:0T, 105039106:08.@topic)
+aoj(104979425:0T, 105039106:08.@topic)
+mod(103753077:1E, 105039106:1B)
+mod(114640434:0K, 107935504:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12412]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is a calculated hydrogen value under conditions of water saturation with calcium carbonate and it is calculated according to the formula
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200637259:30.@entry, 104979425:0W.@indef)
+aoj(600000019:23, 100402671:1S)
+mod(104979425:0W.@indef, 600000009:12)
+obj(600000046:3B, 106731802:3S.@def)
+and(200637259:30.@entry, 104979425:0W.@indef)
+aoj(600000019:23, 100402671:1S)
+mod(104979425:0W.@indef, 600000009:12)
+obj(600000046:3B, 106731802:3S.@def)
+obj(600000009:12, 105798863:18.@pl)
+man(200637259:30.@entry, 600000046:3B)
+obj(600000019:23, 114936905:28)
+mod(104979425:0W.@indef, 114640434:0N)
+obj(200637259:30.@entry, 600000016:2U)
+mod(100402671:1S, 107935504:1M)
+obj(200637259:30.@entry, 600000016:2U)
+mod(100402671:1S, 107935504:1M)
+aoj(303162149:0C, 104979425:0W.@indef)
+aoj(104979425:0W.@indef, HTM1:02.@topic)
+obj(105798863:18.@pl, 100402671:1S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12413]
+{org:en}
+where ( HTM1 ) is found by the total concentration of HTM2 , HTM3 , HTM4 expressed in mg-equiv.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200715239:0K, 115689346:02.@entry)
+and:01(HTM4:1Y.@entry, HTM3:1R)
+mod(100375071:13.@def, :01)
+plc(200715239:0K, 115689346:02.@entry)
+and:01(HTM4:1Y.@entry, HTM3:1R)
+mod(100375071:13.@def, :01)
+man(200940384:23, 115692916:2G)
+obj(200715239:0K, 100375071:13.@def)
+obj(200940384:23, 100375071:13.@def)
+gol(200715239:0K, HTM1:0A.@topic.@parenthesis)
+gol(200715239:0K, HTM1:0A.@topic.@parenthesis)
+and:01(HTM3:1R, HTM2:1K)
+qua(100375071:13.@def, 303160907:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12414]
+{org:en}
+by calcium concentration, mg-equiv.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000035:02.@entry, 100375071:0D)
+obj(600000035:02.@entry, 100375071:0D)
+mod(100375071:0D, 114632648:05)
+mod(100375071:0D, 114632648:05)
+[W]
+115692916:0S.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12415]
+{org:en}
+by total concentrations of HTM1 , HTM2 expressed in mg-equiv.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(600000035:02.@entry, 100375071:0B.@pl)
+man(200940384:15, 115692916:1I)
+qua(100375071:0B.@pl, 303160907:05)
+obj(600000035:02.@entry, 100375071:0B.@pl)
+man(200940384:15, 115692916:1I)
+qua(100375071:0B.@pl, 303160907:05)
+and:01(HTM2:10.@entry, HTM1:0T)
+mod(100375071:0B.@pl, :01)
+mod(100375071:0B.@pl, :01)
+obj(200940384:15, 100375071:0B.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12416]
+{org:en}
+Positive values of Langelier index indicate risk of HTM1 precipitation, and negative values indicate a tendency for development of corrosion processes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200923793:2M.@entry, 200923793:11)
+mod(105061149:1N, HTM1:1I)
+mod(100029677:3Z.@pl, 113453428:3P)
+pur(104944048:2X.@indef, 100250259:3A)
+mod(105567381:0V, 500322985:0L)
+and(200923793:2M.@entry, 200923793:11)
+mod(105061149:1N, HTM1:1I)
+mod(100029677:3Z.@pl, 113453428:3P)
+pur(104944048:2X.@indef, 100250259:3A)
+mod(105567381:0V, 500322985:0L)
+obj(200923793:11, 100802238:1A)
+obj(200923793:2M.@entry, 104944048:2X.@indef)
+aoj(300358678:02, 104979425:0B.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(200923793:11, 104979425:0B.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(200923793:2M.@entry, 104979425:2F.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104979425:0B.@topic.@pl, 105567381:0V)
+aoj(200923793:2M.@entry, 104979425:2F.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104979425:0B.@topic.@pl, 105567381:0V)
+aoj(300075515:26, 104979425:2F.@topic.@pl)
+obj(100250259:3A, 100029677:3Z.@pl)
+obj(100802238:1A, 105061149:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12417]
+{org:en}
+When Langelier index HTM1 , a very sensitive equilibrium exists between two complex and interrelated processes
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(202603699:1U.@entry, 600000033:05)
+aoj(HTM1:0Q, 105567381:0K)
+aoj(:01, 100029677:32.@pl)
+obj(600000010:21, 100029677:32.@pl)
+tim(202603699:1U.@entry, 600000033:05)
+aoj(HTM1:0Q, 105567381:0K)
+aoj(:01, 100029677:32.@pl)
+obj(600000010:21, 100029677:32.@pl)
+man(300416164:18, 400031899:13)
+man(202603699:1U.@entry, 600000010:21)
+aoj(300416164:18, 105659365:1I.@topic.@indef)
+aoj(202603699:1U.@entry, 105659365:1I.@topic.@indef)
+mod(105567381:0K, 500322985:0A)
+aoj(202603699:1U.@entry, 105659365:1I.@topic.@indef)
+mod(105567381:0K, 500322985:0A)
+and:01(303161340:2P.@entry, 302176178:2D)
+qua(100029677:32.@pl, "2":29)
+obj(600000033:05, HTM1:0Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12418]
+{org:en}
+corrosion and scum formation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100925207:0L.@entry, :01:01)
+obj(100925207:0L.@entry, :01:01)
+and:01(104157703:0G.@entry, 113453428:02)
+and:01(104157703:0G.@entry, 113453428:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12419]
+{org:en}
+Instability of equilibrium state is due to pH alterations of irrigation water, depending on temperature, method of water transportation from source to irrigated field, addition of chemical improvers, fertilizers and crop protectors.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300137725:12.@entry, 104775747:02.@topic)
+mod(104775747:02.@topic, 100024720:0T)
+and:01(100363788:50.@pl, 105660268:32.@pl)
+mod(107935504:22, 100695448:1R)
+aoj:01(101097119:4M, 100315986:3I)
+mod(100199707:1C.@pl, 107935504:22)
+and:01(105660268:32.@pl, 105011790:2M.@pl)
+aoj(300137725:12.@entry, 104775747:02.@topic)
+mod(104775747:02.@topic, 100024720:0T)
+and:01(100363788:50.@pl, 105660268:32.@pl)
+mod(107935504:22, 100695448:1R)
+aoj:01(101097119:4M, 100315986:3I)
+mod(100199707:1C.@pl, 107935504:22)
+and:01(105660268:32.@pl, 105011790:2M.@pl)
+mod:01(115669784:6O.@entry.@pl, 103134496:6J)
+obj:01(200079951:4C.@past, 101097119:4M)
+obj(300137725:12.@entry, 100199707:1C.@pl)
+aoj:01(302692624:5C, 115693877:5L.@pl)
+and:01(115669784:6O.@entry.@pl, 114859344:60.@pl)
+fmt:01(101097119:4M, 104263614:42)
+met(300137725:12.@entry, 202663848:29.@progress)
+mod(100024720:0T, 105659365:0H)
+obj:01(100363788:50.@pl, 115693877:5L.@pl)
+met(300137725:12.@entry, 202663848:29.@progress)
+mod(100024720:0T, 105659365:0H)
+obj:01(100363788:50.@pl, 115693877:5L.@pl)
+obj(202663848:29.@progress, :01:01)
+mod:01(100315986:3I, 107935504:3C)
+mod(100199707:1C.@pl, 105039106:19)
+mod:01(105660268:32.@pl, 100315986:3I)
+and:01(114859344:60.@pl, 100363788:50.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12420]
+{org:en}
+Consideration of processes in the "water -construction" system permit identification of three groups of indexes characterizing irrigation water quality (A, B, C).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200802318:24.@entry, 101229793:02.@topic)
+and:02(106831391:4S.@entry, 105400978:4P)
+aoj(202697950:3H.@progress, 105567381:39.@pl)
+mod(100031264:2Z.@pl, 105567381:39.@pl)
+scn(100029677:0J.@pl, 104377057:1X.@def)
+aoj(200802318:24.@entry, 101229793:02.@topic)
+and:02(106831391:4S.@entry, 105400978:4P)
+aoj(202697950:3H.@progress, 105567381:39.@pl)
+mod(100031264:2Z.@pl, 105567381:39.@pl)
+scn(100029677:0J.@pl, 104377057:1X.@def)
+mod(104723816:4D, 107935504:47)
+obj(104618581:2B, 100031264:2Z.@pl)
+obj(101229793:02.@topic, 100029677:0J.@pl)
+equ(:02.@parenthesis, 104723816:4D)
+obj(200802318:24.@entry, 104618581:2B)
+and:02(105400978:4P, "A":4M)
+obj(200802318:24.@entry, 104618581:2B)
+and:02(105400978:4P, "A":4M)
+obj(202697950:3H.@progress, 104723816:4D)
+qua(100031264:2Z.@pl, "3":2T)
+mod(104377057:1X.@def, 115693225:1W.@single_quote)
+mod(107935504:47, 100695448:3W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12421]
+{org:en}
+The first group (A) characterizes water aggression level towards concrete.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202697950:0T.@entry, 100031264:0F.@def.@topic)
+obj(600000104:1U, 114820180:22)
+mod(105093890:1O, 100964569:1D)
+aoj(202697950:0T.@entry, 100031264:0F.@def.@topic)
+obj(600000104:1U, 114820180:22)
+mod(105093890:1O, 100964569:1D)
+aoj(600000104:1U, 105093890:1O)
+mod(100031264:0F.@def.@topic, "1":09.@ordinal)
+obj(202697950:0T.@entry, 105093890:1O)
+obj(202697950:0T.@entry, 105093890:1O)
+cnt(100031264:0F.@def.@topic, "A":0M.@parenthesis)
+mod(100964569:1D, 107935504:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12422]
+{org:en}
+The second group (B) includes indexes that characterize risk of corrosion development and formation of insoluble carbonates.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0N.@entry, 100031264:0D.@def.@topic)
+mod(100031264:0D.@def.@topic, "2":06.@ordinal)
+obj:01(100925207:2K.@entry, 114798450:37.@pl)
+obj(202697950:19, 100802238:1M)
+aoj(200183879:0N.@entry, 100031264:0D.@def.@topic)
+mod(100031264:0D.@def.@topic, "2":06.@ordinal)
+obj:01(100925207:2K.@entry, 114798450:37.@pl)
+obj(202697950:19, 100802238:1M)
+aoj:01(301230728:2X, 114798450:37.@pl)
+agt(202697950:19, 105567381:0W.@pl)
+obj:01(100250259:24, 113453428:1U)
+obj(200183879:0N.@entry, 105567381:0W.@pl)
+obj(200183879:0N.@entry, 105567381:0W.@pl)
+and:01(100925207:2K.@entry, 100250259:24)
+obj(100802238:1M, :01)
+mod(100031264:0D.@def.@topic, 105400978:0K.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12423]
+{org:en}
+The third group (C) includes indexes that characterize risk of clogging of drip irrigation systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0M.@entry, 100031264:0C.@def.@topic)
+obj(200182037:1T.@progress, 104377057:2L.@pl)
+obj(202697950:18, 100802238:1L)
+aoj(200183879:0M.@entry, 100031264:0C.@def.@topic)
+obj(200182037:1T.@progress, 104377057:2L.@pl)
+obj(202697950:18, 100802238:1L)
+mod(100031264:0C.@def.@topic, 106831391:0J.@parenthesis)
+agt(202697950:18, 105567381:0V.@pl)
+mod(100695448:2A, 103241660:25)
+obj(200183879:0M.@entry, 105567381:0V.@pl)
+obj(200183879:0M.@entry, 105567381:0V.@pl)
+mod(104377057:2L.@pl, 100695448:2A)
+obj(100802238:1L, 200182037:1T.@progress)
+mod(100031264:0C.@def.@topic, "3":06.@ordinal)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12424]
+{org:en}
+These three groups of indexes are utilized in "Classification of irrigation waters with regard to risk level of hazard effect on constructions" (see Table 9).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(:02.@parenthesis, 200161872:10.@entry)
+mod:01(104809642:3I, 103501152:3B)
+mod:01(115689188:2B.@pl, 100695448:20)
+mod:02(104379243:4H, "9":4N)
+mod:01(101148904:1I.@entry, 115689188:2B.@pl)
+qua(100031264:0E.@pl, "3":08)
+pur(:02.@parenthesis, 200161872:10.@entry)
+mod:01(104809642:3I, 103501152:3B)
+mod:01(115689188:2B.@pl, 100695448:20)
+mod:02(104379243:4H, "9":4N)
+mod:01(101148904:1I.@entry, 115689188:2B.@pl)
+qua(100031264:0E.@pl, "3":08)
+mod:01(105093890:32, 100802238:2X)
+plc(200161872:10.@entry, :01:01.@single_quote)
+mod(100031264:0E.@pl, 600000017:02.@pl)
+mod:01(105093890:32, 104809642:3I)
+obj(200161872:10.@entry, 105567381:0O.@pl.@topic)
+mod(105567381:0O.@pl.@topic, 100031264:0E.@pl)
+obj(200161872:10.@entry, 105567381:0O.@pl.@topic)
+mod(105567381:0O.@pl.@topic, 100031264:0E.@pl)
+obj:01(600000100:2I, 105093890:32)
+aoj:01(600000100:2I, 115689188:2B.@pl)
+obj:02(200662589:4D.@entry, 104379243:4H)
+obj:01(104809642:3I, 100873381:3S.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12425]
+{org:en}
+Three classes of irrigation water quality are indicated
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200923793:1C.@entry, 100884466:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104723816:10, 107935504:0U)
+obj(200923793:1C.@entry, 100884466:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104723816:10, 107935504:0U)
+qua(100884466:08.@topic.@pl, "3":02)
+mod(100884466:08.@topic.@pl, 104723816:10)
+mod(100884466:08.@topic.@pl, 104723816:10)
+mod(107935504:0U, 100695448:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12426]
+{org:en}
+I - low hazardous, II -medium hazardous, III -hazardous.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(:03.@entry, :02)
+man:01(302059811:0A.@entry, 400393149:06)
+shd:02(303162262:0Q.@entry, 500323598:0L)
+and(:03.@entry, :02)
+man:01(302059811:0A.@entry, 400393149:06)
+shd:02(303162262:0Q.@entry, 500323598:0L)
+shd:03(302059811:1E.@entry, 600000303:18)
+and(:02, :01)
+and(:02, :01)
+shd:01(302059811:0A.@entry, 500324406:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12427]
+{org:en}
+Table 9
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "9":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "9":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12428]
+{org:en}
+Classification of irrigation waters with regard to risk level of hazard effect on constructions
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101148904:02.@entry, 115689188:0V.@pl)
+mod(105093890:1M, 100802238:1H)
+obj(600000100:12, 105093890:1M)
+mod(101148904:02.@entry, 115689188:0V.@pl)
+mod(105093890:1M, 100802238:1H)
+obj(600000100:12, 105093890:1M)
+mod(115689188:0V.@pl, 100695448:0K)
+mod(104809642:22, 103501152:1V)
+aoj(600000100:12, 115689188:0V.@pl)
+aoj(600000100:12, 115689188:0V.@pl)
+obj(104809642:22, 100873381:2C.@pl)
+mod(105093890:1M, 104809642:22)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12429]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the presented classifications of pollutants provide evaluation of their hazardous action on soils, plants (Tables 6, 7, 8) and constructions of irrigation systems (Table 9).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200406963:1G.@entry, 600000141:02)
+mod:04(104377057:4T.@pl, 100695448:4I)
+mod(100037396:2I, 600000020:22.@pl)
+and:01("8":3N.@entry, "7":3K)
+obj(100874806:1O, 100037396:2I)
+cnt:04(100017222:32.@pl, :02.@parenthesis)
+man(200406963:1G.@entry, 600000141:02)
+mod:04(104377057:4T.@pl, 100695448:4I)
+mod(100037396:2I, 600000020:22.@pl)
+and:01("8":3N.@entry, "7":3K)
+obj(100874806:1O, 100037396:2I)
+cnt:04(100017222:32.@pl, :02.@parenthesis)
+obj:04(100873381:41.@entry.@pl, 104377057:4T.@pl)
+aoj(303158103:0C, 101148904:0M.@def.@pl)
+obj(200406963:1G.@entry, 100874806:1O)
+and:04(100017222:32.@pl, 109335240:2S.@pl)
+and:04(100873381:41.@entry.@pl, 100017222:32.@pl)
+mod(101148904:0M.@def.@pl, 114857278:15.@pl)
+agt(200406963:1G.@entry, 101148904:0M.@def.@pl)
+mod:03(104379243:52.@entry, "9":58)
+agt(200406963:1G.@entry, 101148904:0M.@def.@pl)
+mod:03(104379243:52.@entry, "9":58)
+aoj(302059811:28, 100037396:2I)
+and:01("7":3K, "6":3H)
+obj(100037396:2I, :04)
+mod:02(104379243:3A.@entry.@pl, :01)
+cnt:04(104377057:4T.@pl, :03.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12430]
+{org:en}
+Conclusions
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+105781541:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12431]
+{org:en}
+By the end of the twentieth century, processes of pollution and degradation of soil, surface and underground waters became adopted a global character.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tmt(200149583:3O.@entry.@past, 100728065:0C.@def)
+and:02(303160997:31.@entry, 302471091:2P)
+obj(100029677:1A.@pl, :01:01)
+obj(200413195:3V.@past, 104616916:4C.@indef)
+tmt(200149583:3O.@entry.@past, 100728065:0C.@def)
+and:02(303160997:31.@entry, 302471091:2P)
+obj(100029677:1A.@pl, :01:01)
+obj(200413195:3V.@past, 104616916:4C.@indef)
+and:03(115689188:3D.@pl.@entry, 109335240:2J)
+gol(200149583:3O.@entry.@past, 200413195:3V.@past)
+mod(115205532:0X, "20":0N)
+and:01(100271263:21.@entry, 114516743:1N)
+obj(200149583:3O.@entry.@past, 100029677:1A.@pl)
+mod(100728065:0C.@def, 115205532:0X)
+obj(200149583:3O.@entry.@past, 100029677:1A.@pl)
+mod(100728065:0C.@def, 115205532:0X)
+obj(:01, :03:03)
+aoj(301568684:45, 104616916:4C.@indef)
+mod:03(115689188:3D.@pl.@entry, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12432]
+{org:en}
+They influence human health, economics, and social conditions, and they undermine structural and functional integrity of biosphere components.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202773818:22.@entry, 202536557:07)
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+Cadmium and zinc are accumulated in the reproductive parts of plants.
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+Related Chapters
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+Limiting Harmful index
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+Maximum permissible concentration of a substance in water
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+Ayers R.S. and Westcott D.W.
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+Water Quality for Agriculture. Irrigation and Drainage Paper
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+No.29, 174 pp., FAO, Rome.
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+Analysis of composition and properties of surface and underground water sources influence on character and productivity of agriculture and ways of solving various problems in agriculture and cattle-breeding in connection with water resources quality deterioration.
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+{org:en}
+Bezdnina S.Ya.
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+Ecosystems Water Use
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+137 pp., Moscow, Russia.
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+Concept and principles are formulated for ecosystem water use, priority concepts, problems and main directions are developed for activities in realizing ecosystem water use in agriculture (in Russian)
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+{org:en}
+Bezdnina S.Ya.
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+Water Quality for Irrigation
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+Principles and Methods of Assessment
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+185 pp., Moscow, Russia.
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+Influence is considered of irrigation water quality on soils productivity, water consumption, fertility and quality of agricultural products, standardization principles are formulated, as well as criteria and evaluation system for irrigation water quality comprising five classifications (in Russian)
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+Irrigation Water Quality Standard
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+3 pp., China.
+{/org}
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+This Standard contains values for 22 irrigation water quality characteristics.
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+[S:12501]
+{org:en}
+Nature Protection.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(100784755:09.@entry, 104623113:02)
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+[/S]
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+[S:12502]
+{org:en}
+Hydrosphere.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[/W]
+[W]
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+{org:en}
+Criteria and Quality Characteristics of Water for Irrigation
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+8 pp., Moscow, Russia.
+{/org}
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+[S:12505]
+{org:en}
+This Standard states the unified criteria and nomenclature of irrigation water characteristics.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:12506]
+{org:en}
+Irrigation Water Quality Evaluation and its Utilization in Agriculture
+{/org}
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+
+[S:12507]
+{org:en}
+27 pp., Budapest, Hungary.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:12508]
+{org:en}
+Quality characteristics of irrigation water are considered, as well as water appreciation and use thereof.
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+and:01(100947128:2O.@entry, 100364440:27)
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+
+[S:12509]
+{org:en}
+Water for Irrigation of Plants and for Preparing Chemical compounds for Plants Protection
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj:01(100784755:28, 100017222:22)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:12510]
+{org:en}
+3 pp., Poland.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+qua(115669681:04.@entry, "3":02)
+[W]
+500004191:09.@entry
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12511]
+{org:en}
+Standards are given for 50 characteristics of irrigation water quality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200108604:0G.@entry, 104301140:02.@topic.@pl)
+mod(107935504:1N, 100695448:1C)
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+pur(200108604:0G.@entry, 104731497:0T.@pl)
+mod(104723816:1T, 107935504:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12512]
+{org:en}
+Protection of water Resources and Aquatic Ecosystems
+{/org}
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+and:01(108368757:18.@entry.@pl, 105154676:0M.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12513]
+{org:en}
+UN/ESE, Water Series No.1, 119 pp., United Nations, Sales Section, New York.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500324329:02.@entry
+[/W]
+plc(104164989:1O, 500004836:1X)
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+mod(105862721:0G.@entry, 107205104:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12514]
+{org:en}
+Principles are formulated for ecosystem approach to hydro economic activities, criteria and target characteristics are given for water quality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201633173:0K.@entry, 105872477:05.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(104731497:36.@entry.@pl.@topic, 104394261:2Z)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:12515]
+{org:en}
+Water for Irrigation of Plants
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+pur(107935504:02.@entry, 100695448:0C)
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+obj(100695448:0C, 100017222:0Q.@pl)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:12516]
+{org:en}
+4 pp., Romania.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+qua(115669681:04.@entry, "4":02)
+qua(115669681:04.@entry, "4":02)
+[W]
+500003467:09.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12517]
+{org:en}
+Standards are stated for 33 characteristics of irrigation water quality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+pur(201009240:0G.@entry, 104731497:0U.@pl)
+mod(104723816:1U, 107935504:1O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12518]
+{org:en}
+Irrigation of Agricultural Land, Quality
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(100695448:02, 109334396:0T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12519]
+{org:en}
+Demands for Irrigation Water, 8 pp., Germany.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(101061333:02.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0P)
+obj(101061333:02.@entry.@pl, 107935504:0P)
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+mod(107935504:0P, 100695448:0E)
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+500003258:13.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12520]
+{org:en}
+Classification of irrigation water is given as well as standards for 30 characteristics of irrigation water quality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(107935504:0V, 100695448:0K)
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+[/S]
+
+[S:12521]
+{org:en}
+WATER TREATMENT
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100658082:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+mod(100658082:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12522]
+{org:en}
+EQUIPMENT AND PROCESSES
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100029677:0G.@entry.@pl, 103294048:02)
+and(100029677:0G.@entry.@pl, 103294048:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12523]
+{org:en}
+Water Treatment
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100658082:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+mod(100658082:08.@entry, 107935504:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12524]
+{org:en}
+Equipment and Processes
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(100029677:0G.@entry.@pl, 103294048:02)
+and(100029677:0G.@entry.@pl, 103294048:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12525]
+{org:en}
+Zhurba Michail G.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+500323298:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+500323298:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12526]
+{org:en}
+State Scientific HTM1 Center HTM2 of HTM3 Russian HTM4 Federation HTM5 “NIIVODGEO” Moscow, Russia
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100725506:0O.@entry, 500004288:2P)
+cnt(101153305:1L, 500323726:28.@double_quote)
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+mod(100725506:0O.@entry, 303161158:02)
+aoj(302957276:18, 101153305:1L)
+mod(500004288:2P, 101153305:1L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12527]
+{org:en}
+Keywords
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+[W]
+115668697:02.@entry.@pl
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12528]
+{org:en}
+Quality of natural water, Purification, Water conditioning, Technological water purification layouts, Technical and economical basis, Optimization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104723816:02.@entry, :02)
+mod:02(105752921:1C, 107935504:16)
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+and:01(302421364:3A.@entry, 300484070:2W)
+and:02(105752921:1C, 100252894:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12529]
+{org:en}
+Contents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106489659:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12530]
+{org:en}
+The requirements to the quality of the purified water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+to(115669633:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 104723816:0Q.@def)
+to(115669633:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 104723816:0Q.@def)
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+mod(104723816:0Q.@def, 107935504:1E.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12531]
+{org:en}
+Field of application of the methods for water purification
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101097119:02.@entry, 100036061:0B)
+mod(100252894:1C, 107935504:16)
+mod(101097119:02.@entry, 100036061:0B)
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+[S:12532]
+{org:en}
+Selection of technological layout of water purification processes
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+
+[S:12533]
+{org:en}
+Technical and economical basis of the investments for projects of water purification stations
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+[S:12534]
+{org:en}
+Optimization of the complex of technological processes of water purification
+{/org}
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+
+[S:12535]
+{org:en}
+Related Chapters
+{/org}
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+aoj(301971237:02, 106396142:0A.@entry.@pl)
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+[S:12536]
+{org:en}
+Glossary
+{/org}
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+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+106420781:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12537]
+{org:en}
+Bibliography
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+106486630:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
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+[S:12538]
+{org:en}
+Summary
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+[W]
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+[W]
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:12539]
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+The article is devoted to the present situation and prospects of development of the methods and constructions for natural water purification for potable and technical purposes.
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+[S:12540]
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+The properties of natural water, requirements to its quality after purification, the fields of application and methodology of the selection of technological layouts of water purification are described.
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+[S:12541]
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+The modern approaches to the technical and economical substantiation of the water supply purification systems are denounced.
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+The classification of the sources of water supply is proposed for the selection of the methods and constructions for water purification in dependence of the quality of the initial water, phase and dispersion state of the admixtures, presence of human contaminants in it, time factor, and the requirements to the degree of its purification.
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+The methodology and optimization of the technological complexes for water purification are enounced.
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+
+[S:12544]
+{org:en}
+The requirements to the quality of the purified water
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12545]
+{org:en}
+The basic characteristics determining water suitability for various categories of consumers are its composition and concentration of the admixtures.
+{/org}
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+The water categories are differentiated along the specific requirements to its quality as follows
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+the water used for household and potable purposes, water for needs of food and fermentation industry, for stock and birds watering, for irrigation, for cooling of the elements of technological assemblages in thermal energy production and other branches of economics, for feeding boilers, for industrial technological purposes, for watering of oil beds, etc.
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+[S:12548]
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+The hygienic requirements for water quality of the systems of centralized and local water supply as well as the rules of quality control of the water supplied for consumers are established by World Health Organization and State Agencies for Sanitary and Epidemiological Control of the different countries.
+{/org}
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+The norms and standards of the branch organizations are used in the technical water supply.
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+These are established on the basis of the necessary quality of water for the manufactured production, requirements of the technical means to the utilized water, etc.
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+aoj(300343552:18, 104723816:1I.@def)
+to:01(103733547:3Q.@def, 107935504:4C.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12551]
+{org:en}
+The quality characteristics of the water in the water sources used for water supply without purification are established by the State Standards for water sources of centralized water supply systems.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200636888:33.@entry, 107935504:11.@topic.@def)
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+obj(600000060:2E, 100252894:2M)
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+agt(200636888:33.@entry, 104301140:3S.@def.@pl)
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+aoj(600000060:2E, 115669704:21)
+mod(107935504:11.@topic.@def, 104731497:0E.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12552]
+{org:en}
+The potable water should be safe as related to its epidemiological and radiation properties, harmless in its chemical composition, and adequate in its organoleptic characteristics.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300066933:0U.@entry.@should.@past, 107935504:0E.@topic.@def)
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+aoj(303160899:06, 107935504:0E.@topic.@def)
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+plc:02(301159655:2N, 103081660:3C)
+obj(600000023:0Z, :02)
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+and:02(301159655:2N, 303161005:12)
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+obj:02(303161005:12, 104012260:2B.@pl)
+man(300066933:0U.@entry.@should.@past, 600000023:0Z)
+obj:02(303161005:12, 104012260:2B.@pl)
+aoj:02(303161155:49, 104731497:4M.@pl)
+plc:02(202776231:3T.@entry, 104731497:4M.@pl)
+and:01(101252918:21.@entry, 303161559:1H)
+mod:02(103081660:3C, 600000016:2Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12553]
+{org:en}
+The safety of the water in relation of the epidemiological danger is determined in Russia by the norms presented in the Table 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:1Z.@entry, 100188620:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(104379243:3E.@def, "1":3K)
+obj(200772967:2X, 113854488:2R.@def.@pl)
+obj(200699815:1Z.@entry, 100188620:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(104379243:3E.@def, "1":3K)
+obj(200772967:2X, 113854488:2R.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000321:0Q, 108644213:1P.@def)
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+aoj(600000321:0Q, 107935504:0K.@def)
+agt(200699815:1Z.@entry, 113854488:2R.@def.@pl)
+agt(200699815:1Z.@entry, 113854488:2R.@def.@pl)
+obj(100188620:06.@topic.@def, 107935504:0K.@def)
+plc(200772967:2X, 104379243:3E.@def)
+aoj(303161559:19, 108644213:1P.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12554]
+{org:en}
+Table 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "1":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "1":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12555]
+{org:en}
+Norms for microbiological and parasitological characteristics of water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(113854488:02.@entry.@pl, 107935504:1V)
+and:01(303163570:0W.@entry, 303161141:0C)
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+mod(107935504:1V, 104731497:1C.@pl)
+mod(107935504:1V, 104731497:1C.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12556]
+{org:en}
+The safety of the potable water on the chemical composition is determined by its correspondence to the generalized norms and by the concentration of harmful chemical substances most frequently occurring on the territory of the Russian Federation (table 2) and also by the concentration of substances of human origin that enter into the water or form in it in the processes of treatment (table 3).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+cnt:04(500323591:6D.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
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+mod:04(106623614:2B, 600000016:27)
+mod:04(100019613:83.@pl, 104923743:8N.@pl)
+gol:03(201082606:8Z, 107935504:9E.@def)
+obj:04(200723349:5F.@progress, 100019613:4O.@pl)
+man:04(100375071:7M.@def, 400047534:7A)
+man:04(200723349:5F.@progress, 400035058:54)
+plc(107935504:0S.@def, 103081660:1E.@def)
+[W]
+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12557]
+{org:en}
+Table 2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "2":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "2":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12558]
+{org:en}
+Norms and standards on the generalized characteristics of water and harmful chemical substances
+{/org}
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+aoj:02(301160031:1Y, 100019613:2F.@entry.@pl)
+and:02(100019613:2F.@entry.@pl, 107935504:1O)
+and:01(104301140:0C.@entry.@pl, 113854488:02.@pl)
+and:01(104301140:0C.@entry.@pl, 113854488:02.@pl)
+mod:02(104731497:15.@def.@pl, 302278513:0T)
+aoj:02(302692624:26, 100019613:2F.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12559]
+{org:en}
+Table 3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "3":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "3":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12560]
+{org:en}
+The norms on the harmful chemical substances entering and forming in the processes of water treatment
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(113854488:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 100019613:10.@def.@pl)
+gol:01(200144850:1O.@entry.@progress, 100029677:23.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302692624:0R, 100019613:10.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301160031:0J, 100019613:10.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(100658082:2M, 107935504:2G)
+obj(:01, 100019613:10.@def.@pl)
+obj(:01, 100019613:10.@def.@pl)
+obj:01(100029677:23.@def.@pl, 100658082:2M)
+and:01(200144850:1O.@entry.@progress, 201082606:1B.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12561]
+{org:en}
+Table 4 represents the norms determining the favorable principal organoleptic water properties.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200825447:0A.@entry, 104379243:02.@topic)
+mod(104012260:2E.@def.@pl, 303161143:1L)
+obj(200699815:0V.@progress, 104012260:2E.@def.@pl)
+agt(200825447:0A.@entry, 104379243:02.@topic)
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+obj(200699815:0V.@progress, 104012260:2E.@def.@pl)
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+mod(104012260:2E.@def.@pl, 107935504:28)
+obj(200825447:0A.@entry, 113854488:0P.@def.@pl)
+obj(200825447:0A.@entry, 113854488:0P.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303161155:1V, 104012260:2E.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300604978:1B, 104012260:2E.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12562]
+{org:en}
+Table 4.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "4":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "4":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12563]
+{org:en}
+The norms on the organoleptic characteristics of water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(113854488:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 107935504:1F)
+plc(113854488:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 107935504:1F)
+aoj(303161155:0J, 104731497:0W.@def.@pl)
+mod(107935504:1F, 104731497:0W.@def.@pl)
+mod(107935504:1F, 104731497:0W.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12564]
+{org:en}
+The radiation safety of the potable water is determined by its correspondence with the norms of the characteristics of the total HTM1 and HTM2 radioactivity (Table 5).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:1B.@entry, 100188620:0G.@topic.@def)
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+cnt(113854488:2H.@def.@pl, :01)
+mod(106623614:1T, 600000016:1P)
+obj(200699815:1B.@entry, 100188620:0G.@topic.@def)
+mod(100188620:0G.@topic.@def, 101252918:06)
+cnt(113854488:2H.@def.@pl, :01)
+mod(106623614:1T, 600000016:1P)
+qua:01(HTM1:3N.@def, 303160907:3H)
+aoj(113854488:2H.@def.@pl, 106623614:1T)
+mod:01(HTM1:3N.@def, 104731497:2U.@def.@pl)
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+aoj(303160899:0U, 107935504:12.@def)
+agt(200699815:1B.@entry, 106623614:1T)
+aoj(303160899:0U, 107935504:12.@def)
+and:01(HTM2:3W.@entry, HTM1:3N.@def)
+mod(113854488:2H.@def.@pl, 115693023:41)
+obj(100188620:0G.@topic.@def, 107935504:12.@def)
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+:02.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12565]
+{org:en}
+Table 5.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "5":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "5":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12566]
+{org:en}
+Norms on the radioactivity characteristics
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+plc(113854488:02.@entry.@pl, 104731497:0T.@def.@pl)
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+mod(104731497:0T.@def.@pl, 115693023:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12567]
+{org:en}
+The water quality control on the level of state, agency, or industry is realized in accordance with the requirements of the State Legislation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod:01(100024720:18, 105093890:0Z.@def)
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+or:01(108057206:1F, 100024720:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12568]
+{org:en}
+The metrology certified methods by State Committee of Standards or by State Committee of Sanitary and Epidemiology of Russian Federation are admitted for laboratory investigations of potable water quality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200817311:3Z.@entry, 105660268:0Q.@topic.@pl)
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+or:02(108325686:26.@entry, 108325686:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12569]
+{org:en}
+The taking of water samples for analyses is carried out in correspondence with the requirements of the established procedures.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774207:1A.@entry, 115698829:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(115698829:06.@topic.@def, 105821775:0M.@pl)
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+obj(200636888:2X, 100577068:39.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12570]
+{org:en}
+The analogous requirements (Tables HTM1 ) are demanded to the water used in the food industry.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+gol(200754942:1D.@entry, 107935504:1T.@def)
+aoj(301221290:06, 115669633:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(100923444:2G.@def, 100021265:2B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12571]
+{org:en}
+The individual branches of production establish its own additional requirements (connected with the specific technology of the manufacturing) to some components that can deteriorate the quality of the products or disturb the technological process.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+aoj:01(301099951:2U, 100949619:33.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12572]
+{org:en}
+The water that is used in the agriculture for watering livestock and birds should correspond to the quality requirements of water for household and potable purposes, but with little lower norms on color index, odor, and hardness.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+scn(201158572:0K, 108075287:0W.@def)
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+scn(201158572:0K, 108075287:0W.@def)
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+obj(600000018:4S, :03)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12573]
+{org:en}
+The temperature of water for these purposes is optimum in the limits
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300228645:1D.@entry, 105011790:06.@topic.@def)
+pur(107935504:0L, 105982152:11.@pl)
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+plc(300228645:1D.@entry, 105124057:1S.@def.@pl)
+plc(300228645:1D.@entry, 105124057:1S.@def.@pl)
+mod(105982152:11.@pl, 600000017:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12574]
+{org:en}
+The norms for water for irrigation purposes are established mostly in dependence of the quality of water on the physiological development of the irrigated crops, on soil and climate properties of the irrigated territories, and on the requirements of the technical means of irrigation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200636888:1E.@entry, 113854488:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+plc(107935504:2T, :02:02)
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+obj(400535929:1X, 104723816:2I.@def)
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+obj:02(200079951:43, 103134496:4D.@def.@pl)
+man(200636888:1E.@entry, 400535929:1X)
+mod(105982152:11.@pl, 100695448:0Q)
+mod:02(104012260:54.@pl, 105999134:5W.@def.@pl)
+man(200636888:1E.@entry, 400535929:1X)
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+obj:02(200079951:5M, 105999134:5W.@def.@pl)
+aoj:02(300484070:74, 103733547:7E.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12575]
+{org:en}
+The water utilized for cooling the industrial units should not further the decrease of the heat conductance of the heat exchangers because of the sediments of carbonates and other salts or contribute in the contamination of moving parts of pumps, power drives, etc. by mechanical and organic admixtures.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+or(202308741:5B.@entry, 202775676:1T.@should.@past.@not)
+mod(110069120:3E.@def.@pl, 105725527:39)
+obj(600000035:BD, 102681084:86.@pl)
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+obj(200161872:0C, 107935504:06.@topic.@def)
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+obj(100276987:5T.@def, 103892891:6H.@pl)
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+gol(202308741:5B.@entry, 100276987:5T.@def)
+mod(109428967:44.@def.@pl, :03)
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+and:01(115689145:7B.@entry, 100103834:73.@pl)
+obj(200369864:0P.@progress, 105869857:1C.@def.@pl)
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+obj(600000012:3P, 109428967:44.@def.@pl)
+mod(102681084:86.@pl, :02)
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+mod(103892891:6H.@pl, :01)
+rsn(202775676:1T.@should.@past.@not, 600000012:3P)
+mod:01(100103834:73.@pl, 105190804:6X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12576]
+{org:en}
+When the water is utilized for technological purposes the following types of water are differentiated
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200119074:2H.@entry, 200161872:0K)
+pur(200161872:0K, 105982152:1B.@pl)
+mod(104504486:1Y.@pl, 300127815:1O)
+tim(200119074:2H.@entry, 200161872:0K)
+pur(200161872:0K, 105982152:1B.@pl)
+mod(104504486:1Y.@pl, 300127815:1O)
+mod(107935504:27.@topic, 104504486:1Y.@pl)
+obj(200119074:2H.@entry, 107935504:27.@topic)
+obj(200119074:2H.@entry, 107935504:27.@topic)
+aoj(302084979:0X, 105982152:1B.@pl)
+obj(200161872:0K, 107935504:0B.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12577]
+{org:en}
+water introduced into the product composition
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200706693:08, 107935504:02.@entry)
+obj(200706693:08, 107935504:02.@entry)
+mod(103081660:10.@def, 103748886:0S)
+gol(200706693:08, 103081660:10.@def)
+gol(200706693:08, 103081660:10.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12578]
+{org:en}
+water contacting with the row materials, water used for mining mineral resources and used for hydraulic transport, water used for treatment and cooling ready products.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(107935504:39.@entry, 107935504:17)
+aoj:02(303073751:2O, 113570236:2Y)
+aoj:01(300185759:4A, 103748886:4G.@pl)
+gol(202775614:08.@progress, 103729951:0W.@def.@pl)
+and:01(200369864:42.@entry.@progress, 100658082:3O)
+mod:02(105154676:21.@pl, 114662574:1T)
+and(107935504:39.@entry, 107935504:17)
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+aoj:01(300185759:4A, 103748886:4G.@pl)
+gol(202775614:08.@progress, 103729951:0W.@def.@pl)
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+mod:02(105154676:21.@pl, 114662574:1T)
+and:02(201158572:2F.@entry, 201158572:1D)
+pur(201158572:3F, :01:01)
+obj:02(201125724:1M.@progress, 105154676:21.@pl)
+obj(:02, 107935504:17)
+obj(201158572:3F, 107935504:39.@entry)
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+obj(201158572:3F, 107935504:39.@entry)
+pur:02(201158572:1D, 201125724:1M.@progress)
+and(107935504:17, 107935504:02)
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+agt(202775614:08.@progress, 107935504:02)
+pur:02(201158572:2F.@entry, 113570236:2Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12579]
+{org:en}
+The water quality should correspond to the branch norms and standards.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(201006810:0R.@entry.@should.@past, 104723816:0C.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(113854488:1G.@def.@pl, 108401248:19)
+aoj(201006810:0R.@entry.@should.@past, 104723816:0C.@topic.@def)
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+gol(201006810:0R.@entry.@should.@past, :01)
+mod(104723816:0C.@topic.@def, 107935504:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12580]
+{org:en}
+The tentative requirements for principal types of contaminants and for their permissible concentrations are enounced in the integrated norms of water consumption for various branches and enterprises of the economic.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202775469:32.@entry, 115669633:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303163803:06, 115669633:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+aoj(303163803:06, 115669633:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
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+and:02(100796886:59.@entry.@pl, 108401248:4W.@pl)
+plc(202775469:32.@entry, 113854488:3T.@def.@pl)
+and:01(100375071:2J.@entry.@pl, 114821984:1G.@pl)
+plc(202775469:32.@entry, 113854488:3T.@def.@pl)
+and:01(100375071:2J.@entry.@pl, 114821984:1G.@pl)
+mod(:02, 106149484:5S.@def)
+pur(100356367:48, :02:02)
+mod:01(114821984:1G.@pl, 104504486:17.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 115669633:0G.@topic.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12581]
+{org:en}
+The water used for flooding oil beds and for supporting bed pressure has to contain less than HTM1 of the suspended matter, up to HTM2 of total iron, and up to HTM3 of petroleum.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202701210:26.@entry.@obligation, 107935504:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100113113:1Q, 102818832:1M)
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+bas(400099868:2E, HTM1:2O)
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+mod(100113113:1Q, 102818832:1M)
+obj:01(600000047:3I, 103584829:42)
+bas(400099868:2E, HTM1:2O)
+pur(201158572:0C, 200217152:0L.@progress)
+qua(100020827:3A.@def, 400099868:2E)
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+obj:01(600000047:4C.@entry, 114980579:4Q)
+obj(201720773:1B.@progress, 100113113:1Q)
+obj(202701210:26.@entry.@obligation, 100020827:3A.@def)
+qua:01(103584829:42, 303160907:3W)
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+mod(102818832:0Y.@pl, 103843092:0U)
+man(202701210:26.@entry.@obligation, :01)
+qua:01(103584829:42, HTM2:3O)
+man(202701210:26.@entry.@obligation, :01)
+qua:01(103584829:42, HTM2:3O)
+man(400099868:2E, 400099341:5U)
+obj(200217152:0L.@progress, 102818832:0Y.@pl)
+obj(200148763:30, 100020827:3A.@def)
+pur(201158572:0C, 201720773:1B.@progress)
+qua:01(114980579:4Q, HTM3:4I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12582]
+{org:en}
+To prevent the decrease of porosity of oil containing strata, the concentration of the bicarbonates should be limited in the warmed water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(200235368:34.@entry.@should.@past, 202450505:05)
+obj(202450505:05, 100351638:0H.@def)
+obj(200372958:3J, 107935504:3Q.@def)
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+obj(202450505:05, 100351638:0H.@def)
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+obj(200235368:34.@entry.@should.@past, 100375071:1W.@topic.@def)
+obj(100351638:0H.@def, 104940146:0T)
+mod(100375071:1W.@topic.@def, 114775729:2H.@def.@pl)
+obj(202701210:19.@progress, 103843092:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12583]
+{org:en}
+Also, the oxygen concentration is to be limited, because it oxidizes the hydrogen sulfide and causes the corrosion of the casing and exploitation columns.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+rsn(200235368:16.@entry.@will, :02:02)
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+rsn(200235368:16.@entry.@will, :02:02)
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+pur(100375071:0J.@topic.@def, 200235368:16.@entry.@will)
+obj:02(113453428:2Z.@def, 103073977:44.@def.@pl)
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+agt(:02, 600000016:1N)
+and:01(100418903:3R.@entry, 102977619:3G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12584]
+{org:en}
+In the cases, when the direct norms and standards for the quality of the purified water for diverse specific production processes are absent, the designer should demand from the client the necessary data on the influence of the water quality on the production.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200754942:4K.@entry.@should.@past, 300165171:3S)
+aoj:01(300005473:0P, 113854488:0W.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300165171:3S, :01)
+aoj(300343552:5B, 108462320:5L.@def)
+obj:01(200475183:23, 107935504:2C.@def)
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+{org:en}
+Field of application of the methods for water purification
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+The field of application of the numerous methods of water treatment depends at the first case on the purposeful influence of these methods on the following epidemiological, chemical and organoleptic characteristics of the purified water
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+alteration of the mineral composition of water HTM1 removing iron, manganese, and silicon salts, desalination, softening, fluorination, silicon salts removing, etc.
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+extraction and improvement of the gas composition HTM1 removing hydrogen sulfide, oxygen, methane, free carbon dioxide, etc.
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+extraction of hardly oxidative organic substances and harmful products, forming at the same time in the processes of water treatment HTM1 reverse osmosis, biosorption, nanofiltration, etc.
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+The selection of one or another method of water purification is carried out on the basis of the comparative analysis of the quality of initial water and required degree of its purification, technological possibilities of one or another method available, and specific features of the design of constructions and installations, on which these methods are realized, and also on the basis of results of technical and economical substantiation.
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+The general specific characteristics of the substances contaminating natural water are the forms, in which they are present in the water.
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+;Phase and dispersion state of the water admixtures together with their chemical specific features determine the behavior of these substances in the aqueous medium and their response on the reagents and ancillary disperse materials introduces into the water in the processes of its treatment.Phase and dispersion state of the water admixtures together with their chemical specific features determine the behavior of these substances in the aqueous medium and their response on the reagents and ancillary dispersive materials introduces into the water in the processes of its treatment.
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+The required quality of the water in the processes of its purification or conditioning (altering its one or other quality characteristic in the necessary direction) can be achieved only in the case, when the proper combination of the corresponding methods of action (water treatment) would be selected.
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+[S:12601]
+{org:en}
+Academician Kul'skii proposed to unite the multiplicity of the contaminations of natural and industrial waters into the four groups on the basis of this principle.
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+In so doing, the common combination of the methods of water purification can be applied for each of these groups.
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+The classifying water admixtures on its phase and dispersion state and recommended processes of these admixtures removing are presented in the Table 6.
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+Table 6.
+{/org}
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+[/S]
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+[S:12605]
+{org:en}
+Classification of the water admixtures on their phase and dispersion state and processes used for their removal
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+The capability of numerous admixtures to change its phase and dispersion state under action of physical and chemical factors, in the first turn such as salt composition, temperature, pH value of the medium, etc. make possible to vary in large limits the procedures and methods of water treatment processes.
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+The utilizing this methodology in the designing the water purification stations allows to validate the applied water treatment layouts to the first approximation.
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+As regards the validation of the technological complex of consequently operating purification constructions and its economical substantiation, the designer needs the information about phase and dispersion composition of the admixtures, the information about range of concentrations of the components of natural and human origin, which are extracted by these construction from the initial water.
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+mod(100873381:A0, 600000017:9U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12609]
+{org:en}
+Also, the information about the technological characteristics of the particular water purification constructions is necessary.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(300343552:3A.@entry, 400047534:02)
+mod(100873381:2T.@def.@pl, 300311044:1Z)
+obj(600000013:0O, 100873381:2T.@def.@pl)
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+obj(600000013:0O, 100873381:2T.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302084979:0Y, 104731497:1C.@def.@pl)
+aoj(600000013:0O, 105091527:0C.@topic.@def)
+mod(100873381:2T.@def.@pl, 100252894:2G)
+aoj(300343552:3A.@entry, 105091527:0C.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300343552:3A.@entry, 105091527:0C.@topic.@def)
+mod(100873381:2T.@def.@pl, 107935504:2A)
+mod(100873381:2T.@def.@pl, 104731497:1C.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12610]
+{org:en}
+Selection of technological layout of water purification processes
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(108399818:02.@entry, 101010901:0T)
+mod(100029677:1M.@pl, 107935504:13)
+obj(108399818:02.@entry, 101010901:0T)
+mod(100029677:1M.@pl, 107935504:13)
+aoj(302084979:0F, 101010901:0T)
+mod(101010901:0T, 100029677:1M.@pl)
+mod(101010901:0T, 100029677:1M.@pl)
+mod(100029677:1M.@pl, 100252894:19)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12611]
+{org:en}
+The diversity of the human admixtures in the purified water differing in its physical-chemical, hydrobiological, sanitary and hygienic composition determines the modern strategy of the selection of technology and constructions for preparing water of potable quality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200699815:45.@entry, 104735711:06.@topic.@def)
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+obj(200699815:45.@entry, 106249177:4R.@def)
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+obj(200475183:1B, 107935504:1K.@def)
+aoj(303160899:70, 104723816:78)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12612]
+{org:en}
+This strategy should provide solution of the following problems
+{/org}
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+mod(105687338:1L.@pl, 300127815:1B)
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+mod(105687338:1L.@pl, 300127815:1B)
+mod(100190783:0V, 105687338:1L.@pl)
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+obj(200406963:0N.@entry.@should.@past, 100190783:0V)
+mod(106249177:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12613]
+{org:en}
+to provide the enhanced protective function of constructions that should prevent the entering into the potable water not only aquatic organisms, admixtures causing its color and turbidity, and other substances covered by Sanitary Standards, but also petroleum products, phenols, pesticides, synthetic detergents, salts of heavy metals, nitrogen compounds, and dangerous pathogenic viruses
+{/org}
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+aoj:04(303160899:2X, 107935504:35.@def)
+[W]
+
+[/W]
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+mod:03(104301140:6G.@pl, 302112976:67)
+{/unl}
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+
+[S:12614]
+{org:en}
+to prevent formation of toxic organochlorine compounds in the water treatment process of primary chlorination of water containing large quantity of dissolved organic substances
+{/org}
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+mod(100709659:2R, 300699521:2J)
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+scn(103081859:1B.@pl, 100029677:28.@def)
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+pur(:79.@entry, 202450505:05)
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+qua(100019613:4O.@pl, 105108740:3U)
+mod(100029677:28.@def, 100658082:1Y)
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+obj(202701210:3D.@progress, 100019613:4O.@pl)
+mod(100029677:28.@def, 107935504:1S)
+obj(202450505:05, 100925207:0D)
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+obj(200338559:46, 100019613:4O.@pl)
+obj(100709659:2R, 107935504:37)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12615]
+{org:en}
+to provide flexibility in the control of water purification processes at the various periods of changes of water quality in the constructions different in its intention and operating principles, but included into the integral technological chain of the water supply station
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(200183879:5L.@entry.@contrast, 200406963:05)
+and:01(105872477:55.@entry.@pl, 100163233:4H)
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+obj(100803617:0W.@def, 100029677:1Q.@pl)
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+obj(200406963:05, 104659287:0D)
+{/unl}
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+[S:12616]
+{org:en}
+to contribute in economical consumption of electrical power, adsorbents, and chemical reagents
+{/org}
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+aoj:01(302692624:27, 114778982:2G.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(302421364:0J, 100356367:0U)
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+and:01(114778982:2G.@entry.@pl, 114598525:1R.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12617]
+{org:en}
+to provide ecologically efficient operating conditions of the energy consuming equipment (ozonizers, flotators, ion exchange installations, etc.), when the degree of water pollution alters in the different seasons of the year
+{/org}
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+obj(200600903:1Z.@progress, 104633197:1S.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12618]
+{org:en}
+to employ in maximum scale the ecologically safe methods of preliminary elimination from water of coarse dispersed admixtures and organic dissolved substances directly in the water intake unit reducing in this manner the quantity of sediments at the water supply stations and exploitation expenditures for reagent treatment.
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+mod:02(100658082:8S, 114778982:8K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12619]
+{org:en}
+The intensifying the purification processes of the water of complex physical-chemical composition and increasing efficiency and reliability of existing technologies and constructions could be achieved by following measures
+{/org}
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+mod:02(100949619:47.@pl, 301731786:3Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12620]
+{org:en}
+including mechanical and biological methods of preliminary purification with the use of bioreactors and biosorbers at the primary stage of water treatment
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(100306900:3O.@def, 100658082:43)
+mod(100252894:1P, 300878086:1D)
+and:01(301405904:0R.@entry, 301499686:0C)
+plc(:02, 100306900:3O.@def)
+aoj(:01, 105660268:12.@pl)
+mod(100658082:43, 107935504:3X)
+obj(100947128:2B.@def, :02:02)
+mod(105660268:12.@pl, 100252894:1P)
+mod(100306900:3O.@def, 300699521:3G)
+mod(105660268:12.@pl, 100252894:1P)
+mod(100306900:3O.@def, 300699521:3G)
+obj(600000019:22, 100947128:2B.@def)
+aoj(600000019:22, 100252894:1P)
+and:02(115694832:2Y.@entry.@pl, 115669725:2I.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12621]
+{org:en}
+replacement of preliminary water chlorination by ozonation or altering the chlorination operating conditions and reducing time of chlorine contact with the non-purified water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+or(:01.@entry, 100197772:02)
+obj(100197772:02, 100709659:0Z)
+mod:01(100039297:3X, 114634591:3O)
+mod:01(100028270:3G, 100039297:3X)
+mod(100709659:0Z, 107935504:0T)
+or(:01.@entry, 100197772:02)
+obj(100197772:02, 100709659:0Z)
+mod:01(100039297:3X, 114634591:3O)
+mod:01(100028270:3G, 100039297:3X)
+mod(100709659:0Z, 107935504:0T)
+mod:01(105798863:2S.@pl, 100709659:25.@def)
+obj:01(200045817:37.@entry.@progress, 100028270:3G)
+mod(100709659:0Z, 300878086:0H)
+obj:01(200060477:1S.@progress, 105798863:2S.@pl)
+and:01(200045817:37.@entry.@progress, 200060477:1S.@progress)
+ins(100709659:0Z, 115689966:1F)
+and:01(200045817:37.@entry.@progress, 200060477:1S.@progress)
+ins(100709659:0Z, 115689966:1F)
+obj:01(200475183:4I.@not, 107935504:4R.@def)
+obj:01(100039297:3X, 107935504:4R.@def)
+obj:01(200341285:2I.@progress, 105798863:2S.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12622]
+{org:en}
+complex utilizing of different oxidizers (ozone, potassium permanganate, hydrogen peroxide, etc.) and UV-radiation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200161872:0A.@progress, 105870365:02.@entry)
+mod:01(114979410:1P, 114650807:1F)
+aoj:02(300490413:0N, 115691538:0X.@pl)
+cnt:02(500323615:2W, 101252918:2Z.@entry)
+agt(200161872:0A.@progress, 105870365:02.@entry)
+mod:01(114979410:1P, 114650807:1F)
+aoj:02(300490413:0N, 115691538:0X.@pl)
+cnt:02(500323615:2W, 101252918:2Z.@entry)
+mod:01(114980087:2C, 114640434:23)
+and:02(101252918:2Z.@entry, 115691538:0X.@pl)
+and:01(114980087:2C, 114979410:1P)
+obj(200161872:0A.@progress, :02:02)
+obj(200161872:0A.@progress, :02:02)
+and:01(115689145:2M.@entry, 114980087:2C)
+cnt:02(115691538:0X.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+and:01(114979410:1P, 114972807:18)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12623]
+{org:en}
+use of more efficient coagulants (aluminum oxychloride) and flocculants
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100947128:02.@entry, :02:02)
+mod:01(115694161:1A.@entry, 114627820:10)
+qua:02(114815728:0O.@pl, 400099341:09)
+obj(100947128:02.@entry, :02:02)
+mod:01(115694161:1A.@entry, 114627820:10)
+qua:02(114815728:0O.@pl, 400099341:09)
+cnt:02(114815728:0O.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+and:02(115690313:1R.@entry.@pl, 114815728:0O.@pl)
+and:02(115690313:1R.@entry.@pl, 114815728:0O.@pl)
+aoj:02(300839619:0E, 114815728:0O.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12624]
+{org:en}
+employment of the mixers of instant action and improved flocculation chambers of the hydraulic type
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(103003730:1Z.@entry.@pl, 101217859:02)
+obj(101217859:02, 103775199:0K.@def.@pl)
+mod(103003730:1Z.@entry.@pl, 113482187:1M)
+and(103003730:1Z.@entry.@pl, 101217859:02)
+obj(101217859:02, 103775199:0K.@def.@pl)
+mod(103003730:1Z.@entry.@pl, 113482187:1M)
+obj(202774185:1D, 103003730:1Z.@entry.@pl)
+mod(100037396:12, 301732012:0U)
+mod(103003730:1Z.@entry.@pl, 104504486:2P.@def)
+mod(103003730:1Z.@entry.@pl, 104504486:2P.@def)
+mod(103775199:0K.@def.@pl, 100037396:12)
+aoj(303073751:2F, 104504486:2P.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12625]
+{org:en}
+enhancement of efficiency of sedimentation and clarification of water by the use of the thin-layer modules and circulation of the suspended precipitate
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100265992:02.@entry, 105644527:0H)
+aoj:02(300988232:2I, 103778600:2T.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000035:6S, :02)
+and:01(107171206:1D.@entry, 111445395:0V)
+obj(100265992:02.@entry, 105644527:0H)
+aoj:02(300988232:2I, 103778600:2T.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000035:6S, :02)
+and:01(107171206:1D.@entry, 111445395:0V)
+obj:02(200148763:3O, 114591635:3Y.@def)
+obj(:01, 107935504:1U)
+obj:02(100368302:35.@entry, 114591635:3Y.@def)
+mod(105644527:0H, :01)
+mod:02(103778600:2T.@def.@pl, 101463259:2N)
+mod(105644527:0H, :01)
+mod:02(103778600:2T.@def.@pl, 101463259:2N)
+and:02(100368302:35.@entry, 100947128:27.@def)
+aoj(600000035:6S, 107935504:1U)
+obj:02(100947128:27.@def, 103778600:2T.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12626]
+{org:en}
+employment of the new filtering materials with developed surface of its grains and granules, including polymeric granule-fibrous loads
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(101217859:02.@entry, 103729951:0Y.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000007:2N, 103679986:3N.@pl)
+aoj(600000007:2N, 104362025:1N)
+obj(201458664:0O.@progress, 103729951:0Y.@def.@pl)
+scn(302446239:3F, 109291513:37)
+obj(101217859:02.@entry, 103729951:0Y.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000007:2N, 103679986:3N.@pl)
+aoj(600000007:2N, 104362025:1N)
+obj(201458664:0O.@progress, 103729951:0Y.@def.@pl)
+scn(302446239:3F, 109291513:37)
+and:01(109291513:2D.@entry.@pl, 104950713:22.@pl)
+aoj(300024996:0K, 103729951:0Y.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302446239:3F, 103679986:3N.@pl)
+obj(200234057:1D, 104362025:1N)
+aoj(600000019:18, 103729951:0Y.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302782225:2X, 103679986:3N.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:18, 103729951:0Y.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302782225:2X, 103679986:3N.@pl)
+mod(104362025:1N, :01)
+obj(600000019:18, 104362025:1N)
+mod:01(104950713:22.@pl, 600000016:1Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12627]
+{org:en}
+supplement to the reagent technology of the preliminary and subsequent ozonation performing in a single or double stage mode, and also employing adsorption water purification with the use of granulated (GAC) or powdered (PAC) active carbons and other adsorbents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+to(105110772:02.@entry, 100949619:0S.@def)
+mod:04(102961851:6Q.@pl, 500324228:6A.@parenthesis)
+mod:05(100252894:4K, 113427789:43)
+and:01(300122626:1Q.@entry, 300878086:1A)
+or:02(300896026:31.@entry, 300539389:2R)
+or:03(302233390:60.@entry, 500323826:5S.@parenthesis)
+agt(:05, 115689966:21.@def)
+mod:05(106023675:3E.@indef, :02)
+obj:05(100947128:56.@def, :04:04)
+to(105110772:02.@entry, 100949619:0S.@def)
+mod:04(102961851:6Q.@pl, 500324228:6A.@parenthesis)
+mod:05(100252894:4K, 113427789:43)
+and:01(300122626:1Q.@entry, 300878086:1A)
+or:02(300896026:31.@entry, 300539389:2R)
+or:03(302233390:60.@entry, 500323826:5S.@parenthesis)
+agt(:05, 115689966:21.@def)
+mod:05(106023675:3E.@indef, :02)
+obj:05(100947128:56.@def, :04:04)
+man:05(202774279:3T.@entry.@progress, 400047534:3O)
+mod:04(114598525:78.@entry.@pl, 600000031:72)
+mod(100949619:0S.@def, 114778982:0K)
+plc:05(400018781:2B.@progress, 106023675:3E.@indef)
+obj:05(600000019:4X, 100947128:56.@def)
+obj:05(202774279:3T.@entry.@progress, 100252894:4K)
+and:04(114598525:78.@entry.@pl, 102961851:6Q.@pl)
+mod(100949619:0S.@def, 115689966:21.@def)
+aoj:04(300031974:6J, 102961851:6Q.@pl)
+mod:05(100252894:4K, 107935504:4E)
+mod(100949619:0S.@def, 115689966:21.@def)
+aoj:04(300031974:6J, 102961851:6Q.@pl)
+mod:05(100252894:4K, 107935504:4E)
+and:05(202774279:3T.@entry.@progress, 400018781:2B.@progress)
+mod:03(500323826:5S.@parenthesis, 302231886:5G)
+aoj(:01, 115689966:21.@def)
+mod:05(106023675:3E.@indef, 100306900:38)
+aoj:05(:03, 100947128:56.@def)
+aoj:05(600000019:4X, 100252894:4K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12628]
+{org:en}
+using the supplement adsorption purification by dosing finely granulated adsorbent into the layer of floating polymeric filtering load.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(201158572:02.@entry.@progress, 101463259:2M.@def)
+aoj(302782225:34, 103679986:3O)
+obj(200516584:1E.@progress, 114598525:23)
+mod(100252894:0Y.@def, 113427789:0N)
+gol(201158572:02.@entry.@progress, 101463259:2M.@def)
+aoj(302782225:34, 103679986:3O)
+obj(200516584:1E.@progress, 114598525:23)
+mod(100252894:0Y.@def, 113427789:0N)
+mod(101463259:2M.@def, 103679986:3O)
+man(100252894:0Y.@def, 200516584:1E.@progress)
+man(200099374:1S, 400102463:1L)
+obj(201158572:02.@entry.@progress, 100252894:0Y.@def)
+obj(201458664:3E.@progress, 103679986:3O)
+obj(201158572:02.@entry.@progress, 100252894:0Y.@def)
+obj(201458664:3E.@progress, 103679986:3O)
+obj(200099374:1S, 114598525:23)
+mod(113427789:0N, 105110772:0C)
+obj(200566181:2V.@progress, 103679986:3O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12629]
+{org:en}
+The classification for the selection of the technological layouts of water purification is elaborated under author's supervision in the tabulated form that allows choosing as a first approximation the technological layout (the chain of constructions) of water preparing.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200251463:2L.@entry, 101148904:06.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(102999410:6J.@entry.@def, 100873381:6S.@pl)
+aoj(300228294:55, 100146277:5B.@indef)
+agt(200723545:4K, 103384535:4A.@def)
+mod(100252894:25, 107935504:1Z)
+plc(101135529:3H, 103384535:4A.@def)
+mod(101010901:1O.@def.@pl, 100252894:25)
+obj(200251463:2L.@entry, 101148904:06.@topic.@def)
+mod:01(102999410:6J.@entry.@def, 100873381:6S.@pl)
+aoj(300228294:55, 100146277:5B.@indef)
+agt(200723545:4K, 103384535:4A.@def)
+mod(100252894:25, 107935504:1Z)
+plc(101135529:3H, 103384535:4A.@def)
+mod(101010901:1O.@def.@pl, 100252894:25)
+obj(200723545:4K, 200674607:4R.@progress)
+aoj(302084979:5T, 101010901:67.@entry.@def)
+obj(600000003:2W, 101135529:3H)
+obj(108399818:0T.@def, 101010901:1O.@def.@pl)
+man(200723545:4K, 600000023:50)
+cnt(101010901:67.@entry.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
+man(200251463:2L.@entry, 600000003:2W)
+agt(201754271:7G.@progress, 107935504:7A)
+pur(101148904:06.@topic.@def, 108399818:0T.@def)
+man(200251463:2L.@entry, 600000003:2W)
+agt(201754271:7G.@progress, 107935504:7A)
+pur(101148904:06.@topic.@def, 108399818:0T.@def)
+obj(200142967:40, 103384535:4A.@def)
+mod(101010901:67.@entry.@def, 107935504:7A)
+mod(101135529:3H, 115689740:32)
+aoj(302084979:1A, 101010901:1O.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000023:50, 100146277:5B.@indef)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12630]
+{org:en}
+This selection is based on the quality characteristics of the initial water, on its background and human activity pollutions, groups of admixtures present, and set of existing reagent and reagentless methods of water treatment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(302351064:0K.@entry, 600000108:9U)
+aoj:01(301258617:2T, 114516743:38.@entry.@pl)
+mod:03(105660268:5S.@entry.@pl, 100625699:4H)
+mod(107935504:20.@def, 301011973:1S)
+and:03(100031264:3K, :01)
+mod(104731497:15.@def.@pl, 107935504:20.@def)
+and:02(303163665:5C.@entry, 114778982:50)
+man(302351064:0K.@entry, 600000108:9U)
+aoj:01(301258617:2T, 114516743:38.@entry.@pl)
+mod:03(105660268:5S.@entry.@pl, 100625699:4H)
+mod(107935504:20.@def, 301011973:1S)
+and:03(100031264:3K, :01)
+mod(104731497:15.@def.@pl, 107935504:20.@def)
+and:02(303163665:5C.@entry, 114778982:50)
+and:03(105660268:5S.@entry.@pl, 100031264:3K)
+and:01(114516743:38.@entry.@pl, 102769075:2E)
+obj(302351064:0K.@entry, 104731497:15.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(102769075:2E, 600000016:2A)
+aoj:03(:02.@entry, 105660268:5S.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000108:9U, :03)
+aoj:03(301731351:44, 102681084:3T.@pl)
+aoj(302351064:0K.@entry, 108399818:07.@topic)
+mod:01(114516743:38.@entry.@pl, 100407535:2Z)
+mod:03(105660268:5S.@entry.@pl, 301731786:4O)
+aoj(302351064:0K.@entry, 108399818:07.@topic)
+mod:01(114516743:38.@entry.@pl, 100407535:2Z)
+mod:03(105660268:5S.@entry.@pl, 301731786:4O)
+mod(108399818:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod:03(100031264:3K, 102681084:3T.@pl)
+mod(104731497:15.@def.@pl, 104723816:0X)
+mod:03(100658082:69, 107935504:63)
+mod:03(105660268:5S.@entry.@pl, 100658082:69)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12631]
+{org:en}
+The classifier proposed does not exclude in some cases the necessity of the additional technological investigations for more exact definition of the operating parameters of some units of the water purification station directly in the sites of water intake.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200615774:0Z.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 106308436:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(108622950:6K.@def.@pl, 103576617:6Z)
+aoj(300914421:3J, 104702957:3P)
+obj(109367203:1P.@def, 100633864:2V.@def.@pl)
+qua(105869857:50.@pl, 600000034:4V)
+scn(200615774:0Z.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 102974697:1F.@pl)
+obj(200341285:47.@progress.@def, 105859071:4H.@pl)
+agt(200615774:0Z.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 106308436:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(108622950:6K.@def.@pl, 103576617:6Z)
+aoj(300914421:3J, 104702957:3P)
+obj(109367203:1P.@def, 100633864:2V.@def.@pl)
+qua(105869857:50.@pl, 600000034:4V)
+scn(200615774:0Z.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 102974697:1F.@pl)
+obj(200341285:47.@progress.@def, 105859071:4H.@pl)
+aoj(302084979:2H, 100633864:2V.@def.@pl)
+man(108622950:6K.@def.@pl, 400051848:64)
+obj(200615774:0Z.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 109367203:1P.@def)
+obj(200875394:0H, 106308436:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(105859071:4H.@pl, 105869857:50.@pl)
+aoj(303161014:26, 100633864:2V.@def.@pl)
+mod(104306080:5W.@def, 100252894:5J)
+plc(200615774:0Z.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 108622950:6K.@def.@pl)
+mod(103576617:6Z, 107935504:6T)
+man(300914421:3J, 400099341:3E)
+plc(200615774:0Z.@entry.@emphasis.@not, 108622950:6K.@def.@pl)
+mod(103576617:6Z, 107935504:6T)
+man(300914421:3J, 400099341:3E)
+pur(100633864:2V.@def.@pl, 104702957:3P)
+mod(104306080:5W.@def, 107935504:5D)
+qua(102974697:1F.@pl, 600000034:1A)
+mod(105869857:50.@pl, 104306080:5W.@def)
+mod(104702957:3P, 105859071:4H.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12632]
+{org:en}
+However, on the basis of this classifier, the designers would be able to avoid serious flaws on the stages of the technical and economical substantiation and working projecting of the water supply objects.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774243:1V.@entry.@will.@past, 400027384:02)
+agt:02(200150096:4G.@progress, 200706243:4O.@entry.@progress)
+plc(114463170:2H.@pl, 100306900:2U.@def.@pl)
+mod(106308436:0W, 600000017:0R)
+obj(202774243:1V.@entry.@will.@past, 200811375:23)
+mod(100002684:5J.@def.@pl, 115669704:56)
+man(202774243:1V.@entry.@will.@past, 400027384:02)
+agt:02(200150096:4G.@progress, 200706243:4O.@entry.@progress)
+plc(114463170:2H.@pl, 100306900:2U.@def.@pl)
+mod(106308436:0W, 600000017:0R)
+obj(202774243:1V.@entry.@will.@past, 200811375:23)
+mod(100002684:5J.@def.@pl, 115669704:56)
+mod(:02, 100002684:5J.@def.@pl)
+aoj(202774243:1V.@entry.@will.@past, 110007809:1C.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(302421364:3M.@entry, 300484070:38)
+obj(100306900:2U.@def.@pl, :02:02)
+man(202774243:1V.@entry.@will.@past, 600000085:0B)
+aoj:02(:01, 115690180:3X.@def)
+man(202774243:1V.@entry.@will.@past, 600000085:0B)
+aoj:02(:01, 115690180:3X.@def)
+aoj(300748359:29, 114463170:2H.@pl)
+obj(200811375:23, 114463170:2H.@pl)
+obj(600000085:0B, 106308436:0W)
+and:02(200706243:4O.@entry.@progress, 115690180:3X.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12633]
+{org:en}
+Such mistakes could be concerned to the selection of the set of constructions and methods for water treatment including the conditions of the increased human load on the water sources.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202678438:0P.@entry.@ability.@past, 100070965:07.@topic.@pl)
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+mod(100070965:07.@topic.@pl, 600001411:02)
+obj(105798863:3I.@def.@pl, 103679986:4G.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12634]
+{org:en}
+Tables 7, 8, and 9 represent the characteristics of the water sources classes on the natural admixtures, subclasses of the levels of its human's pollution, groups of admixtures in the initial water on its phase and dispersion state.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100884466:23.@def.@pl, 104731497:0Z.@def.@pl)
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+mod(104379243:02.@topic.@pl, :01)
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+obj(200825447:0L.@entry, 100884466:23.@def.@pl)
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+mod(102681084:2U.@def.@pl, 301335708:2M)
+mod(100024720:6P, :02)
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+mod(102681084:2U.@def.@pl, 301335708:2M)
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+mod(114516743:4G, 115698436:42)
+and:01("8":0C, "7":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12635]
+{org:en}
+The time factor of its presence is taken into consideration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774407:17.@entry, 105858317:0B.@topic.@def)
+mod(101233802:0P, 600000016:0L)
+obj(202774407:17.@entry, 105858317:0B.@topic.@def)
+mod(101233802:0P, 600000016:0L)
+mod(105858317:0B.@topic.@def, 100028270:06)
+mod(105858317:0B.@topic.@def, 101233802:0P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12636]
+{org:en}
+Table 7.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "7":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "7":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12637]
+{org:en}
+Classes of the surface water sources for household and potable water supply
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100884466:02.@entry.@pl, 104263614:0V.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(303160899:1L, 115669704:1T.@entry)
+mod(104263614:0V.@def.@pl, 107935504:0P)
+mod(100884466:02.@entry.@pl, 104263614:0V.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(303160899:1L, 115669704:1T.@entry)
+mod(104263614:0V.@def.@pl, 107935504:0P)
+mod(104263614:0V.@def.@pl, 104362025:0H)
+pur(104263614:0V.@def.@pl, :01:01)
+and:01(115669704:1T.@entry, 115669720:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12638]
+{org:en}
+Table 8.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "8":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "8":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12639]
+{org:en}
+Subclasses of the surface water sources on the character of their humans pollution
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100884466:05.@entry.@pl, 104263614:0Y.@def.@pl)
+mod(114516743:26, 104616916:1D.@def)
+mod(104263614:0Y.@def.@pl, 104362025:0K)
+mod(100884466:05.@entry.@pl, 104263614:0Y.@def.@pl)
+mod(114516743:26, 104616916:1D.@def)
+mod(104263614:0Y.@def.@pl, 104362025:0K)
+plc(104263614:0Y.@def.@pl, 114516743:26)
+mod(114516743:26, 115698436:1Z.@pl)
+mod(100884466:05.@entry.@pl, 303161200:02)
+mod(114516743:26, 600000020:1T.@pl)
+mod(114516743:26, 600000020:1T.@pl)
+mod(104263614:0Y.@def.@pl, 107935504:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12640]
+{org:en}
+Table 9.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "9":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "9":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12641]
+{org:en}
+The most important technological methods utilized for natural water purification
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200161872:17, 105660268:0Z.@entry.@pl)
+mod(100252894:1Y, 301335708:1K)
+man(301275562:0B, 400536271:06)
+obj(200161872:17, 105660268:0Z.@entry.@pl)
+mod(100252894:1Y, 301335708:1K)
+man(301275562:0B, 400536271:06)
+aoj(302084979:0L, 105660268:0Z.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(301275562:0B, 105660268:0Z.@entry.@pl)
+mod(100252894:1Y, 107935504:1S)
+mod(100252894:1Y, 107935504:1S)
+pur(200161872:17, 100252894:1Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12642]
+{org:en}
+To make more convenient practical use of this classifier, all basic technological methods of water treatment including modern ones are coded by the conventional symbols and evaluated from the point of view of their potential capabilities on the extraction of the various admixtures at the different stages of water treatment (Table 10).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(:02.@entry, 200012267:05)
+aoj(300026168:1S, 105660268:2C.@topic.@pl)
+plc:02(102681084:7L.@def.@pl, 100306900:8D.@def.@pl)
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+aoj(300414354:3D, 600000027:3K.@pl)
+agt:02(200994076:3T, 105765415:4J.@def.@pl)
+src:02(200670261:4V.@entry, 103974215:5E.@def)
+mod(100658082:2T, 107935504:2N)
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+mod:02(105202497:6B.@pl, 300044353:61)
+pur(:02.@entry, 200012267:05)
+aoj(300026168:1S, 105660268:2C.@topic.@pl)
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+agt:02(200994076:3T, 105765415:4J.@def.@pl)
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+mod(100658082:2T, 107935504:2N)
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+mod:02(105202497:6B.@pl, 300044353:61)
+aoj(300604617:0F, 100947128:10)
+mod(105660268:2C.@topic.@pl, 300521584:1O)
+and:02(200670261:4V.@entry, 200994076:3T)
+aoj(600000007:33, 100658082:2T)
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+mod:02(105202497:6B.@pl, 600000020:5V.@pl)
+obj(100947128:10, 106308436:1C)
+mod(105660268:2C.@topic.@pl, 100658082:2T)
+obj(:02.@entry, 105660268:2C.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302084979:1Y, 105660268:2C.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:02(303160904:7D, 102681084:7L.@def.@pl)
+mod(106308436:1C, 600000017:17)
+plc:02(105202497:6B.@pl, 100392950:6V.@def)
+aoj(302084979:1Y, 105660268:2C.@topic.@pl)
+aoj:02(303160904:7D, 102681084:7L.@def.@pl)
+mod(106308436:1C, 600000017:17)
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+mod:02(103974215:5E.@def, 100881649:5N)
+obj(600000007:33, 600000027:3K.@pl)
+mod:02(100658082:8T, 107935504:8N)
+obj:02(100392950:6V.@def, 102681084:7L.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300863555:0Q, 100947128:10)
+[W]
+:01.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12643]
+{org:en}
+The most important tables of the technology classifier (Tables 11 and 12) make possible to choose the optimum technological processes that can be brought in existence in the water purification stations depending on the factors listed above.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200012267:24.@entry, 104379243:0L.@topic.@pl)
+mod:02(104379243:1M.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod(104306080:5F.@def.@pl, 100252894:52)
+mod(100029677:3I.@def.@pl, 300228645:2W)
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+man(200945853:6D, 600000201:6K)
+aoj(202664234:5O.@progress, 104306080:5F.@def.@pl)
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+mod(104306080:5F.@def.@pl, 100252894:52)
+mod(100029677:3I.@def.@pl, 300228645:2W)
+aoj(301275562:0B, 104379243:0L.@topic.@pl)
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+mod(106308436:1A.@def, 100949619:0Z)
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+obj(200945853:6D, 105858317:65.@def.@pl)
+plc(202774473:4C.@ability, 104306080:5F.@def.@pl)
+cnt(106308436:1A.@def, :02.@parenthesis)
+obj(200012267:24.@entry, 200674607:2L)
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+obj(202664234:5O.@progress, 105858317:65.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302084979:34, 100029677:3I.@def.@pl)
+and:01("12":20.@entry, "11":1T)
+obj(202664234:5O.@progress, 105858317:65.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302084979:34, 100029677:3I.@def.@pl)
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+mod(104379243:0L.@topic.@pl, 106308436:1A.@def)
+mod(104306080:5F.@def.@pl, 107935504:4W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12644]
+{org:en}
+On the stage of the selection water intake sites for constructed anew objects of water supply or at the reconstruction of the water supply systems, the important factors are to be taken into consideration, which affect water quality in the water source throughout the year.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(202774407:58.@entry.@will, :01:01)
+mod(104263614:6W.@def, 107935504:6Q)
+mod:01(103576617:12, 107935504:0W)
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+man(200019448:5Y.@entry, 600000103:73)
+or:01(100269258:2Y.@entry.@def, 100306900:09.@def)
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+mod(104263614:6W.@def, 107935504:6Q)
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+mod:01(104377057:3X.@def.@pl, 115669704:3K)
+man(200019448:5Y.@entry, 600000103:73)
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+mod(104723816:6B, 107935504:65)
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+obj:01(201583142:1J, 100002684:20.@pl)
+pur:01(108622950:19.@def.@pl, 100002684:20.@pl)
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+pur(105858317:4K.@topic.@def.@pl, 202774407:58.@entry.@will)
+obj(600000103:73, 115201505:7I.@def)
+mod:01(100002684:20.@pl, 115669704:2B)
+pur(105858317:4K.@topic.@def.@pl, 202774407:58.@entry.@will)
+obj(600000103:73, 115201505:7I.@def)
+mod:01(100002684:20.@pl, 115669704:2B)
+obj:01(100306900:09.@def, 108622950:19.@def.@pl)
+obj(200019448:5Y.@entry, 104723816:6B)
+obj:01(100269258:2Y.@entry.@def, 104377057:3X.@def.@pl)
+agt(200019448:5Y.@entry, 600000120:5S.@topic.@pl)
+mod:01(108622950:19.@def.@pl, 103576617:12)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12645]
+{org:en}
+These factors are following
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200150776:0K.@progress.@entry, 105858317:08.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200150776:0K.@progress.@entry, 105858317:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105858317:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+mod(105858317:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12646]
+{org:en}
+annual flow hydrograph, requirements for the sanitary tolerance norms in different seasons of the year, timber rafting, fish protection, navigability, hydraulic engineering, the economic factors such as investments, annual exploitation costs, minimum investment recovery period, pure discount income, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(115669769:0E.@entry, 115669633:0Q.@pl)
+mod:01(113275847:6M.@pl, 100418903:69)
+and:01(113255145:87, 106843520:7L)
+and:01(115669168:35, 115201505:2S.@def)
+mod(113854488:1U.@def.@pl, 302112976:1B)
+and:01(106125041:4J, 104719661:3V)
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+pur(115669633:0Q.@pl, 113854488:1U.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(105858317:59.@def.@pl, 300840212:50)
+and:01(106843520:7L, 113275847:6M.@pl)
+mod(115669769:0E.@entry, 115669633:0Q.@pl)
+mod:01(113275847:6M.@pl, 100418903:69)
+and:01(113255145:87, 106843520:7L)
+and:01(115669168:35, 115201505:2S.@def)
+mod(113854488:1U.@def.@pl, 302112976:1B)
+and:01(106125041:4J, 104719661:3V)
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+pur(115669633:0Q.@pl, 113854488:1U.@def.@pl)
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+and:01(106843520:7L, 113275847:6M.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:23, 115236475:2D.@pl)
+and:01(100784755:3J, 115669168:35)
+aoj:01(300678024:62, 113275847:6M.@pl)
+mod(115669769:0E.@entry, 100329227:09)
+aoj:01(600000029:5H, 105858317:59.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(113255145:87, 100362103:7Y)
+mod(115236475:2D.@pl, :01)
+and:01(104719661:3V, 100784755:3J)
+and:01(113275847:6M.@pl, 105858317:59.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300678024:02, 115669769:0E.@entry)
+and:01(105858317:59.@def.@pl, 106125041:4J)
+aoj:01(300361125:7T, 113255145:87)
+mod:01(115669168:35, 104436185:2Y)
+aoj(300678024:02, 115669769:0E.@entry)
+and:01(105858317:59.@def.@pl, 106125041:4J)
+aoj:01(300361125:7T, 113255145:87)
+mod:01(115669168:35, 104436185:2Y)
+mod(113854488:1U.@def.@pl, 101071090:1K)
+aoj:01(303073751:49, 106125041:4J)
+mod:01(100045907:7C, 100198919:71)
+plc(113854488:1U.@def.@pl, 115236475:2D.@pl)
+obj:01(600000029:5H, 100198919:5P.@pl)
+mod:01(106843520:7L, 303161105:6T)
+and:01(115689145:8F.@entry, 113255145:87)
+obj:01(100784755:3J, 102512053:3E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12647]
+{org:en}
+Table 10.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "10":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "10":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12648]
+{org:en}
+Classifier of water purification technologies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106308436:02.@entry, 100949619:0Z.@pl)
+mod(106308436:02.@entry, 100949619:0Z.@pl)
+mod(100949619:0Z.@pl, 100252894:0M)
+mod(100949619:0Z.@pl, 107935504:0G)
+mod(100949619:0Z.@pl, 107935504:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12649]
+{org:en}
+Basic technologies
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300026168:02, 100949619:08.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(300026168:02, 100949619:08.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12650]
+{org:en}
+Table 11.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "11":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "11":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12651]
+{org:en}
+Classifier of water purification technologies
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(106308436:02.@entry, 100949619:0Z.@pl)
+mod(106308436:02.@entry, 100949619:0Z.@pl)
+mod(100949619:0Z.@pl, 100252894:0M)
+mod(100949619:0Z.@pl, 107935504:0G)
+mod(100949619:0Z.@pl, 107935504:0G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12652]
+{org:en}
+Table 12.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "12":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "12":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12653]
+{org:en}
+Technological layouts of purification and conditioning of the underground water containing complex human's and natural pollutants
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101010901:0G.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod(107935504:24.@def, 303160997:1S)
+and:01(200041687:18.@entry.@progress, 100252894:0R)
+mod(101010901:0G.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod(107935504:24.@def, 303160997:1S)
+and:01(200041687:18.@entry.@progress, 100252894:0R)
+mod(114857278:3J.@pl, :02)
+mod(:01, 107935504:24.@def)
+aoj(302176178:2L, 114857278:3J.@pl)
+aoj(302084979:02, 101010901:0G.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(302084979:02, 101010901:0G.@entry.@pl)
+obj(202701210:2A.@progress, 114857278:3J.@pl)
+aoj(202701210:2A.@progress, 107935504:24.@def)
+and:02(301335708:3B.@entry, 115698436:2T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12654]
+{org:en}
+Table 12 represents the most typical technological layouts for purification of underground water, which found their full-scale industrial application.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200825447:0B.@entry, 104379243:02.@topic)
+mod(100036061:3W, 600000020:34.@pl)
+man(301595440:0V, 400536271:0Q)
+aoj(301595440:0V, 101010901:1H.@pl)
+mod(104379243:02.@topic, "12":08)
+aoj(200825447:0B.@entry, 104379243:02.@topic)
+mod(100036061:3W, 600000020:34.@pl)
+man(301595440:0V, 400536271:0Q)
+aoj(301595440:0V, 101010901:1H.@pl)
+mod(104379243:02.@topic, "12":08)
+mod(107935504:2L, 303160997:29)
+pur(101010901:1H.@pl, 100252894:1T)
+aoj(301188648:3L, 100036061:3W)
+agt(200715239:2Y.@past, 107935504:2L)
+obj(200825447:0B.@entry, 101010901:1H.@pl)
+mod(100036061:3W, 303162580:3A)
+obj(200825447:0B.@entry, 101010901:1H.@pl)
+mod(100036061:3W, 303162580:3A)
+obj(100252894:1T, 107935504:2L)
+aoj(302084979:13, 101010901:1H.@pl)
+obj(200715239:2Y.@past, 100036061:3W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12655]
+{org:en}
+The range is shown of initial and final concentrations of the components of human pollutants at the required degree of the water purification.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200923307:0F.@entry, 104053218:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100252894:3N.@def, 107935504:3H)
+mod(103081021:1S.@def.@pl, 114857278:2C.@pl)
+mod(100375071:16.@pl, :01)
+agt(200923307:0F.@entry, 104053218:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(100252894:3N.@def, 107935504:3H)
+mod(103081021:1S.@def.@pl, 114857278:2C.@pl)
+mod(100375071:16.@pl, :01)
+mod(105094565:33.@def, 100252894:3N.@def)
+mod(100375071:16.@pl, 103081021:1S.@def.@pl)
+aoj(301258617:26, 114857278:2C.@pl)
+obj(200923307:0F.@entry, 100375071:16.@pl)
+obj(200923307:0F.@entry, 100375071:16.@pl)
+plc(114857278:2C.@pl, 105094565:33.@def)
+and:01(300349894:10.@entry, 301011973:0O)
+obj(202774169:2U, 105094565:33.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12656]
+{org:en}
+Technological layout includes ozonation HTM1 filtration through the quartz loading HTM2 adsorption on the granulated active carbon with the disinfections by sodium hypochlorite.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0N.@entry, 101010901:0G.@topic)
+aoj(300031974:3B, 102961851:3I.@def)
+mod(100191980:1B, 600000045:1M)
+mod(113427789:2I, 115689966:0W)
+mod(114614245:4M, 114655371:4F)
+aoj(200183879:0N.@entry, 101010901:0G.@topic)
+aoj(300031974:3B, 102961851:3I.@def)
+mod(100191980:1B, 600000045:1M)
+mod(113427789:2I, 115689966:0W)
+mod(114614245:4M, 114655371:4F)
+aoj(600000019:3P, 102961851:3I.@def)
+plc(113427789:2I, 102961851:3I.@def)
+ins(100709521:3Y.@def.@pl, 114614245:4M)
+agt(200487748:25.@progress, 114693733:1Y.@def)
+obj(200183879:0N.@entry, 113427789:2I)
+obj(600000019:3P, 100709521:3Y.@def.@pl)
+obj(200183879:0N.@entry, 113427789:2I)
+obj(600000019:3P, 100709521:3Y.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000045:1M, 114693733:1Y.@def)
+cnt(115689966:0W, 100191980:1B)
+aoj(302084979:02, 101010901:0G.@topic)
+obj(200099374:30, 102961851:3I.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12657]
+{org:en}
+This technology provides reliable removal of human and natural pollutants at the total concentration of iron in the water up to HTM1
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200406963:0I.@entry, 100949619:07.@topic)
+aoj(600000086:3F, 107935504:39.@def)
+mod(114857278:1S.@pl, :01)
+aoj(300724081:0Q, 100216723:0Z)
+agt(200406963:0I.@entry, 100949619:07.@topic)
+aoj(600000086:3F, 107935504:39.@def)
+mod(114857278:1S.@pl, :01)
+aoj(300724081:0Q, 100216723:0Z)
+qua(100375071:2G.@def, 303160907:2A)
+obj(100216723:0Z, 114857278:1S.@pl)
+mod(100949619:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+obj(100375071:2G.@def, 103584829:2X)
+obj(200406963:0I.@entry, 100216723:0Z)
+obj(600000086:3F, HTM1:3L)
+obj(200406963:0I.@entry, 100216723:0Z)
+obj(600000086:3F, HTM1:3L)
+and:01(301335708:1K.@entry, 301258617:1A)
+plc(114857278:1S.@pl, 100375071:2G.@def)
+plc(103584829:2X, 107935504:39.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12658]
+{org:en}
+manganese up to HTM1 at the oxidation capability up to HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(114644654:02.@entry, 105202497:14.@def)
+obj(600000086:1F, HTM2:1L)
+aoj(600000086:1F, 105202497:14.@def)
+plc(114644654:02.@entry, 105202497:14.@def)
+obj(600000086:1F, HTM2:1L)
+aoj(600000086:1F, 105202497:14.@def)
+obj(600000086:0C, HTM1:0I)
+aoj(600000086:0C, 114644654:02.@entry)
+aoj(600000086:0C, 114644654:02.@entry)
+mod(105202497:14.@def, 113530408:0U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12659]
+{org:en}
+This layout reinforced by the aeration, degassing and coagulant introduction before filters for iron and manganese removal allows to carry out purification from human pollutants also in more complicated conditions with the concentration of iron up to HTM1
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200723545:3H.@entry, 101010901:07.@topic)
+and:01(114815728:1K.@entry, 115691708:16)
+obj(600000019:60, 100375071:69.@def)
+aoj(301258617:4J, 114857278:4P.@pl)
+and:02(114644654:2Z.@entry, 103584829:2Q)
+mod(101010901:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+obj(202774207:3R, 100252894:41)
+pur(103339643:2E.@pl, 100216723:39)
+obj(600000086:6V, HTM1:71)
+agt(200723545:3H.@entry, 101010901:07.@topic)
+and:01(114815728:1K.@entry, 115691708:16)
+obj(600000019:60, 100375071:69.@def)
+aoj(301258617:4J, 114857278:4P.@pl)
+and:02(114644654:2Z.@entry, 103584829:2Q)
+mod(101010901:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+obj(202774207:3R, 100252894:41)
+pur(103339643:2E.@pl, 100216723:39)
+obj(600000086:6V, HTM1:71)
+aoj(302177584:5D, 105798863:5P.@pl)
+mod(100238022:1U.@def, :01)
+scn(202774207:3R, 105798863:5P.@pl)
+obj(400099341:27, 103339643:2E.@pl)
+aoj(600000086:6V, 103584829:6Q)
+aoj(600000019:60, 105798863:5P.@pl)
+aoj(400099341:27, 100238022:1U.@def)
+obj(200723545:3H.@entry, 202774207:3R)
+and:01(115691708:16, 100200244:0W)
+obj(100375071:69.@def, 103584829:6Q)
+obj(200723545:3H.@entry, 202774207:3R)
+and:01(115691708:16, 100200244:0W)
+obj(100375071:69.@def, 103584829:6Q)
+man(105798863:5P.@pl, 400047534:50)
+agt(200222472:0E, 100238022:1U.@def)
+frm(100252894:41, 114857278:4P.@pl)
+mod(100216723:39, :02)
+obj(200222472:0E, 101010901:07.@topic)
+man(302177584:5D, 400099341:58)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12660]
+{org:en}
+manganese up to HTM1
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000086:0C, 114644654:02.@entry)
+aoj(600000086:0C, 114644654:02.@entry)
+obj(600000086:0C, HTM1:0I)
+obj(600000086:0C, HTM1:0I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12661]
+{org:en}
+and at the high permanganate oxidation capability (up to HTM1 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 105202497:15.@entry.@def)
+aoj(300705498:0D, 114979410:0I)
+aoj(:01.@parenthesis, 105202497:15.@entry.@def)
+aoj(300705498:0D, 114979410:0I)
+mod(113530408:0V, 114979410:0I)
+mod(105202497:15.@entry.@def, 113530408:0V)
+mod(105202497:15.@entry.@def, 113530408:0V)
+obj:01(600000086:1H.@entry, HTM1:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12662]
+{org:en}
+The second layout includes aeration HTM1 degassing HTM2 iron removing HTM3 adsorption on the granulated active carbon HTM4 ion exchange on the clinoptilolite in Na-form HTM5 disinfections by sodium hypochlorite.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:0K.@entry, 101010901:0D.@topic)
+obj(200099374:2N, 102961851:35.@def)
+obj(200173338:1R.@progress, 113427789:25)
+mod(103384535:4M, 115669300:4J)
+mod(103584829:1M, 100200244:0T)
+mod(100167063:3L, 109315159:3H)
+aoj(200183879:0K.@entry, 101010901:0D.@topic)
+obj(200099374:2N, 102961851:35.@def)
+obj(200173338:1R.@progress, 113427789:25)
+mod(103384535:4M, 115669300:4J)
+mod(103584829:1M, 100200244:0T)
+mod(100167063:3L, 109315159:3H)
+mod(100709521:4W.@pl, 102961851:35.@def)
+agt(200173338:1R.@progress, 103584829:1M)
+plc(100167063:3L, 115692591:41.@def)
+ins(100709521:4W.@pl, 114614245:5K)
+mod(101010901:0D.@topic, "2":06)
+obj(200183879:0K.@entry, 103584829:1M)
+aoj(300031974:2Y, 102961851:35.@def)
+obj(200183879:0K.@entry, 103584829:1M)
+aoj(300031974:2Y, 102961851:35.@def)
+plc(113427789:25, 100709521:4W.@pl)
+mod(114614245:5K, 114655371:5D)
+cnt(100200244:0T, 115691708:17)
+plc(115692591:41.@def, 103384535:4M)
+cnt(102961851:35.@def, 100167063:3L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12663]
+{org:en}
+This technology was developed more than 20 years ago for oil and gas producing regions of the HTM1 West Siberia and became widely employed in this territory.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200149583:3A.@past.@entry, 100949619:07)
+qua(115201505:19.@pl, 400099341:0W)
+man(202774279:3O, 400495663:3H)
+and:01(114481080:1V.@entry, 103843092:1N)
+obj(200234057:0M.@past, 100949619:07)
+mod(105221895:29.@pl, :01)
+obj(200149583:3A.@past.@entry, 100949619:07)
+qua(115201505:19.@pl, 400099341:0W)
+man(202774279:3O, 400495663:3H)
+and:01(114481080:1V.@entry, 103843092:1N)
+obj(200234057:0M.@past, 100949619:07)
+mod(105221895:29.@pl, :01)
+tim(200234057:0M, 600000148:1F)
+gol(200149583:3A.@past.@entry, 202774279:3O)
+mod(105221895:29.@pl, 500324354:2T.@def)
+pur(200234057:0M, 105221895:29.@pl)
+and(200149583:3A.@past.@entry, 200234057:0M.@past)
+bas(400099341:0W, "20":16)
+and(200149583:3A.@past.@entry, 200234057:0M.@past)
+bas(400099341:0W, "20":16)
+mod(105999134:45, 600000017:40)
+mod(100949619:07.@entry, 600000017:02)
+plc(202774279:3O, 105999134:45)
+obj(201621555:1Z.@progress, 105221895:29.@pl)
+man(600000148:1F, 115201505:19.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12664]
+{org:en}
+The necessity of the periodical regeneration of the ion exchange filters with the sodium chloride and low efficiency of repetitive utilizing regeneration solution are the drawbacks of this technology.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105164521:4T.@entry.@def.@pl, :01)
+obj:01(101047937:0Y.@def, 103339643:1V.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(301206474:2W, 105644527:30.@entry)
+obj:01(600000019:23, 115016852:2J.@def)
+and:01(105644527:30.@entry.@topic, 109367203:06.@def.@topic)
+mod:01(103339643:1V.@def.@pl, 100167063:1M)
+aoj(105164521:4T.@entry.@def.@pl, :01)
+obj:01(101047937:0Y.@def, 103339643:1V.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(301206474:2W, 105644527:30.@entry)
+obj:01(600000019:23, 115016852:2J.@def)
+and:01(105644527:30.@entry.@topic, 109367203:06.@def.@topic)
+mod:01(103339643:1V.@def.@pl, 100167063:1M)
+mod:01(100190783:4C, 101047937:3Z)
+mod(100949619:5B, 600000017:56)
+aoj:01(600000019:23, 103339643:1V.@def.@pl)
+obj:01(200161872:3P.@progress, 100190783:4C)
+mod(105164521:4T.@entry.@def.@pl, 100949619:5B)
+aoj:01(303162740:0N, 101047937:0Y.@def)
+mod(105164521:4T.@entry.@def.@pl, 100949619:5B)
+aoj:01(303162740:0N, 101047937:0Y.@def)
+aoj:01(301964367:3E, 100190783:4C)
+mod:01(115016852:2J.@def, 114655371:2C)
+mod:01(105644527:30.@entry.@topic, 100190783:4C)
+mod:01(100167063:1M, 109315159:1I)
+obj:01(109367203:06.@def.@topic, 101047937:0Y.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12665]
+{org:en}
+The following technological layout provides the stage of deep aeration and degassing with complete removal methane with simultaneous pH increasing as a result of partial removal of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and also volatile organic compounds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200406963:11.@entry, 101010901:0U.@topic)
+aoj:02(301093142:6I, 103081859:6Q.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000019:39, 105039106:3R)
+and:01(115691708:25.@entry, 100200244:1S)
+mod(101010901:0U.@topic, 300127815:06)
+obj(100216723:4S, :02)
+aoj(600000019:2F, :01)
+mod:02(115063699:5S, 114640434:5J)
+man(200153263:3U.@progress, 600000056:45)
+agt(200406963:11.@entry, 101010901:0U.@topic)
+aoj:02(301093142:6I, 103081859:6Q.@entry.@pl)
+obj(600000019:39, 105039106:3R)
+and:01(115691708:25.@entry, 100200244:1S)
+mod(101010901:0U.@topic, 300127815:06)
+obj(100216723:4S, :02)
+aoj(600000019:2F, :01)
+mod:02(115063699:5S, 114640434:5J)
+man(200153263:3U.@progress, 600000056:45)
+aoj(300520214:2K, 114951229:31)
+aoj:02(300346847:69, 103081859:6Q.@entry.@pl)
+obj(100306900:1E.@def, :01:01)
+and:02(115063699:5S, 114836127:5A)
+aoj(303162343:3E, 105039106:3R)
+aoj(600000019:39, 114951229:31)
+and:02(103081859:6Q.@entry.@pl, 115063699:5S)
+obj(200406963:11.@entry, 100306900:1E.@def)
+man:02(300346847:69, 400047534:64)
+obj(200153263:3U.@progress, 105039106:3R)
+obj(200406963:11.@entry, 100306900:1E.@def)
+man:02(300346847:69, 400047534:64)
+obj(200153263:3U.@progress, 105039106:3R)
+obj(600000019:2F, 114951229:31)
+aoj(302084979:0G, 101010901:0U.@topic)
+aoj(300524693:4K, 100216723:4S)
+aoj(300149120:1N, :01)
+mod:02(114836127:5A, 102961851:53)
+obj(600000056:45, 100216723:4S)
+mod(114951229:31, 100216723:2T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12666]
+{org:en}
+Then follow the stages of preliminary ozonation, oxidation and hydrolysis of the iron (II) compounds.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200150776:07.@entry, 100306900:0I.@def.@pl)
+and:01(113494919:1T.@entry, 113530408:1F)
+mod(:01, 103081859:2L.@pl)
+obj(200150776:07.@entry, 100306900:0I.@def.@pl)
+and:01(113494919:1T.@entry, 113530408:1F)
+mod(:01, 103081859:2L.@pl)
+mod(103584829:2B.@def, "2":2H.@parenthesis)
+obj(100306900:0I.@def.@pl, :01:01)
+mod(103081859:2L.@pl, 103584829:2B.@def)
+man(200150776:07.@entry, 400117620:02)
+man(200150776:07.@entry, 400117620:02)
+and:01(113530408:1F, 115689966:14)
+mod(:01, 300878086:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12667]
+{org:en}
+The removing bivalent and trivalent iron, iron-phosphate complexes, and in part manganese and heavy metals is brought in existence at the stage of filtration.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774473:3C.@entry, :03:03)
+aoj:03(:01, 103584829:12)
+man:02(114644654:2A.@topic, 400535321:22)
+and:03(:02.@entry, 105870365:1N.@pl.@topic)
+obj(202774473:3C.@entry, :03:03)
+aoj:03(:01, 103584829:12)
+man:02(114644654:2A.@topic, 400535321:22)
+and:03(:02.@entry, 105870365:1N.@pl.@topic)
+cnt:03(103584829:18, 107928578:1D)
+obj(100306900:3W.@def, 100191980:45)
+mod:03(105870365:1N.@pl.@topic, 107928578:1D)
+plc(202774473:3C.@entry, 100306900:3W.@def)
+and:01(303126399:0S.@entry, 301546826:0F)
+plc(202774473:3C.@entry, 100306900:3W.@def)
+and:01(303126399:0S.@entry, 301546826:0F)
+and:03(105870365:1N.@pl.@topic, 103584829:12.@topic)
+and:02(107065149:2O.@entry.@pl.@topic, 114644654:2A.@topic)
+obj:03(200173338:06.@progress.@def, 103584829:12)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12668]
+{org:en}
+The destruction of residual stable complexes of iron and manganese, hydrogen sulfide, human and natural organic substances is brought in existence at the stages of ozonation and adsorption.
+{/org}
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+The regeneration of the load is carried out by the reagent method.
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+Technical and economical basis of the investments for projects of water purification stations
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+The significance of the adopted decisions in the projecting, construction and exploitation of the water supply and deriving systems is rather high for enterprises of the water supply and canalization branches.
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+That is why the significance grows of the accuracy and precision of the methods of technical and economical calculations on the substantiation of the systems of water supply as well as their separate parts.
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+An analysis of the existing method for selection of the most profitable version on the minimum of reduced expenditures shows that there is no enough ground for calculating reduced expenditures at the constant value of the coefficient of the recoup time of the investment in construction in the limits of HTM1 in the current conditions of the project investing.
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+The more preferring method is the one providing estimation of the proposed technological solutions on the Net Discount Income (NDI), Yield Index (YI) and Internal Profitability Rate (IPR).
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+man(303162762:0B, 400099341:06)
+aoj(105803379:1E.@entry.@def, 105660268:0M.@topic.@def)
+equ:01(500324366:44.@parenthesis, 500323759:3R)
+obj(200875394:1W, 100190783:2J.@def.@pl)
+obj(200406963:14.@progress, 105803379:1E.@entry.@def)
+man(303162762:0B, 400099341:06)
+and:01(500324111:4C.@entry, 500323759:3R)
+mod(105803379:1E.@entry.@def, 600000089:10)
+mod(105660268:0M.@topic.@def, 303162762:0B)
+equ(500324125:55.@parenthesis, :01)
+obj(105803379:1E.@entry.@def, 100190783:2J.@def.@pl)
+equ:01(500323545:3L.@parenthesis, 500323646:30.@def)
+obj(105803379:1E.@entry.@def, 100190783:2J.@def.@pl)
+equ:01(500323545:3L.@parenthesis, 500323646:30.@def)
+aoj(302084979:25, 100190783:2J.@def.@pl)
+plc(100190783:2J.@def.@pl, :01:01)
+and:01(500323759:3R, 500323646:30.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12681]
+{org:en}
+However, its employing is possible only in normal conditions of functioning water conducting and canalization enterprises providing absence of mutual liabilities between water suppliers and consumers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+scn(301821266:0S.@entry, 105798863:1G.@pl)
+mod(100796886:34.@pl, :01)
+obj(105798863:1G.@pl, 100796886:34.@pl)
+aoj(303161651:41, 105161436:48.@pl)
+man(202774279:0F.@topic.@progress, 400027384:02)
+obj(101234345:3Q, 105161436:48.@pl)
+scn(301821266:0S.@entry, 105798863:1G.@pl)
+mod(100796886:34.@pl, :01)
+obj(105798863:1G.@pl, 100796886:34.@pl)
+aoj(303161651:41, 105161436:48.@pl)
+man(202774279:0F.@topic.@progress, 400027384:02)
+obj(101234345:3Q, 105161436:48.@pl)
+agt(200406963:3G.@progress, 100796886:34.@pl)
+mod:02(110677271:4Y.@pl, 107935504:4S)
+man(301821266:0S.@entry, 400535197:11)
+obj(200406963:3G.@progress, 101234345:3Q)
+agt(201525666:1U.@progress, 100796886:34.@pl)
+and:02(109612848:5C.@entry.@pl, 110677271:4Y.@pl)
+aoj(301821266:0S.@entry, 202774279:0F.@topic.@progress)
+and:01(101142843:2R.@entry, 201732921:2C.@progress)
+aoj(301821266:0S.@entry, 202774279:0F.@topic.@progress)
+and:01(101142843:2R.@entry, 201732921:2C.@progress)
+aoj(301593649:19, 105798863:1G.@pl)
+obj(600000024:4K, :02)
+agt(202774279:0F.@topic.@progress, 600000016:0B)
+aoj(600000024:4K, 105161436:48.@pl)
+mod(100796886:34.@pl, 107935504:26)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12682]
+{org:en}
+In this case the credits obtained should not be spent for any measures that are not related to the project realization.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202267060:1E.@entry.@should.@past.@not, 600000186:02)
+gol(200953058:2E.@not, 100061917:31.@def)
+obj(200953058:2E.@not, 100174412:1S.@pl)
+man(202267060:1E.@entry.@should.@past.@not, 600000186:02)
+gol(200953058:2E.@not, 100061917:31.@def)
+obj(200953058:2E.@not, 100174412:1S.@pl)
+pur(202267060:1E.@entry.@should.@past.@not, 100174412:1S.@pl)
+obj(202238085:0R, 100037200:0J.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(202267060:1E.@entry.@should.@past.@not, 100037200:0J.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(202267060:1E.@entry.@should.@past.@not, 100037200:0J.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(100061917:31.@def, 105910453:2T)
+mod(100174412:1S.@pl, 600000052:1O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12683]
+{org:en}
+The calculations of the economical efficiency of the compared versions on the stage of the technical and economical substantiation of the investment project should be carried out with the use of the predictions and calculated prices.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(100868910:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 105644527:11.@def)
+obj:02(200637259:61.@entry, 105141683:6C.@pl)
+obj(100306900:28.@def, 115690180:3A.@def)
+plc(101267901:1S.@def.@pl, 100306900:28.@def)
+obj:02(100947128:5A.@def, 105775081:5L.@def.@pl)
+obj(100868910:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 105644527:11.@def)
+obj:02(200637259:61.@entry, 105141683:6C.@pl)
+obj(100306900:28.@def, 115690180:3A.@def)
+plc(101267901:1S.@def.@pl, 100306900:28.@def)
+obj:02(100947128:5A.@def, 105775081:5L.@def.@pl)
+and:01(302421364:2Z.@entry, 300484070:2L)
+aoj(302421364:0Q, 105644527:11.@def)
+obj:02(600000018:51, 100947128:5A.@def)
+aoj(:01, 115690180:3A.@def)
+mod(105644527:11.@def, 101267901:1S.@def.@pl)
+man:02(202774207:4P, 600000018:51)
+mod(105644527:11.@def, 101267901:1S.@def.@pl)
+man:02(202774207:4P, 600000018:51)
+obj(115690180:3A.@def, 105910453:47.@def)
+obj(200652900:1J, 101267901:1S.@def.@pl)
+mod(105910453:47.@def, 100198919:3W)
+[W]
+:02.@entry.@should.@past
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12684]
+{org:en}
+The predicted price HTM1 of the water supplied to the consumer at the end of the period HTM2 can be determined on the formula
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:2U.@entry.@ability, 105141683:0G.@topic.@def)
+obj(202327200:14, 107935504:0Y.@def)
+cnt(105141683:0G.@topic.@def, HTM1:0M)
+obj(200699815:2U.@entry.@ability, 105141683:0G.@topic.@def)
+obj(202327200:14, 107935504:0Y.@def)
+cnt(105141683:0G.@topic.@def, HTM1:0M)
+mod(100728065:20.@def, 106843520:2B.@def)
+mod(105141683:0G.@topic.@def, 107935504:0Y.@def)
+gol(202327200:14, 109612848:1K.@def)
+plc(200699815:2U.@entry.@ability, 106731802:3C.@def)
+plc(200699815:2U.@entry.@ability, 106731802:3C.@def)
+tim(202327200:14, 100728065:20.@def)
+obj(200917772:06, 105141683:0G.@topic.@def)
+cnt(106843520:2B.@def, HTM2:2I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12685]
+{org:en}
+where HTM1 is the basis price of the water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(105141683:0Q.@entry.@def, 115689346:02)
+mod(105141683:0Q.@entry.@def, 105793554:0K)
+plc(105141683:0Q.@entry.@def, 115689346:02)
+mod(105141683:0Q.@entry.@def, 105793554:0K)
+mod(105141683:0Q.@entry.@def, 107935504:13.@def)
+aoj(105141683:0Q.@entry.@def, HTM1:08.@topic)
+aoj(105141683:0Q.@entry.@def, HTM1:08.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12686]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is the index of the price alteration for resources of the corresponding group at the end of year HTM2 as related to the initial moment of calculation, when the prices were known.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(105567381:0E.@entry.@def, 200594337:4Z.@past)
+cnt(115201505:2R, HTM2:2W)
+mod(100199707:0X.@def, 105141683:0R)
+mod(105567381:0E.@entry.@def, 100199707:0X.@def)
+mod(106022509:3R.@def, 301011973:3J)
+tim(105567381:0E.@entry.@def, 200594337:4Z.@past)
+cnt(115201505:2R, HTM2:2W)
+mod(100199707:0X.@def, 105141683:0R)
+mod(105567381:0E.@entry.@def, 100199707:0X.@def)
+mod(106022509:3R.@def, 301011973:3J)
+aoj(301974451:1T, 100031264:27.@def)
+man(105567381:0E.@entry.@def, 200953058:34)
+mod(106022509:3R.@def, 100868910:41)
+tim(100031264:27.@def, 100728065:2K.@def)
+aoj(105567381:0E.@entry.@def, HTM1:02.@topic)
+gol(200953058:34, 106022509:3R.@def)
+aoj(105567381:0E.@entry.@def, HTM1:02.@topic)
+gol(200953058:34, 106022509:3R.@def)
+mod(105154676:1C.@pl, 100031264:27.@def)
+pur(100199707:0X.@def, 105154676:1C.@pl)
+obj(200594337:4Z.@past, 105141683:4N.@def.@pl)
+mod(100728065:2K.@def, 115201505:2R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12687]
+{org:en}
+The basis price of the water supplied to the consumers HTM1 as well as the water price for HTM2 on the subsequent stage of its consuming HTM3 can be determined as follows
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:4B.@entry.@ability, 105141683:0C.@topic.@def)
+pur(105141683:2B.@def, 106832464:2N)
+gol(202327200:0V, 109612848:1B.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300122626:31, 100306900:3C.@def)
+mod(105141683:0C.@topic.@def, 105793554:06)
+qua(106832464:2N, "1":2L)
+obj(200699815:4B.@entry.@ability, 105141683:0C.@topic.@def)
+pur(105141683:2B.@def, 106832464:2N)
+gol(202327200:0V, 109612848:1B.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300122626:31, 100306900:3C.@def)
+mod(105141683:0C.@topic.@def, 105793554:06)
+qua(106832464:2N, "1":2L)
+obj(600000014:1Q, 105141683:2B.@def)
+mod(105141683:0C.@topic.@def, 107935504:0P.@def)
+cnt(106832464:2N, HTM2:2P)
+cnt(109612848:1B.@def.@pl, HTM1:1L)
+obj(200600903:3P.@progress, HTM3:3Z)
+man(200699815:4B.@entry.@ability, 600000181:4M)
+mod(105141683:2B.@def, 107935504:25)
+man(200699815:4B.@entry.@ability, 600000181:4M)
+mod(105141683:2B.@def, 107935504:25)
+aoj(600000014:1Q, 109612848:1B.@def.@pl)
+mod(HTM3:3Z, 600000016:3L)
+obj(202327200:0V, 107935504:0P.@def)
+cnt(100306900:3C.@def, HTM3:3Z)
+mod(105141683:2B.@def, 100306900:3C.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12688]
+{org:en}
+where HTM1 is complete cost for preparing HTM2 of the water of the required quality taking into account the current expenditures for water intake from water source, its purification (and special treatment if necessary), storage and pumping through the water conducting ducts and network, and supplying to the every consumer in necessary amount and with necessary head
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(113275847:0P.@entry, 115689346:02)
+obj:03(201732921:78.@progress, 103253398:7J.@pl)
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+and:02(100811355:66, 100252894:4R)
+aoj:04(300343552:9V, 101318381:A5)
+mod:02(104263614:4F, 107935504:49)
+man:05(202327200:86.@entry.@progress, :04)
+aoj:01(301678729:59, 100658082:5H.@entry)
+mod:05(107935504:1K.@def, :02)
+mod:03(103253398:7J.@pl, 107935504:72.@def)
+aoj(300520214:0G, 113275847:0P.@entry)
+mod:02(100252894:4R, 600000016:4N)
+obj:05(201754271:0Y.@progress, HTM2:18)
+obj:05(600000045:6Q, :03)
+plc(113275847:0P.@entry, 115689346:02)
+obj:03(201732921:78.@progress, 103253398:7J.@pl)
+[W]
+
+[/W]
+and:02(100811355:66, 100252894:4R)
+aoj:04(300343552:9V, 101318381:A5)
+mod:02(104263614:4F, 107935504:49)
+man:05(202327200:86.@entry.@progress, :04)
+aoj:01(301678729:59, 100658082:5H.@entry)
+mod:05(107935504:1K.@def, :02)
+mod:03(103253398:7J.@pl, 107935504:72.@def)
+aoj(300520214:0G, 113275847:0P.@entry)
+mod:02(100252894:4R, 600000016:4N)
+obj:05(201754271:0Y.@progress, HTM2:18)
+obj:05(600000045:6Q, :03)
+and:04(600000018:9Q.@entry, 600000093:92)
+frm:02(103576617:3X, 104263614:4F)
+and:02(200788057:6I.@progress.@entry, 100811355:66)
+pur(113275847:0P.@entry, :05:05)
+cnt:02(100252894:4R, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj:04(300343552:95, 100033615:9F)
+obj:05(202774169:1X, 104723816:26.@def)
+mod:05(109612848:8T.@def, 600000301:8N)
+mod:02(115689361:3A.@def.@pl, 300666058:32)
+agt:05(202774261:2L.@progress, :02)
+aoj(113275847:0P.@entry, HTM1:08.@topic)
+and:02(100252894:4R, 115689361:3A.@def.@pl)
+obj:04(600000093:92, 100033615:9F)
+obj:05(202774261:2L.@progress, 104723816:26.@def)
+aoj(113275847:0P.@entry, HTM1:08.@topic)
+and:02(100252894:4R, 115689361:3A.@def.@pl)
+obj:04(600000093:92, 100033615:9F)
+obj:05(202774261:2L.@progress, 104723816:26.@def)
+gol:05(202327200:86.@entry.@progress, 109612848:8T.@def)
+pur:02(115689361:3A.@def.@pl, 103576617:3X)
+mod:05(:02, 600000045:6Q)
+and:05(202327200:86.@entry.@progress, 201754271:0Y.@progress)
+aoj:01(600000663:5R, 100658082:5H.@entry)
+mod:05(HTM2:18, 107935504:1K.@def)
+and:03(103820474:7T.@entry, 103253398:7J.@pl)
+obj:04(600000018:9Q.@entry, 101318381:A5)
+mod:02(103576617:3X, 107935504:3R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12689]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is the rate of investments efficiency
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(113325010:0E.@entry.@def, HTM1:02.@topic)
+aoj(113325010:0E.@entry.@def, HTM1:02.@topic)
+mod(105644527:0Y, 100198919:0M.@pl)
+mod(113325010:0E.@entry.@def, 105644527:0Y)
+mod(113325010:0E.@entry.@def, 105644527:0Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12690]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is the total investment amount
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100033615:0V.@entry.@def, HTM1:02.@topic)
+aoj(100033615:0V.@entry.@def, HTM1:02.@topic)
+mod(100033615:0V.@entry.@def, 100198919:0K)
+qua(100033615:0V.@entry.@def, 303160907:0E)
+qua(100033615:0V.@entry.@def, 303160907:0E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12691]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is the profit from the sale of HTM2 of water to the consumers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105157574:0E.@entry.@def, HTM1:02.@topic)
+mod(HTM2:12, 107935504:1A)
+aoj(105157574:0E.@entry.@def, HTM1:02.@topic)
+mod(HTM2:12, 107935504:1A)
+cnt(101114824:0U.@def, HTM2:12)
+frm(105157574:0E.@entry.@def, 101114824:0U.@def)
+frm(105157574:0E.@entry.@def, 101114824:0U.@def)
+to(107935504:1A, 109612848:1N.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12692]
+{org:en}
+Production cost of HTM1 of water of the required quality could be determined by the two methods.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:1W.@entry.@ability.@past, 113275847:0D.@topic)
+mod(HTM1:0L, 107935504:0T)
+cnt(113275847:0D.@topic, HTM1:0L)
+obj(200699815:1W.@entry.@ability.@past, 113275847:0D.@topic)
+mod(HTM1:0L, 107935504:0T)
+cnt(113275847:0D.@topic, HTM1:0L)
+qua(105660268:2I.@def.@pl, "2":2E)
+obj(202774169:16, 104723816:1F.@def)
+agt(200699815:1W.@entry.@ability.@past, 105660268:2I.@def.@pl)
+agt(200699815:1W.@entry.@ability.@past, 105660268:2I.@def.@pl)
+mod(107935504:0T, 104723816:1F.@def)
+mod(113275847:0D.@topic, 100522736:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12693]
+{org:en}
+The first of them takes into consideration all expenditures in the system water intake HTM1 purification HTM2 distribution.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202774407:0Q.@entry, 600000204:06.@topic.@def)
+cnt(103576617:2A.@def, 100252894:2M)
+mod(115689361:1D.@pl, 300521584:19)
+agt(202774407:0Q.@entry, 600000204:06.@topic.@def)
+cnt(103576617:2A.@def, 100252894:2M)
+mod(115689361:1D.@pl, 300521584:19)
+mod(600000204:06.@topic.@def, 600000020:0F)
+scn(115689361:1D.@pl, 101083077:34)
+mod(107935504:24, 104377057:1X)
+obj(202774407:0Q.@entry, 115689361:1D.@pl)
+obj(202774407:0Q.@entry, 115689361:1D.@pl)
+mod(103576617:2A.@def, 107935504:24)
+mod(101083077:34, 103576617:2A.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12694]
+{org:en}
+This approach is applied, when the technology and constructions of water purification system affect the changes of current expenditures and investments on the compared project versions not only at the purification stage, but also on the stages of water intake and water supply to the customers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200765396:0J.@entry, 200019448:2N.@should)
+mod:04(100306900:60.@def, 100252894:5N)
+obj(200652900:4H, 101267901:4Y.@def.@pl)
+obj(200019448:2N.@should, 100191142:2Y.@def.@pl)
+to:04(:03, 115669318:7Y.@def.@pl)
+agt(200019448:2N.@should, :01)
+mod(104377057:2G, 107935504:1X)
+mod:04(100306900:6N.@entry.@def.@pl, 600000132:67)
+tim(200765396:0J.@entry, 200019448:2N.@should)
+mod:04(100306900:60.@def, 100252894:5N)
+obj(200652900:4H, 101267901:4Y.@def.@pl)
+obj(200019448:2N.@should, 100191142:2Y.@def.@pl)
+to:04(:03, 115669318:7Y.@def.@pl)
+agt(200019448:2N.@should, :01)
+mod(104377057:2G, 107935504:1X)
+mod:04(100306900:6N.@entry.@def.@pl, 600000132:67)
+and:02(100198919:3Y.@entry.@pl, 115689361:3H.@pl)
+mod:04(100306900:60.@def, 600000119:57)
+mod(100280853:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+and:01(100873381:1G.@entry.@pl.@def, 100949619:11.@def)
+and:04(100306900:6N.@entry.@def.@pl, 100306900:60.@def)
+plc(:02, 101267901:4Y.@def.@pl)
+and:03(115669704:7E.@entry, 103576617:73)
+obj(200765396:0J.@entry, 100280853:07.@topic)
+mod(:01, 104377057:2G)
+mod(101267901:4Y.@def.@pl, 105910453:4Q)
+obj(200765396:0J.@entry, 100280853:07.@topic)
+mod(:01, 104377057:2G)
+mod(101267901:4Y.@def.@pl, 105910453:4Q)
+obj(100191142:2Y.@def.@pl, :02:02)
+mod:04(:03, 107935504:6X)
+plc(200019448:2N.@should, :04:04)
+mod(104377057:2G, 100252894:23)
+obj:04(100306900:6N.@entry.@def.@pl, :03:03)
+mod:02(115689361:3H.@pl, 300666058:39)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12695]
+{org:en}
+The second approach takes into account only expenditures on the purification stage (when the compared technologies of water purification does not affect the specific features of technology and expenditures in the water intake assembly and in water conducting network).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(202774261:0S.@entry, :03:03.@parenthesis)
+obj:03(200652900:2N, 100949619:2W.@def.@pl)
+aoj:03(301099951:4F, 103325769:4O.@def.@pl)
+mod(100306900:27.@def, 100252894:1U)
+obj:02(201732921:6Y.@progress, 103820474:79.@entry)
+man(202774261:0S.@entry, 400535197:15)
+and:02(103820474:79.@entry, 100912001:6C.@def)
+tim(202774261:0S.@entry, :03:03.@parenthesis)
+obj:03(200652900:2N, 100949619:2W.@def.@pl)
+aoj:03(301099951:4F, 103325769:4O.@def.@pl)
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+mod:03(100949619:2W.@def.@pl, 100252894:3I)
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+and:01(115689361:5F.@entry.@pl, 100949619:50)
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+mod:02(100912001:6C.@def, 103576617:65)
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+plc:03(:01, :02:02)
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+mod:03(100252894:3I, 107935504:3C)
+plc:03(:01, :02:02)
+mod(100280853:0D.@topic, "2":06)
+mod:02(100912001:6C.@def, 107935504:5Z)
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+mod:02(103820474:79.@entry, 107935504:6S)
+mod:03(103325769:4O.@def.@pl, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12696]
+{org:en}
+The technologies, in which biological or mechanical preliminary water purification is brought in existence directly in the water intake unit on the one or another of the compared versions, can serve as example.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774543:5F.@entry.@ability, 100949619:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+or:02(600000116:4D.@entry, 600000027:46)
+man(202774473:2O, 400051848:31)
+or:01(301499686:17.@entry, 301405904:0T)
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+or:02(600000116:4D.@entry, 600000027:46)
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+or:01(301499686:17.@entry, 301405904:0T)
+obj(202774473:2O, 100252894:20)
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+plc(202774473:2O, 100949619:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 100252894:20)
+mod(105869857:3U.@def, 107935504:3H)
+obj(202774543:5F.@entry.@ability, 105820620:5O)
+obj(200652900:4S, 101267901:51.@def.@pl)
+obj(202774543:5F.@entry.@ability, 105820620:5O)
+obj(200652900:4S, 101267901:51.@def.@pl)
+plc(105869857:3U.@def, :02:02)
+plc(202774473:2O, 105869857:3U.@def)
+mod(100252894:20, 107935504:1U)
+mod(:02, 101267901:51.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12697]
+{org:en}
+The technology of partial purification of the water used for technical needs of the industrial enterprise can serve as another example.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(202774543:34.@entry.@ability, 100949619:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301188648:2E, 100796886:2P.@def)
+aoj(300524693:0K, 100252894:0S)
+mod(100949619:06.@topic.@def, 100252894:0S)
+aoj(202774543:34.@entry.@ability, 100949619:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(301188648:2E, 100796886:2P.@def)
+aoj(300524693:0K, 100252894:0S)
+mod(100949619:06.@topic.@def, 100252894:0S)
+obj(109367991:21.@pl, 100796886:2P.@def)
+mod(105820620:3L, 600000066:3D)
+pur(201158572:1I, 109367991:21.@pl)
+obj(202774543:34.@entry.@ability, 105820620:3L)
+obj(202774543:34.@entry.@ability, 105820620:3L)
+obj(201158572:1I, 107935504:1C.@def)
+obj(100252894:0S, 107935504:1C.@def)
+aoj(300484070:1R, 109367991:21.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12698]
+{org:en}
+In this case, different results of the technical water purification can lead to the different degree of contamination of the transporting water ducts and storage reservoirs.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(202774203:22.@entry.@ability, 600000186:02)
+mod(100252894:1L.@topic.@def, 115698567:0Q.@pl)
+obj(100276987:2Y, :01)
+mod(105094565:2O.@def, 100276987:2Y)
+aoj(300490413:0G, 115698567:0Q.@pl)
+man(202774203:22.@entry.@ability, 600000186:02)
+mod(100252894:1L.@topic.@def, 115698567:0Q.@pl)
+obj(100276987:2Y, :01)
+mod(105094565:2O.@def, 100276987:2Y)
+aoj(300490413:0G, 115698567:0Q.@pl)
+obj:01(201449974:3J.@progress.@def, 103253398:42.@pl)
+obj(202774203:22.@entry.@ability, 105094565:2O.@def)
+mod(100252894:1L.@topic.@def, 107935504:1F)
+mod:01(104078574:4K.@entry.@pl, 100811355:4C)
+aoj(202774203:22.@entry.@ability, 100252894:1L.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300484070:15, 100252894:1L.@topic.@def)
+aoj(202774203:22.@entry.@ability, 100252894:1L.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300484070:15, 100252894:1L.@topic.@def)
+and:01(104078574:4K.@entry.@pl, 103253398:42.@pl)
+aoj(300490413:2E, 105094565:2O.@def)
+mod:01(103253398:42.@pl, 107935504:3W)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12699]
+{org:en}
+This, in turn, requires the additional expenditures for their scour and disinfections.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202774169:0H.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(:01, 600000020:1M.@pl)
+pur(115689361:15.@def.@pl, :01:01)
+agt(202774169:0H.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+mod(:01, 600000020:1M.@pl)
+pur(115689361:15.@def.@pl, :01:01)
+man(202774169:0H.@entry, 600000208:08)
+obj(202774169:0H.@entry, 115689361:15.@def.@pl)
+obj(202774169:0H.@entry, 115689361:15.@def.@pl)
+and:01(100709521:22.@entry.@pl, 108647457:1S)
+aoj(303161014:0U, 115689361:15.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12700]
+{org:en}
+In the conditions of inflation and liquid assets deficiency, it is recommended to carry out the comparison of the different versions and selection of the best of them with the employing pure discount income, income index, internal income rate and minimum recoup time of the invested means.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(200578733:1X.@entry.@past, 105798863:09.@def.@pl)
+obj:02(202774279:4Y.@progress.@def, 113255145:5M)
+mod:02(100028270:7C.@entry, 103733547:7X.@def)
+obj:03(108399818:3V.@entry, 600000451:4C.@def)
+mod(105113133:1F.@topic, 600000016:1R)
+mod:02(113325010:6O, 300948670:68)
+obj(202774207:2C, :03)
+obj:03(100142665:2Q.@def, 101267901:3I.@def.@pl)
+obj:02(202271137:7O, 103733547:7X.@def)
+plc(200578733:1X.@entry.@past, 105798863:09.@def.@pl)
+obj:02(202774279:4Y.@progress.@def, 113255145:5M)
+mod:02(100028270:7C.@entry, 103733547:7X.@def)
+obj:03(108399818:3V.@entry, 600000451:4C.@def)
+mod(105113133:1F.@topic, 600000016:1R)
+mod:02(113325010:6O, 300948670:68)
+obj(202774207:2C, :03)
+obj:03(100142665:2Q.@def, 101267901:3I.@def.@pl)
+obj:02(202271137:7O, 103733547:7X.@def)
+obj:03(600000019:4P, :02)
+and:01(107119643:11.@entry, 100367280:0N)
+mod:02(105567381:61, 113255145:5U)
+pur(200578733:1X.@entry.@past, 202774207:2C)
+mod:02(113255145:5M, 100362103:5D)
+mod:02(100028270:7C.@entry, 115694293:75)
+mod:03(600000451:4C.@def, 600000020:4K)
+mod(105154517:18.@pl, :01)
+and:02(105567381:61, 113255145:5M)
+obj(200578733:1X.@entry.@past, 105113133:1F.@topic)
+aoj:02(300361125:58, 113255145:5M)
+mod:02(100028270:7C.@entry, 303161105:6X)
+obj(200578733:1X.@entry.@past, 105113133:1F.@topic)
+aoj:02(300361125:58, 113255145:5M)
+mod:02(100028270:7C.@entry, 303161105:6X)
+aoj:03(600000019:4P, 600000451:4C.@def)
+obj(105798863:09.@def.@pl, 105154517:18.@pl)
+mod:02(113325010:6O, 113255145:6H)
+aoj:03(300490413:38, 101267901:3I.@def.@pl)
+and:03(108399818:3V.@entry, 100142665:2Q.@def)
+and:02(113325010:6O, 105567381:61)
+and:02(100028270:7C.@entry, 113325010:6O)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12701]
+{org:en}
+When this approach is used, such characteristic as minimum return time serves as ancillary, but not principal criterion.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(202774543:21.@entry, 201158572:0O)
+obj(201158572:0O, 100280853:0C)
+aoj(600000032:1E, 104731497:0Z.@topic)
+mod(115689586:34, :01)
+tim(202774543:21.@entry, 201158572:0O)
+obj(201158572:0O, 100280853:0C)
+aoj(600000032:1E, 104731497:0Z.@topic)
+mod(115689586:34, :01)
+mod(100028270:1W, 303161105:1H)
+obj(202774543:21.@entry, 115689586:34)
+obj(600000032:1E, 100028270:1W)
+aoj(202774543:21.@entry, 104731497:0Z.@topic)
+mod(100280853:0C, 600000017:07)
+aoj(202774543:21.@entry, 104731497:0Z.@topic)
+mod(100280853:0C, 600000017:07)
+mod(104731497:0Z.@topic, 600001411:0U)
+and:01(303161143:2U.@entry.@not, 303161931:2B)
+mod(100028270:1W, 100051192:1P)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12702]
+{org:en}
+This is understood as the minimum time interval from the beginning of the project realization, after which the integral effect becomes positive.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200588888:0A.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+man(200149583:3L, 600000002:2D)
+aoj(600000577:1E, 105089947:15.@def)
+mod(105089947:15.@def, 303161105:0S)
+aoj(300515870:35, 104809642:3E.@def)
+obj(200588888:0A.@entry, 600000022:02.@topic)
+man(200149583:3L, 600000002:2D)
+aoj(600000577:1E, 105089947:15.@def)
+mod(105089947:15.@def, 303161105:0S)
+aoj(300515870:35, 104809642:3E.@def)
+mod(100061917:2C.@def, 105910453:24)
+obj(600000023:0L, 105089947:15.@def)
+gol(200149583:3L, 300358678:3T)
+mod(100235435:1N.@def, 100061917:2C.@def)
+man(200588888:0A.@entry, 600000023:0L)
+obj(200149583:3L, 104809642:3E.@def)
+man(200588888:0A.@entry, 600000023:0L)
+obj(200149583:3L, 104809642:3E.@def)
+obj(600000577:1E, 100235435:1N.@def)
+tim(105089947:15.@def, 100028270:10)
+obj(600000002:2D, 100061917:2C.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12703]
+{org:en}
+The discount rate HTM1 established for the year HTM2 is used for reducing expenditures, results and effects of different time periods to the value of this parameters at the initial period.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201158572:1M.@entry, 113325010:0F.@topic.@def)
+tim(105859071:4D.@pl, 106843520:53.@def)
+and:01(104809642:2U.@entry.@pl, 115698567:2I.@pl)
+mod(113325010:0F.@topic.@def, 100362103:06)
+obj(200045817:1V.@progress, :01:01)
+obj(200636888:0P, 113325010:0F.@topic.@def)
+obj(201158572:1M.@entry, 113325010:0F.@topic.@def)
+tim(105859071:4D.@pl, 106843520:53.@def)
+and:01(104809642:2U.@entry.@pl, 115698567:2I.@pl)
+mod(113325010:0F.@topic.@def, 100362103:06)
+obj(200045817:1V.@progress, :01:01)
+obj(200636888:0P, 113325010:0F.@topic.@def)
+tim(106843520:3K.@pl, 100028270:3F)
+pur(201158572:1M.@entry, 200045817:1V.@progress)
+mod(106843520:53.@def, 301011973:4V)
+aoj(300490413:35, 106843520:3K.@pl)
+cnt(115201505:19.@def, HTM2:1E)
+gol(201158572:1M.@entry, 104979425:3Z.@def)
+mod(105859071:4D.@pl, 600000017:48)
+gol(201158572:1M.@entry, 104979425:3Z.@def)
+mod(105859071:4D.@pl, 600000017:48)
+and:01(115698567:2I.@pl, 115689361:24.@pl)
+dur(200636888:0P, 115201505:19.@def)
+obj(:01, 106843520:3K.@pl)
+cnt(113325010:0F.@topic.@def, HTM1:0K)
+mod(104979425:3Z.@def, 105859071:4D.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12704]
+{org:en}
+It is equal to the rate of income for the capital acceptable for investor.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300889831:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+obj(300017782:1G, 110216106:1V)
+pur(113255145:0T, 102956247:18.@def)
+aoj(300889831:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+obj(300017782:1G, 110216106:1V)
+pur(113255145:0T, 102956247:18.@def)
+mod(113325010:0L.@def, 113255145:0T)
+gol(300889831:08.@entry, 113325010:0L.@def)
+gol(300889831:08.@entry, 113325010:0L.@def)
+aoj(300017782:1G, 102956247:18.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12705]
+{org:en}
+This value is connected with the discount coefficient HTM1 by the expression
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201069190:0G.@entry, 104979425:07.@topic)
+obj(600000035:2S, 100358528:1W.@def)
+cnt(113586122:18.@def, HTM1:1K)
+obj(201069190:0G.@entry, 104979425:07.@topic)
+obj(600000035:2S, 100358528:1W.@def)
+cnt(113586122:18.@def, HTM1:1K)
+aoj(600000035:2S, 113586122:18.@def)
+gol(201069190:0G.@entry, 113586122:18.@def)
+gol(201069190:0G.@entry, 113586122:18.@def)
+mod(104979425:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(113586122:18.@def, 100362103:0Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12706]
+{org:en}
+In addition to the traditional expenditures for purification, the compulsory payments established by the legislation norms are included into the production cost.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200183879:3L.@entry, 600000099:02)
+aoj(300611047:0L, 115689361:0X.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300848466:1W, 101120448:27.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(113275847:4E.@def, 100522736:43)
+man(200183879:3L.@entry, 600000099:02)
+aoj(300611047:0L, 115689361:0X.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300848466:1W, 101120448:27.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(113275847:4E.@def, 100522736:43)
+obj(600000099:02, 115689361:0X.@def.@pl)
+gol(200183879:3L.@entry, 113275847:4E.@def)
+mod(113854488:3B.@def.@pl, 101125693:2Z)
+obj(200183879:3L.@entry, 101120448:27.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200183879:3L.@entry, 101120448:27.@topic.@def.@pl)
+agt(200636888:2G, 113854488:3B.@def.@pl)
+obj(200636888:2G, 101120448:27.@topic.@def.@pl)
+pur(115689361:0X.@def.@pl, 100252894:1E)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12707]
+{org:en}
+Net discount income (NDI) is determined as the sum of current effects at the entire calculation period reduced to the initial step or as the surplus of the integrated income characteristics over integral expenditures
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0V.@entry, 500323646:02.@topic)
+equ(500323545:0N.@parenthesis, 500323646:02.@topic)
+gol(200045817:2X, 100285557:3K.@def)
+qua(104809642:1S.@pl, 105861067:1D.@def)
+aoj(301326148:4E, 104731497:4W.@def.@pl)
+obj(200045817:2X, 104809642:1S.@pl)
+obj(115669511:3Z.@def, 104731497:4W.@def.@pl)
+obj(200699815:0V.@entry, 500323646:02.@topic)
+equ(500323545:0N.@parenthesis, 500323646:02.@topic)
+gol(200045817:2X, 100285557:3K.@def)
+qua(104809642:1S.@pl, 105861067:1D.@def)
+aoj(301326148:4E, 104731497:4W.@def.@pl)
+obj(200045817:2X, 104809642:1S.@pl)
+obj(115669511:3Z.@def, 104731497:4W.@def.@pl)
+mod(106843520:2Q.@def, 100868910:2E)
+aoj(300515870:5H, 115689361:5Q.@pl)
+obj(600000023:16, 104809642:1S.@pl)
+obj(600000023:3S, 115669511:3Z.@def)
+mod(106843520:2Q.@def, 300515380:27)
+obj(600000049:5C, 115689361:5Q.@pl)
+man(200699815:0V.@entry, 600000023:16)
+mod(100285557:3K.@def, 301011973:3C)
+man(200699815:0V.@entry, 600000023:16)
+mod(100285557:3K.@def, 301011973:3C)
+mod(104809642:1S.@pl, 300666058:1K)
+mod(104731497:4W.@def.@pl, 113255145:4P)
+tim(104809642:1S.@pl, 106843520:2Q.@def)
+aoj(600000049:5C, 104731497:4W.@def.@pl)
+man(200045817:2X, 600000023:3S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12708]
+{org:en}
+where HTM1 is the sum of expenditures at the step t, HTM2 is the result on steps (income from water supply and other income)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(115698567:1V.@entry.@def, 115689361:0R.@pl)
+qua(115689361:0R.@pl, 105861067:0K.@def)
+and:01(113255145:3B.@entry, 115669704:2O)
+cnt(100285557:25.@pl, :02.@parenthesis)
+and(115698567:1V.@entry.@def, 115689361:0R.@pl)
+qua(115689361:0R.@pl, 105861067:0K.@def)
+and:01(113255145:3B.@entry, 115669704:2O)
+cnt(100285557:25.@pl, :02.@parenthesis)
+aoj(115689361:0R.@pl, HTM1:08.@topic)
+plc(115698567:1V.@entry.@def, 100285557:25.@pl)
+plc(115689361:0R.@pl, 115689346:02)
+aoj(115698567:1V.@entry.@def, HTM2:1J.@topic)
+mod(106833220:1G.@def, 100285557:1B)
+aoj(115698567:1V.@entry.@def, HTM2:1J.@topic)
+mod(106833220:1G.@def, 100285557:1B)
+mod:01(113255145:3B.@entry, 600000031:35)
+frm:02(113255145:2C.@entry, :01)
+tim(115689361:0R.@pl, 106833220:1G.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12709]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is the sum of investments at the step t
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100198919:0L.@entry.@pl, HTM1:02.@topic)
+mod(106833220:19.@def, 100285557:14)
+aoj(100198919:0L.@entry.@pl, HTM1:02.@topic)
+mod(106833220:19.@def, 100285557:14)
+qua(100198919:0L.@entry.@pl, 105861067:0E.@def)
+tim(100198919:0L.@entry.@pl, 106833220:19.@def)
+tim(100198919:0L.@entry.@pl, 106833220:19.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12710]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is the sum of discounted investments, i.e.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100198919:0W.@entry.@pl, HTM1:02.@topic)
+aoj(100198919:0W.@entry.@pl, HTM1:02.@topic)
+obj(202319428:0L, 100198919:0W.@entry.@pl)
+qua(100198919:0W.@entry.@pl, 105861067:0E.@def)
+qua(100198919:0W.@entry.@pl, 105861067:0E.@def)
+[W]
+115689159:19.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12711]
+{org:en}
+When the NDI of the considered project version is positive, then this version is efficient at the particular discount rate.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(300839619:2B.@entry, 300358678:1G)
+mod(101267901:15.@def, 105910453:0X)
+mod(113325010:3C.@def, 100362103:33)
+plc(300839619:2B.@entry, 113325010:3C.@def)
+tim(300839619:2B.@entry, 300358678:1G)
+mod(101267901:15.@def, 105910453:0X)
+mod(113325010:3C.@def, 100362103:33)
+plc(300839619:2B.@entry, 113325010:3C.@def)
+mod(500323545:0B.@topic.@def, 101267901:15.@def)
+aoj(300839619:2B.@entry, 101267901:20.@topic)
+aoj(300358678:1G, 500323545:0B.@topic.@def)
+man(300839619:2B.@entry, 400117620:1Q)
+man(300839619:2B.@entry, 400117620:1Q)
+mod(101267901:20.@topic, 600000017:1V)
+mod(113325010:3C.@def, 300311044:2S)
+obj(200691312:0M, 101267901:15.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12712]
+{org:en}
+The question of its acceptance is considered only in such a case.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200691312:10.@entry, 100082525:0M.@topic)
+mod(100082525:0M.@topic, 600000016:0I)
+mod(102974697:1Q.@indef, 600001411:1J)
+obj(200691312:10.@entry, 100082525:0M.@topic)
+mod(100082525:0M.@topic, 600000016:0I)
+mod(102974697:1Q.@indef, 600001411:1J)
+man(200691312:10.@entry, 400535197:1B)
+scn(200691312:10.@entry, 102974697:1Q.@indef)
+scn(200691312:10.@entry, 102974697:1Q.@indef)
+mod(100082525:0M.@topic, 106783768:06.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12713]
+{org:en}
+The more is NDI, the more efficient is the project version.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(101267901:1H.@entry.@def, 500323545:0E)
+man(500323545:0E, 400099341:06.@def)
+aoj(300839619:0S, :2C.@topic.@def)
+con(101267901:1H.@entry.@def, 500323545:0E)
+man(500323545:0E, 400099341:06.@def)
+aoj(300839619:0S, :2C.@topic.@def)
+mod(101267901:1H.@entry.@def, 105910453:19)
+aoj(101267901:1H.@entry.@def, :2C.@topic.@def)
+aoj(101267901:1H.@entry.@def, :2C.@topic.@def)
+aoj(500323545:0E, :2F.@topic)
+man(300839619:0S, 400099341:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12714]
+{org:en}
+The losses are included into the expression (5) with the sign “plus”, and the income with the sign “minus”.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200183879:0H.@entry, 100067526:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(113255145:2K.@entry.@def, 106646243:1N.@def)
+tim(100358528:0Z.@def, "5":1B.@parenthesis)
+obj(200183879:0H.@entry, 100067526:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+and:01(113255145:2K.@entry.@def, 106646243:1N.@def)
+tim(100358528:0Z.@def, "5":1B.@parenthesis)
+cnt:01(106646243:30.@def, 115695662:3C.@double_quote)
+aoj(600000019:1E, 100358528:0Z.@def)
+obj:01(600000019:2R, 106646243:30.@def)
+gol(200183879:0H.@entry, 100358528:0Z.@def)
+gol(200183879:0H.@entry, 100358528:0Z.@def)
+aoj:01(600000019:2R, 113255145:2K.@entry.@def)
+obj(600000019:1E, :01)
+cnt:01(106646243:1N.@def, 115695852:1Z.@double_quote)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12715]
+{org:en}
+NDI expresses the difference between the sum of the reduced effects and the value of investments reduced to the same moment of time ( HTM1 ).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200940384:06.@entry, 500323545:02.@topic)
+cnt:01(100028270:3L, HTM1:3S.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(104979425:26.@entry.@def, 100198919:2F.@pl)
+obj(600000024:0V, :01)
+agt(200940384:06.@entry, 500323545:02.@topic)
+cnt:01(100028270:3L, HTM1:3S.@parenthesis)
+mod:01(104979425:26.@entry.@def, 100198919:2F.@pl)
+obj(600000024:0V, :01)
+mod:01(106022509:3B, 100028270:3L)
+aoj(600000024:0V, 104748836:0K.@def)
+obj:01(200045817:1I, 104809642:1Q.@def.@pl)
+gol:01(200045817:2R, 106022509:3B)
+obj(200940384:06.@entry, 104748836:0K.@def)
+qua:01(104809642:1Q.@def.@pl, 105861067:17.@def)
+obj(200940384:06.@entry, 104748836:0K.@def)
+qua:01(104809642:1Q.@def.@pl, 105861067:17.@def)
+obj:01(200045817:2R, 100198919:2F.@pl)
+and:01(104979425:26.@entry.@def, 104809642:1Q.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(300355611:36, 106022509:3B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12716]
+{org:en}
+The income index (IncInd) is the ration of the sum of the reduced effects and the sum of investments
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(107565725:0Z.@entry.@def, 105567381:0D.@topic.@def)
+obj:01(200045817:1O, 104809642:1W.@def.@pl)
+qua:01(100198919:2J.@entry.@pl, 105861067:2C.@def)
+aoj(107565725:0Z.@entry.@def, 105567381:0D.@topic.@def)
+obj:01(200045817:1O, 104809642:1W.@def.@pl)
+qua:01(100198919:2J.@entry.@pl, 105861067:2C.@def)
+and:01(100198919:2J.@entry.@pl, 104809642:1W.@def.@pl)
+mod(105567381:0D.@topic.@def, 113255145:06)
+mod(107565725:0Z.@entry.@def, :01)
+mod(107565725:0Z.@entry.@def, :01)
+equ(500323701:0K.@parenthesis, 105567381:0D.@topic.@def)
+qua:01(104809642:1W.@def.@pl, 105861067:1D.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12717]
+{org:en}
+This parameter is closely connected with NDI
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201069190:0S.@entry, 105859071:07.@topic)
+mod(105859071:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+obj(201069190:0S.@entry, 105859071:07.@topic)
+mod(105859071:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+man(201069190:0S.@entry, 400160440:0K)
+gol(201069190:0S.@entry, 500323545:17)
+gol(201069190:0S.@entry, 500323545:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12718]
+{org:en}
+if the NDI is positive, the IncInd > 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(500323701:0U.@entry.@def, 300358678:0G)
+con(500323701:0U.@entry.@def, 300358678:0G)
+aoj(300358678:0G, 500323545:09.@topic.@def)
+aoj(">1":16, 500323701:0U.@entry.@def)
+aoj(">1":16, 500323701:0U.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12719]
+{org:en}
+The flow and balance of real money are calculated for the financial substantiation of the technologies.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200637259:15.@entry, :01:01)
+and:01(102777100:0F.@entry.@topic.@def, 100329227:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(303161150:1O, 115690180:1Y.@def)
+obj(200637259:15.@entry, :01:01)
+and:01(102777100:0F.@entry.@topic.@def, 100329227:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(303161150:1O, 115690180:1Y.@def)
+obj(115690180:1Y.@def, 100949619:2K.@def.@pl)
+pur(200637259:15.@entry, 115690180:1Y.@def)
+pur(200637259:15.@entry, 115690180:1Y.@def)
+mod(113250542:0V, 300013662:0Q)
+obj(:01, 113250542:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12720]
+{org:en}
+Three forms of activity are differentiated, when the technological project is brought in existence
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200119074:0U.@entry, 202774473:2G)
+aoj(302084979:1J, 105910453:1X.@def)
+qua(103384535:08.@topic.@pl, "3":02)
+tim(200119074:0U.@entry, 202774473:2G)
+aoj(302084979:1J, 105910453:1X.@def)
+qua(103384535:08.@topic.@pl, "3":02)
+mod(103384535:08.@topic.@pl, 100407535:0H)
+obj(200119074:0U.@entry, 103384535:08.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202774473:2G, 105910453:1X.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12721]
+{org:en}
+investing, operational, and financial.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(303161150:0U.@entry, 300833018:0D)
+and(303161150:0U.@entry, 300833018:0D)
+and(300833018:0D, 202271137:02.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12722]
+{org:en}
+The flow of real money is the difference between the intake and outtake of finances earned from investing and operational activity in every year of project realization (on the every step of calculation).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104748836:0W.@entry.@def, 100329227:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(115201505:3Y, 100061917:4E)
+obj(202290196:2E, 101098698:25.@pl)
+mod:03(100285557:54.@entry.@def, 600000301:4Y)
+obj(:01, 101098698:25.@pl)
+mod(100061917:4E, 105910453:46)
+aoj(104748836:0W.@entry.@def, 100329227:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(115201505:3Y, 100061917:4E)
+obj(202290196:2E, 101098698:25.@pl)
+mod:03(100285557:54.@entry.@def, 600000301:4Y)
+obj(:01, 101098698:25.@pl)
+mod(100061917:4E, 105910453:46)
+and:02(100407535:3G.@entry, 202271137:2Q.@progress)
+obj(600000024:17, :01)
+aoj(:03.@parenthesis, 100061917:4E)
+tim(:02, 115201505:3Y)
+mod(113250542:0J, 300013662:0E)
+aoj(600000024:17, 104748836:0W.@entry.@def)
+mod(115201505:3Y, 600000301:3S)
+mod(115201505:3Y, 600000301:3S)
+src(202290196:2E, :02:02)
+obj(100329227:06.@topic.@def, 113250542:0J)
+and:01(106614901:1U.@entry.@def, 103576617:1J.@def)
+mod:03(100285557:54.@entry.@def, 100868910:5C)
+aoj:02(300833018:34, 100407535:3G.@entry)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12723]
+{org:en}
+The flow of real money from investing activity includes the forms of income from sale of the actives and expenditures for acquiring ground, buildings, constructions, and equipment distributing along the periods (steps) of the calculation.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:1D.@entry, 113250542:0J.@topic)
+obj(202271137:0U.@progress, 100407535:14)
+and:01(100873381:49.@pl, 102913152:3Y.@pl)
+and:02(115689361:2Z.@entry.@pl, 109764900:2N.@def.@pl)
+cnt:02(106843520:5P.@def.@pl, 100285557:5Y.@parenthesis.@pl)
+frm(113255145:1Z, 101114824:2B)
+obj:02(600000105:5F, 106843520:5P.@def.@pl)
+aoj(200183879:1D.@entry, 113250542:0J.@topic)
+obj(202271137:0U.@progress, 100407535:14)
+and:01(100873381:49.@pl, 102913152:3Y.@pl)
+and:02(115689361:2Z.@entry.@pl, 109764900:2N.@def.@pl)
+cnt:02(106843520:5P.@def.@pl, 100285557:5Y.@parenthesis.@pl)
+frm(113255145:1Z, 101114824:2B)
+obj:02(600000105:5F, 106843520:5P.@def.@pl)
+agt:02(202201644:52.@progress, :01)
+mod(113250542:0J.@topic, 300013662:0E)
+mod(103384535:1Q.@def.@pl, 113255145:1Z)
+man:02(202201644:52.@progress, 600000105:5F)
+obj:02(202288295:3G.@progress, :01:01)
+mod(113250542:0J.@topic, 100329227:06.@def)
+obj(200183879:1D.@entry, 103384535:1Q.@def.@pl)
+and:01(102913152:3Y.@pl, 103462594:3Q)
+and:01(102913152:3Y.@pl, 103462594:3Q)
+pur:02(115689361:2Z.@entry.@pl, 202288295:3G.@progress)
+frm(113250542:0J.@topic, 202271137:0U.@progress)
+obj(101114824:2B, :02)
+mod:02(106843520:5P.@def.@pl, 100868910:6C.@def)
+and:01(103294048:4S.@entry, 100873381:49.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12724]
+{org:en}
+In essence, it includes the investments along the years of bringing the project in existence.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200183879:0H.@entry, 400017639:02)
+mod(115201505:1G.@def.@pl, 202774473:2A.@progress)
+aoj(600000135:16, 100198919:0U.@def.@pl)
+man(200183879:0H.@entry, 400017639:02)
+mod(115201505:1G.@def.@pl, 202774473:2A.@progress)
+aoj(600000135:16, 100198919:0U.@def.@pl)
+obj(200183879:0H.@entry, 100198919:0U.@def.@pl)
+aoj(200183879:0H.@entry, 600000016:0E.@topic)
+obj(202774473:2A.@progress, 105910453:22.@def)
+obj(600000135:16, 115201505:1G.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12725]
+{org:en}
+The flow of the real money from operational activity includes income from sale of water to the customers, exploitation expenditures, depreciation expenses, and taxes.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:1J.@entry, 100329227:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(100329227:06.@topic.@def, 113250542:0N.@def)
+and:01(113308999:4I.@entry.@pl, 107420671:44.@pl)
+obj(101114824:24, 107935504:2C)
+aoj(300833018:0Y, 100407535:1A)
+aoj(200183879:1J.@entry, 100329227:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(100329227:06.@topic.@def, 113250542:0N.@def)
+and:01(113308999:4I.@entry.@pl, 107420671:44.@pl)
+obj(101114824:24, 107935504:2C)
+aoj(300833018:0Y, 100407535:1A)
+and:01(115689361:3D.@pl, 115669318:2P.@def.@pl)
+frm(113255145:1S, 101114824:24)
+mod(113250542:0N.@def, 300013662:0I)
+mod:01(107420671:44.@pl, 100364600:3R)
+obj(200183879:1J.@entry, 113255145:1S)
+frm(113250542:0N.@def, 100407535:1A)
+frm(113250542:0N.@def, 100407535:1A)
+and:01(107420671:44.@pl, 115689361:3D.@pl)
+to(107935504:2C, :01:01)
+mod:01(115689361:3D.@pl, 100418903:30)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12726]
+{org:en}
+The flow of the financial activity includes all sorts of credits (intake) and redemption of all sorts of credit loans (outflow).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200183879:11.@entry, 100329227:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(104746262:2Q.@pl, 300521584:2M)
+mod:01(100037200:1N.@pl, 104746262:1E.@pl)
+and:01(100079212:28.@entry, 100037200:1N.@pl)
+aoj(200183879:11.@entry, 100329227:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(104746262:2Q.@pl, 300521584:2M)
+mod:01(100037200:1N.@pl, 104746262:1E.@pl)
+and:01(100079212:28.@entry, 100037200:1N.@pl)
+mod(113398953:36.@pl, 104746262:2Q.@pl)
+obj(:01, 113398953:36.@pl)
+aoj(303161150:0I, 100407535:0S.@def)
+cnt(113398953:36.@pl, 113529295:3D.@parenthesis)
+obj(200183879:11.@entry, :01:01)
+obj(100329227:06.@topic.@def, 100407535:0S.@def)
+obj(100329227:06.@topic.@def, 100407535:0S.@def)
+mod:01(104746262:1E.@pl, 300521584:1A)
+cnt:01(100037200:1N.@pl, 103576617:1W.@parenthesis)
+mod(113398953:36.@pl, 100037200:2Z)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12727]
+{org:en}
+If the balance of real money becomes negative in some year (at the some step) that means that the project could be brought in existence in this particular form.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200708840:2D.@entry, 200149583:0V)
+tim(200149583:0V, 115201505:1K)
+obj(202774473:3K.@ability.@past, 105910453:2V.@topic.@def)
+mod(600000030:28.@topic, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj(102777100:09.@def, 113250542:0P)
+con(200708840:2D.@entry, 200149583:0V)
+tim(200149583:0V, 115201505:1K)
+obj(202774473:3K.@ability.@past, 105910453:2V.@topic.@def)
+mod(600000030:28.@topic, :01.@parenthesis)
+obj(102777100:09.@def, 113250542:0P)
+mod(103384535:4G, 300311044:45)
+aoj(200708840:2D.@entry, 600000030:28.@topic)
+qua(115201505:1K, 600000034:1F)
+mod(103384535:4G, 600000017:40)
+obj(200708840:2D.@entry, 202774473:3K.@ability.@past)
+gol(200149583:0V, 300075515:13)
+gol(200149583:0V, 300075515:13)
+plc(202774473:3K.@ability.@past, 103384535:4G)
+qua:01(100285557:22.@entry.@def, 600000034:1X)
+mod(113250542:0P, 300013662:0K)
+obj(200149583:0V, 102777100:09.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12728]
+{org:en}
+It is necessary in this case to increase the income part of the project and to decrease its expenditure part.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300343552:08.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(103892891:2Y, 115689361:2M)
+obj:01(200151689:29.@entry, 103892891:2Y)
+aoj(300343552:08.@entry, :01)
+mod:01(103892891:2Y, 115689361:2M)
+obj:01(200151689:29.@entry, 103892891:2Y)
+mod:01(103892891:1I.@def, 113255145:1B)
+and:01(200151689:29.@entry, 200153263:0Y)
+mod:01(103892891:1I.@def, 105910453:1U.@def)
+man(300343552:08.@entry, 600000186:0I)
+obj:01(200153263:0Y, 103892891:1I.@def)
+mod:01(103892891:2Y, 600000016:2I)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12729]
+{org:en}
+The project cannot be brought in existence in the proposed form even despite its high efficiency characteristics, if at the first year of the productive stage the balance of the real money flow would become negative.
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+It is necessary in this case to alter the project by increasing the income part of it and/or decreasing its expenditure part.
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+Also, the additional sources of founding could be found.
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+[S:12732]
+{org:en}
+Thereafter, it is necessary to repeat once more the calculations.
+{/org}
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+[S:12733]
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+Optimization of the complex of technological processes of water purification
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+{/unl}
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+[S:12734]
+{org:en}
+The choice of optimum parameters of controlling the technological processes of natural and wastewater purification is very important in the practice of water supply and canalization.
+{/org}
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+[S:12735]
+{org:en}
+Its importance increases many times over, when it is necessary to solve the problems connected with the optimization of the entire technological layout of the purification rather than the one particular process of functioning separate purification construction.
+{/org}
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+[S:12736]
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+When the problems of the first level are solved, the duration of the filtering cycles, reagent doses, specific hydraulic load per unit area of the settlers or filters, etc. are selected as the parameters to be optimized.
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:12737]
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+The problems of the second level are directed on the optimization of the functioning of the separate constructions, installations, or mechanisms.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:12738]
+{org:en}
+Figure 1 represents the example of the structure model of the optimization of the technological layout for purification of turbid and colored water for potable purposes.
+{/org}
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+
+[S:12739]
+{org:en}
+It is supposed the water under purification contains admixtures of anthropogenic origin being resistant to the extraction from the water without its additional treatment by ozonation and adsorption.
+{/org}
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+[S:12740]
+{org:en}
+The basis of such model consists of the four blocks
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:12741]
+{org:en}
+quality of the initial water (I)
+{/org}
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+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12742]
+{org:en}
+complex of basis and ancillary constructions for water purification, its disinfections, repetitive utilizing washing water, and sludge treatment (II)
+{/org}
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+[S:12743]
+{org:en}
+boundary conditions superimposed on the optimized parameters of control of the technological processes and the most important characteristics of water quality (III)
+{/org}
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+[/S]
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+[S:12744]
+{org:en}
+functioning the optimization criterion with the feedback (IV).
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12745]
+{org:en}
+The minimum reduced expenditures HTM1 with validate time of return or maximum net discount income is taken as the optimization criterion (generalized target function).
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:12746]
+{org:en}
+Figure 1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "1":09)
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "1":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12747]
+{org:en}
+Structure model of the technological processes of purification of turbid colored water with recycling of washing water and dehydration and disposal the sludge
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(100948868:2M, :02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12748]
+{org:en}
+Figure 2 represents the version of the model of optimization of the improved technological layout of the purification of colored water of low turbidity, containing anthropogenic admixtures.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(100252894:2Z.@def, 107935504:3N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12749]
+{org:en}
+The model illustrates the possibilities for simplifying the optimization problems, when the decisions are taken in advance about exclusion the optimization parameters of the functioning of constructions for treatment and repetitive utilization of the washing water and sludge treatment in the process of exploitation of the water purification stations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+and:01(114580476:6I.@entry, 100658082:5T)
+mod(105859071:4E.@entry.@def.@pl, 201525666:4W.@def.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12750]
+{org:en}
+This exclusion is permissible in the cases, when the possibilities are strictly limited or impossible at all in the given particular conditions for realization of a few modes of exploitation of the constructions of the washing water purification and also sludge treatment.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(301760944:0K.@entry, :01:01)
+mod:02(100658082:7C.@entry, 114591804:75)
+mod(105798863:3R.@def.@pl, 300028280:3A)
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+mod(100418903:50, 106023675:4R.@indef.@pl)
+pur(105798863:3R.@def.@pl, 100061917:46)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12751]
+{org:en}
+That is possible, for example, when the washing water is discharged for dilution into the water current downstream from the site of water intake and location of water purification station.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(301821266:0A.@entry, 201097743:1N)
+mod(:01, 104306080:52)
+pur(201097743:1N, 100362659:22)
+obj(200036178:16.@progress.@def, 107935504:1E)
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+aoj(301821266:0A.@entry, 600000030:02.@topic)
+and:01(100027167:47.@entry, 103576617:3W)
+mod(111443532:2Q, 107935504:2K.@def)
+gol(201097743:1N, 111443532:2Q)
+mod(104306080:52, 100252894:4P)
+mod(108622950:3I.@def, :01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12752]
+{org:en}
+This can be performed on the economical reasons, when the exploitation expenditures for these blocks affect insignificantly on the general tendency of the changing reduced expenditures for the entire station.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(201712704:0E.@entry.@ability, 202775575:2V.@should)
+obj(200109660:4D.@progress.@def, 115689361:4U.@pl)
+obj(202775575:2V.@should, 104944048:3X.@def)
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+obj(202775575:2V.@should, 104944048:3X.@def)
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+obj(200045817:4M, 115689361:4U.@pl)
+obj(201712704:0E.@entry.@ability, 600000022:02.@topic)
+obj(200045817:4M, 115689361:4U.@pl)
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+mod(115689361:21.@def.@pl, 100418903:1O)
+pur(115689361:4U.@pl, 104306080:5M.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12753]
+{org:en}
+Figure 2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "2":09)
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "2":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12754]
+{org:en}
+Structure model of optimization of the technological process of purification of the colored water with low turbidity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100898804:0C.@entry, 100260051:0L)
+obj(100252894:1U, 107935504:2M.@def)
+obj(100029677:1J.@def, 100252894:1U)
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+obj(100252894:1U, 107935504:2M.@def)
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+obj(600000019:2S, 104703932:31)
+obj(100260051:0L, 100029677:1J.@def)
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+mod(100898804:0C.@entry, 104931965:02)
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+aoj(302084979:15, 100029677:1J.@def)
+aoj(301206474:2X, 104703932:31)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12755]
+{org:en}
+When the mathematical models of the complex of technological processes are formulated, it is supposed that the water purification station consists of a few constructions (modules) through which the initial water passes in series.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+tim(200917300:2N.@entry, 201633173:25)
+mod(107935504:5V.@def, 301011973:5N)
+cnt(100873381:4H.@indef.@pl, 103778600:4W.@parenthesis.@pl)
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+plc(202049696:61, 105862721:6B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12756]
+{org:en}
+Each module affects water quality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200019448:0E.@entry, 103778600:07.@topic)
+mod(103778600:07.@topic, 600000848:02)
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+obj(200019448:0E.@entry, 104723816:0S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12757]
+{org:en}
+The outlet characteristics of quality of water coming out from one module are the initial characteristics for the following one.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(104731497:2K.@entry.@def.@pl, 104723816:0W.@topic)
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+mod(104723816:0W.@topic, 107935504:17)
+man(200341917:1D.@progress, 600000212:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12758]
+{org:en}
+Let the particular characteristics of the water quality, (for example turbidity, color index, oxidizing capability) will be designated as HTM1 or HTM2 , where HTM3 is a vector of the water quality characteristics and n is a number of the quality characteristics taking into account.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(200496673:02.@entry, 201030132:3I.@will)
+aoj:04(101372038:4R.@indef, HTM3:4H.@topic)
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+and:04(103835412:6A.@entry.@indef, 101372038:4R.@indef)
+and:01(105567381:2H, 104703932:20)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12759]
+{org:en}
+Every module affects one or few quality characteristics.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200019448:0F.@entry, 103778600:08.@topic)
+mod(103778600:08.@topic, 600000301:02)
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+agt(200019448:0F.@entry, 103778600:08.@topic)
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+obj(200019448:0F.@entry, 104731497:16.@pl)
+or:01(600000106:0U.@entry, 600000089:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12760]
+{org:en}
+All modules of the water purification station affect all taken into consideration quality characteristics of water entering the module HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200019448:1C.@entry, 103778600:06.@topic.@pl)
+mod(103778600:06.@topic.@pl, 300521584:02)
+mod(104731497:2K.@pl, 104723816:2C)
+mod(104731497:2K.@pl, 300521584:1J)
+agt(200019448:1C.@entry, 103778600:06.@topic.@pl)
+mod(103778600:06.@topic.@pl, 300521584:02)
+mod(104731497:2K.@pl, 104723816:2C)
+mod(104731497:2K.@pl, 300521584:1J)
+cnt(103778600:3M.@def, HTM1:3T)
+mod(104731497:2K.@pl, 107935504:33)
+mod(104306080:14.@def, 100252894:0R)
+gol(201082606:39.@progress, 103778600:3M.@def)
+obj(200019448:1C.@entry, 104731497:2K.@pl)
+mod(104306080:14.@def, 107935504:0L)
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+mod(104306080:14.@def, 107935504:0L)
+obj(201082606:39.@progress, 107935504:33)
+obj(202774407:1T, 104731497:2K.@pl)
+mod(103778600:06.@topic.@pl, 104306080:14.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12761]
+{org:en}
+Let us designate the quality characteristic of the water entering in the module as HTM1 and characteristic of the water outgoing from the module as HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(200496673:02.@entry, 201030132:09)
+mod:01(104731497:2M.@entry, 107935504:38.@def)
+mod:01(104731497:0V.@def, 104723816:0N)
+and:01(104731497:2M.@entry, 104731497:0V.@def)
+src:01(301294185:3E, 103778600:3W.@def)
+gol(200496673:02.@entry, 201030132:09)
+mod:01(104731497:2M.@entry, 107935504:38.@def)
+mod:01(104731497:0V.@def, 104723816:0N)
+and:01(104731497:2M.@entry, 104731497:0V.@def)
+src:01(301294185:3E, 103778600:3W.@def)
+gol:01(201082606:1N.@progress, 103778600:23.@def)
+obj(201030132:09, :01:01)
+man:01(301294185:3E, 600000023:43)
+man:01(201082606:1N.@progress, 600000023:2A)
+obj(200496673:02.@entry, 600000005:06)
+aoj:01(301294185:3E, 107935504:38.@def)
+obj(200496673:02.@entry, 600000005:06)
+aoj:01(301294185:3E, 107935504:38.@def)
+obj:01(201082606:1N.@progress, 107935504:1H.@def)
+mod:01(104731497:0V.@def, 107935504:1H.@def)
+obj:01(600000023:43, HTM2:46)
+obj:01(600000023:2A, HTM1:2D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12762]
+{org:en}
+Here HTM1 , where HTM2 is a number of modules, of which consists the station.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(HTM1:07.@pl, :2C.@entry)
+mod(103835412:0T.@indef, 103778600:13.@pl)
+plc(103835412:0T.@indef, HTM1:07.@pl)
+mod(HTM1:07.@pl, :2C.@entry)
+mod(103835412:0T.@indef, 103778600:13.@pl)
+plc(103835412:0T.@indef, HTM1:07.@pl)
+plc(202774237:1L, HTM1:07.@pl)
+plc(HTM1:07.@pl, 400536275:02)
+plc(HTM1:07.@pl, 400536275:02)
+obj(202774237:1L, 104306080:1Y.@def)
+aoj(103835412:0T.@indef, HTM2:0J.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12763]
+{org:en}
+Every construction and the technological process of the water treatment in are characterized by great combination of the different parameters (geometrical sizes of the constructions and installations, reagent doses, velocities of treated and washing water, flow rates of water, etc.).
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202697950:27.@entry, :01:01)
+and:05(103225238:5T.@pl, :02)
+aoj:06(303163288:3Z, 105095691:4B.@entry.@pl)
+obj(:01, 100658082:1S.@def)
+mod:04(113325010:7A.@pl, 107935504:7J)
+aoj(301278818:2O, 100378985:2U)
+and:04(115689145:7Q.@entry, 113325010:7A.@pl)
+obj(202697950:27.@entry, :01:01)
+and:05(103225238:5T.@pl, :02)
+aoj:06(303163288:3Z, 105095691:4B.@entry.@pl)
+obj(:01, 100658082:1S.@def)
+mod:04(113325010:7A.@pl, 107935504:7J)
+aoj(301278818:2O, 100378985:2U)
+and:04(115689145:7Q.@entry, 113325010:7A.@pl)
+mod:01(100873381:08.@topic, 600000301:02)
+and:03(200036178:6Q.@entry.@progress, 200078760:6E)
+obj(100378985:2U, 105859071:3N.@def.@pl)
+and:02(100240938:56.@entry.@pl, 100873381:4O.@def.@pl)
+mod:05(115689301:60.@entry.@pl, :04)
+aoj:01(302084979:0T, 100029677:17.@entry.@def)
+obj:04(:03, 107935504:6Y)
+agt(202697950:27.@entry, 100378985:2U)
+mod:05(103225238:5T.@pl, 114778982:5L)
+and:05(115689301:60.@entry.@pl, 103225238:5T.@pl)
+agt(202697950:27.@entry, 100378985:2U)
+mod:05(103225238:5T.@pl, 114778982:5L)
+and:05(115689301:60.@entry.@pl, 103225238:5T.@pl)
+and:01(100029677:17.@entry.@def.@topic, 100873381:08.@topic)
+mod:04(113325010:7A.@pl, 100329227:75)
+aoj(300490413:3D, 105859071:3N.@def.@pl)
+and:04(113325010:7A.@pl, 107935504:6Y)
+mod(100658082:1S.@def, 107935504:1M)
+[W]
+:06.@entry.@parenthesis
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12764]
+{org:en}
+The parameters that have the most intensive influence on the altering quality characteristics of the water treated in the given construction should be selected.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202774500:49.@should.@past, 105859071:06.@entry.@def.@pl)
+plc(200078760:31, 100873381:3M.@def)
+man(301512275:10, 400536271:0V)
+obj(100157081:1A, 107935504:2V.@def)
+obj(202774500:49.@should.@past, 105859071:06.@entry.@def.@pl)
+plc(200078760:31, 100873381:3M.@def)
+man(301512275:10, 400536271:0V)
+obj(100157081:1A, 107935504:2V.@def)
+obj(200060477:1R.@progress.@def, 104731497:28.@pl)
+obj(200065370:0M, 100157081:1A)
+mod(107935504:2V.@def, 104731497:28.@pl)
+aoj(200065370:0M, 105859071:06.@entry.@def.@pl)
+mod(100873381:3M.@def, 300028280:3G)
+aoj(200065370:0M, 105859071:06.@entry.@def.@pl)
+mod(100873381:3M.@def, 300028280:3G)
+obj(200078760:31, 107935504:2V.@def)
+aoj(301512275:10, 100157081:1A)
+mod(104731497:28.@pl, 104723816:20)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12765]
+{org:en}
+This parameter can be designated as HTM1 or in vector form HTM2 , where i is the number of construction, and HTM3 is the quantity of the selected parameters for the construction with the number i.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201030132:0O.@entry.@ability, 105859071:07.@topic)
+obj:01(202774500:3V, 105859071:44.@def.@pl)
+cnt:02(103384535:1K, HTM2:1P)
+aoj:01(103835412:2B.@def, 500324406:22.@topic)
+obj:02(600000093:7C.@entry, 103384535:1K)
+obj:01(600000019:50, 500324406:5G.@def)
+obj(201030132:0O.@entry.@ability, 105859071:07.@topic)
+obj:01(202774500:3V, 105859071:44.@def.@pl)
+cnt:02(103384535:1K, HTM2:1P)
+aoj:01(103835412:2B.@def, 500324406:22.@topic)
+obj:02(600000093:7C.@entry, 103384535:1K)
+obj:01(600000019:50, 500324406:5G.@def)
+aoj:01(105108740:3F.@entry.@def, HTM3:33.@topic)
+mod(105859071:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+or:02(600000093:7C.@entry, 600000023:0Z)
+aoj:01(600000019:50, 100873381:4N.@def)
+and:01(105108740:3F.@entry.@def, 103835412:2B.@def)
+obj:02(600000023:0Z, HTM1:12)
+man(201030132:0O.@entry.@ability, :02)
+pur:01(105859071:44.@def.@pl, 100873381:4N.@def)
+man(201030132:0O.@entry.@ability, :02)
+pur:01(105859071:44.@def.@pl, 100873381:4N.@def)
+mod:02(103384535:1K, 101372038:1D)
+mod:01(103835412:2B.@def, 100873381:2L)
+plc:02(:01, 103384535:1K)
+mod:01(500324406:5G.@def, 103835412:59)
+mod:01(105108740:3F.@entry.@def, 105859071:44.@entry.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12766]
+{org:en}
+These parameters are varied in the process of solution of the optimization problem, and the optimum values are selected for them.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(202774500:35.@entry, 200436879:0N)
+man(200436879:0N, 600000149:0U)
+mod(104979425:2U.@topic.@def.@pl, 300228645:2M)
+and(202774500:35.@entry, 200436879:0N)
+man(200436879:0N, 600000149:0U)
+mod(104979425:2U.@topic.@def.@pl, 300228645:2M)
+mod(105687338:25.@def, 100260051:1S)
+pur(202774500:35.@entry, 600000020:3I)
+obj(100190783:1C, 105687338:25.@def)
+obj(202774500:35.@entry, 104979425:2U.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(202774500:35.@entry, 104979425:2U.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000149:0U, 100190783:1C)
+obj(200436879:0N, 105859071:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105859071:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12767]
+{org:en}
+These parameters are called optimized ones.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200107231:0N.@entry, 105859071:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105859071:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+obj(200107231:0N.@entry, 105859071:08.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105859071:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+obj(200011852:0U, 600000027:14.@pl)
+gol(200107231:0N.@entry, 600000027:14.@pl)
+gol(200107231:0N.@entry, 600000027:14.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12768]
+{org:en}
+Thus, the vector HTM1 is the vector of the optimized parameters of the construction with number HTM2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(101372038:0V.@entry.@def, 400121135:02)
+aoj(600000019:2E, 100873381:21.@def)
+mod(105859071:1J.@def.@pl, 100873381:21.@def)
+man(101372038:0V.@entry.@def, 400121135:02)
+aoj(600000019:2E, 100873381:21.@def)
+mod(105859071:1J.@def.@pl, 100873381:21.@def)
+cnt(101372038:0C.@topic.@def, HTM1:0J)
+mod(101372038:0V.@entry.@def, 105859071:1J.@def.@pl)
+cnt(103835412:2J, HTM2:2Q)
+aoj(101372038:0V.@entry.@def, 101372038:0C.@topic.@def)
+aoj(101372038:0V.@entry.@def, 101372038:0C.@topic.@def)
+obj(600000019:2E, 103835412:2J)
+obj(200011852:19, 105859071:1J.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12769]
+{org:en}
+The boundary conditions are superimposed on all parameters of the constructions and technological processes including the optimized ones.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(201469263:0U.@entry, 105798863:0F.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(600000007:32, 100029677:2S.@entry.@pl)
+mod(105859071:1E.@pl, 300521584:1A)
+obj(201469263:0U.@entry, 105798863:0F.@topic.@def.@pl)
+aoj:01(600000007:32, 100029677:2S.@entry.@pl)
+mod(105859071:1E.@pl, 300521584:1A)
+obj:01(200011852:3G, 600000027:3Q.@def.@pl)
+mod(105859071:1E.@pl, :01)
+obj:01(600000007:32, 600000027:3Q.@def.@pl)
+plc(201469263:0U.@entry, 105859071:1E.@pl)
+plc(201469263:0U.@entry, 105859071:1E.@pl)
+aoj:01(302084979:2E, 100029677:2S.@entry.@pl)
+and:01(100029677:2S.@entry.@pl, 100873381:1W.@def.@pl)
+mod(105798863:0F.@topic.@def.@pl, 108512259:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12770]
+{org:en}
+These limitations are determined by the conditions of the physical possibilities, efficiency, norms and standards, etc.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:0O.@entry, 100808182:08.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(113854488:2O.@pl, 105644527:2C)
+obj(105798863:16.@def.@pl, :01:01)
+obj(200699815:0O.@entry, 100808182:08.@topic.@pl)
+and:01(113854488:2O.@pl, 105644527:2C)
+obj(105798863:16.@def.@pl, :01:01)
+mod(100808182:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+man(105798863:16.@def.@pl, 115689145:39)
+mod:01(105792010:1X.@def.@pl, 300627004:1O)
+agt(200699815:0O.@entry, 105798863:16.@def.@pl)
+agt(200699815:0O.@entry, 105798863:16.@def.@pl)
+and:01(105644527:2C, 105792010:1X.@def.@pl)
+and:01(104301140:2Y.@entry.@pl, 113854488:2O.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12771]
+{org:en}
+These limitations are expressed mathematically in the form of equalities or inequalities connected the considered parameters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200940384:0O.@entry, 100808182:08.@topic.@pl)
+agt(201069190:2J, :01)
+mod(103384535:1K.@def, 105859071:38.@def.@pl)
+obj(200940384:0O.@entry, 100808182:08.@topic.@pl)
+agt(201069190:2J, :01)
+mod(103384535:1K.@def, 105859071:38.@def.@pl)
+mod(100808182:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+man(200940384:0O.@entry, 400064829:0Y)
+obj(200691312:2X, 105859071:38.@def.@pl)
+man(200940384:0O.@entry, 103384535:1K.@def)
+man(200940384:0O.@entry, 103384535:1K.@def)
+or:01(104752221:26.@entry.@pl, 104747899:1S.@pl)
+obj(201069190:2J, 105859071:38.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12772]
+{org:en}
+Let us write down the limitations for optimized parameters of the construction number HTM1 in the following form
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(200496673:02.@entry, 201020356:09)
+obj(200011852:14, 105859071:1E.@pl)
+pur(100808182:0O.@def.@pl, 105859071:1E.@pl)
+gol(200496673:02.@entry, 201020356:09)
+obj(200011852:14, 105859071:1E.@pl)
+pur(100808182:0O.@def.@pl, 105859071:1E.@pl)
+mod(103835412:29.@def, 100873381:1W)
+obj(201020356:09, 100808182:0O.@def.@pl)
+cnt(103835412:29.@def, HTM1:2G)
+obj(200496673:02.@entry, 600000005:06)
+obj(200496673:02.@entry, 600000005:06)
+plc(103835412:29.@def, 103384535:32)
+mod(105859071:1E.@pl, 103835412:29.@def)
+mod(103384535:32, 300127815:2S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12773]
+{org:en}
+or in vector form
+{/org}
+{unl}
+or(600000093:0Q.@entry, :0R)
+or(600000093:0Q.@entry, :0R)
+mod(103384535:0F, 101372038:08)
+obj(600000093:0Q.@entry, 103384535:0F)
+obj(600000093:0Q.@entry, 103384535:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12774]
+{org:en}
+where HTM1 is the number of limitations for the optimized parameters of the construction.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(103835412:0M.@entry.@def, 115689346:02)
+obj(200011852:1G, 105859071:1Q.@def.@pl)
+pur(100808182:0W.@pl, 105859071:1Q.@def.@pl)
+plc(103835412:0M.@entry.@def, 115689346:02)
+obj(200011852:1G, 105859071:1Q.@def.@pl)
+pur(100808182:0W.@pl, 105859071:1Q.@def.@pl)
+mod(103835412:0M.@entry.@def, 100808182:0W.@pl)
+aoj(103835412:0M.@entry.@def, HTM1:0A.@topic)
+aoj(103835412:0M.@entry.@def, HTM1:0A.@topic)
+mod(105859071:1Q.@def.@pl, 100873381:28.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12775]
+{org:en}
+To solve the optimization problem, it is necessary to know the mathematical dependencies of the quality characteristics at the exit of each construction on the optimized parameters and on the quality characteristics of the water at the inlet of every construction.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+pur(300343552:17.@entry, 200634906:05)
+and:01(107935504:69.@entry.@def, 105859071:4S.@def.@pl)
+plc(104731497:2Y.@def.@pl, 100058519:3L.@def)
+mod:01(100873381:71, 600000301:6V)
+obj(115690067:26.@def.@pl, 104731497:2Y.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(104731497:5M.@def.@pl, 104723816:5E)
+pur(300343552:17.@entry, 200634906:05)
+and:01(107935504:69.@entry.@def, 105859071:4S.@def.@pl)
+plc(104731497:2Y.@def.@pl, 100058519:3L.@def)
+mod:01(100873381:71, 600000301:6V)
+obj(115690067:26.@def.@pl, 104731497:2Y.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(104731497:5M.@def.@pl, 104723816:5E)
+plc(100873381:3Y, :01:01)
+mod(105687338:0S.@def, 100260051:0F)
+obj(200594337:1K, 115690067:26.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(107935504:69.@entry.@def, 104731497:5M.@def.@pl)
+mod(100058519:3L.@def, 100873381:3Y)
+obj(200634906:05, 105687338:0S.@def)
+aoj(300343552:17.@entry, 200594337:1K)
+plc:01(107935504:69.@entry.@def, 109313716:6M.@def)
+aoj(300343552:17.@entry, 200594337:1K)
+plc:01(107935504:69.@entry.@def, 109313716:6M.@def)
+mod(104731497:2Y.@def.@pl, 104723816:2Q)
+obj:01(200011852:4I, 105859071:4S.@def.@pl)
+aoj(300915141:1T, 115690067:26.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(109313716:6M.@def, 100873381:71)
+mod(100873381:3Y, 600000848:3T)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12776]
+{org:en}
+The set of these dependencies represents the mathematical model of the process of water purification in the given construction.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200825447:0W.@entry, 115690067:0J.@topic.@pl)
+plc(100252894:2I, 100873381:38.@def)
+aoj(300915141:1B, 100898804:1O.@def)
+aoj(200825447:0W.@entry, 115690067:0J.@topic.@pl)
+plc(100252894:2I, 100873381:38.@def)
+aoj(300915141:1B, 100898804:1O.@def)
+mod(115690067:0J.@topic.@pl, 100625699:06.@def)
+mod(100898804:1O.@def, 100029677:21.@def)
+mod(100873381:38.@def, 300028280:32)
+obj(200825447:0W.@entry, 100898804:1O.@def)
+obj(200825447:0W.@entry, 100898804:1O.@def)
+mod(100252894:2I, 107935504:2C)
+obj(100029677:21.@def, 100252894:2I)
+mod(115690067:0J.@topic.@pl, 600000017:0D)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12777]
+{org:en}
+This mathematical model can be represented in the form of the set of differential, different, integral, or algebraic equations depending on the available knowledge of the technological process.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200825447:0X.@entry.@ability, 100898804:0K.@topic)
+mod(100023271:4C.@def, 100029677:57.@def)
+or:01(302854350:31.@entry, 300515870:2O)
+mod(100185307:3B.@pl, 100625699:1S.@def)
+mod(100898804:0K.@topic, 600000017:02)
+obj(200825447:0X.@entry.@ability, 100898804:0K.@topic)
+mod(100023271:4C.@def, 100029677:57.@def)
+or:01(302854350:31.@entry, 300515870:2O)
+mod(100185307:3B.@pl, 100625699:1S.@def)
+mod(100898804:0K.@topic, 600000017:02)
+mod(100625699:1S.@def, 103384535:1G.@def)
+aoj(202663848:3L.@progress, 100185307:3B.@pl)
+aoj(302084979:4T, 100029677:57.@def)
+or:01(300490413:2D, 302712922:1Z)
+plc(200825447:0X.@entry.@ability, 100185307:3B.@pl)
+aoj(300183053:42, 100023271:4C.@def)
+plc(200825447:0X.@entry.@ability, 100185307:3B.@pl)
+aoj(300183053:42, 100023271:4C.@def)
+or:01(300515870:2O, 300490413:2D)
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+
+[S:12778]
+{org:en}
+The dependencies were found for modules of the structural model presented in the Figure 2, which connect the optimized parameters with the concentrations of components determining quality of the initial water, hydraulic load on the constructions and other technological parameters of their functioning.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+[S:12779]
+{org:en}
+Following parameters were considered
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+mod(105859071:0C.@topic.@pl, 300127815:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12780]
+{org:en}
+characteristics of supports for fixed microorganisms in the bioreactor, ozone doses and contact time of the ozone-air mixture with purified water, doses of the coagulant and finely grained adsorbent, etc.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
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+
+[S:12781]
+{org:en}
+Experiments on the actual water and systematic experimental and exploitation observations for the function of every construction of the particular station at the periods of the characteristic changes of the water quality in the water source play the important role in the mathematical model construction and in its adequacy of the real processes.
+{/org}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12782]
+{org:en}
+The mathematical model of the process in the construction with number i might be presented in the generalized form as following relationship
+{/org}
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+[/S]
+
+[S:12783]
+{org:en}
+or in vector form
+{/org}
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+obj(600000093:0Q.@entry, 103384535:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12784]
+{org:en}
+Figure 3 represents the block scheme of the station with taking into account consecutive treatment of the water on every construction (module).
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12785]
+{org:en}
+The quality characteristics of the water entering on the first construction are the quality characteristics of the initial water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12786]
+{org:en}
+The characteristics of quality of the water obtained at the outlet of the last construction are the quality characteristics of the water supplied to the consumers.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(103748162:1Q.@def, 100873381:29)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12787]
+{org:en}
+Figure 3.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "3":09)
+mod(100556992:02.@entry, "3":09)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12788]
+{org:en}
+Block scheme of the water supply station with taking into consideration the consecutive water treatment in every construction (module)
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+mod(100873381:37, 600000301:31)
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+cnt(100873381:37, 103778600:3L.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12789]
+{org:en}
+The mathematical model of the station is the combination of the mathematical models of the constructions consisting the station and connected between them by the quality characteristics of the treated water
+{/org}
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+obj(100378985:1B.@def, 100898804:27.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12790]
+{org:en}
+Naturally, the quality characteristics for the water from different sources would be different.
+{/org}
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+frm(107935504:1D.@def, 104263614:1Y.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12791]
+{org:en}
+However, it is possible almost always to indicate the limit values for quality characteristics of initial water of the selected source at the specific seasons of the year
+{/org}
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+mod(107935504:30, 301011973:2S)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12792]
+{org:en}
+The quality characteristics of the initial water are consistent with the classification indicated above of the water sources for selection of the technological layouts for purifying natural water.
+{/org}
+{unl}
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+obj(200923793:2I, 101148904:23.@def)
+mod(107935504:19.@topic.@def, 104731497:0E.@def.@pl)
+obj(108399818:3N, 101010901:4I.@def.@pl)
+obj(300576680:1J.@entry, 101148904:23.@def)
+mod(107935504:5C, 301335708:54)
+obj(300576680:1J.@entry, 101148904:23.@def)
+mod(107935504:5C, 301335708:54)
+mod(104263614:3B.@def.@pl, 107935504:35)
+man(200923793:2I, 600000201:2S)
+mod(104731497:0E.@def.@pl, 104723816:06)
+aoj(302084979:44, 101010901:4I.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12793]
+{org:en}
+The boundary values of their concentrations in various seasons of the year are determined on the results of statistical treatment of the data of hydrochemical and hydrobiological information.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:29.@entry, 104979425:0F.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(100375071:0V.@pl, 115236475:1L.@pl)
+mod(108462320:3V.@def, 105091527:51)
+mod(100658082:3E, 115698567:2R.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303160904:1D, 115236475:1L.@pl)
+obj(200699815:29.@entry, 104979425:0F.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(100375071:0V.@pl, 115236475:1L.@pl)
+mod(108462320:3V.@def, 105091527:51)
+mod(100658082:3E, 115698567:2R.@def.@pl)
+aoj(303160904:1D, 115236475:1L.@pl)
+mod(104979425:0F.@topic.@def.@pl, 100375071:0V.@pl)
+obj(100658082:3E, 108462320:3V.@def)
+mod(115236475:1L.@pl, 115201505:20.@def)
+and:01(303162234:4Q.@entry, 303161723:48)
+plc(200699815:29.@entry, 100658082:3E)
+mod(100375071:0V.@pl, 600000020:0P.@pl)
+plc(200699815:29.@entry, 100658082:3E)
+mod(100375071:0V.@pl, 600000020:0P.@pl)
+aoj(:01, 105091527:51)
+aoj(302911627:32, 100658082:3E)
+mod(104979425:0F.@topic.@def.@pl, 108512259:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12794]
+{org:en}
+The quality characteristics of the water supplied to the consumers is determined by regulating and standardization documents
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200699815:20.@entry, 107935504:11.@topic.@def)
+mod(107935504:11.@topic.@def, 104731497:0E.@def.@pl)
+and:01(101158690:2T.@entry, 200299341:2E.@progress)
+obj(200699815:20.@entry, 107935504:11.@topic.@def)
+mod(107935504:11.@topic.@def, 104731497:0E.@def.@pl)
+and:01(101158690:2T.@entry, 200299341:2E.@progress)
+mod(103217458:39.@pl, :01)
+gol(202327200:17, 109612848:1N.@def.@pl)
+agt(200699815:20.@entry, 103217458:39.@pl)
+agt(200699815:20.@entry, 103217458:39.@pl)
+mod(104731497:0E.@def.@pl, 104723816:06)
+obj(202327200:17, 107935504:11.@topic.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12795]
+{org:en}
+The reduced expenditures (or maximum discount income) of every construction are the functions of the quality characteristics of the water at its inlet and of the parameters to be optimized.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(100720565:2E.@entry.@def.@pl, :02)
+mod:01(113255145:1C.@entry.@topic, 303161017:0V)
+obj:03(200011852:51, 105859071:4K.@entry.@def.@pl)
+mod(104731497:33.@def.@pl, 104723816:2V)
+mod(100873381:1T, 600000301:1N)
+aoj(100720565:2E.@entry.@def.@pl, :02)
+mod:01(113255145:1C.@entry.@topic, 303161017:0V)
+obj:03(200011852:51, 105859071:4K.@entry.@def.@pl)
+mod(104731497:33.@def.@pl, 104723816:2V)
+mod(100873381:1T, 600000301:1N)
+mod(:02, 100873381:1T)
+mod(104731497:33.@def.@pl, :03)
+obj:02(200045817:06, 115689361:0E.@def.@pl)
+mod:03(109313716:43, 600000016:3Z)
+mod(100720565:2E.@entry.@def.@pl, 104731497:33.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(113255145:1C.@entry.@topic, 100362103:13)
+mod(100720565:2E.@entry.@def.@pl, 104731497:33.@def.@pl)
+mod:01(113255145:1C.@entry.@topic, 100362103:13)
+plc:03(107935504:3Q.@def, 109313716:43)
+and:03(105859071:4K.@entry.@def.@pl, 107935504:3Q.@def)
+or:02(:01.@entry.@parenthesis, 115689361:0E.@def.@pl.@topic)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12796]
+{org:en}
+where HTM1 are the reduced expenditures of the construction with number
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(115689361:0T.@entry.@def.@pl, 115689346:02)
+obj(600000019:1Q, 103835412:1V)
+obj(200045817:0L, 115689361:0T.@entry.@def.@pl)
+plc(115689361:0T.@entry.@def.@pl, 115689346:02)
+obj(600000019:1Q, 103835412:1V)
+obj(200045817:0L, 115689361:0T.@entry.@def.@pl)
+mod(115689361:0T.@entry.@def.@pl, 100873381:1D.@def)
+aoj(115689361:0T.@entry.@def.@pl, HTM1:08.@topic)
+aoj(115689361:0T.@entry.@def.@pl, HTM1:08.@topic)
+cnt(103835412:1V, HTM2:22)
+aoj(600000019:1Q, 100873381:1D.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12797]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is the vector of quality characteristics at the inlet of the construction i
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(101372038:2E.@def.@entry, HTM1:02.@topic)
+cnt(100873381:3W.@def, 500324406:49)
+mod(104731497:2W.@pl, 104723816:2O)
+aoj(101372038:2E.@def.@entry, HTM1:02.@topic)
+cnt(100873381:3W.@def, 500324406:49)
+mod(104731497:2W.@pl, 104723816:2O)
+plc(104731497:2W.@pl, 109313716:3J.@def)
+mod(101372038:2E.@def.@entry, 104731497:2W.@pl)
+mod(101372038:2E.@def.@entry, 104731497:2W.@pl)
+mod(109313716:3J.@def, 100873381:3W.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12798]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 is the vector of the parameters of construction HTM2 that should be optimized.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(101372038:4L.@entry.@def, HTM1:02.@topic)
+obj(200011852:6A.@should.@past, 100873381:5D)
+aoj(101372038:4L.@entry.@def, HTM1:02.@topic)
+obj(200011852:6A.@should.@past, 100873381:5D)
+mod(105859071:4Z.@def.@pl, 100873381:5D)
+mod(101372038:4L.@entry.@def, 105859071:4Z.@def.@pl)
+mod(101372038:4L.@entry.@def, 105859071:4Z.@def.@pl)
+cnt(100873381:5D, HTM2:5Q)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12799]
+{org:en}
+The minimum sum of the reduced annual expenditures of every construction was taken as the optimization criterion for entire station
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200523095:27.@entry.@past, 100873381:1Q.@topic)
+aoj(300678024:0X, 115689361:14.@def.@pl)
+mod(104306080:3I, 300515380:3B)
+pur(115689586:2X.@def, 104306080:3I)
+obj(200523095:27.@entry.@past, 100873381:1Q.@topic)
+aoj(300678024:0X, 115689361:14.@def.@pl)
+mod(104306080:3I, 300515380:3B)
+pur(115689586:2X.@def, 104306080:3I)
+qua(115689361:14.@def.@pl, 105861067:0E.@def)
+obj(600000023:2D, 115689586:2X.@def)
+man(600000301:1K, 115689361:14.@def.@pl)
+man(200523095:27.@entry.@past, 600000023:2D)
+mod(105861067:0E.@def, 303161105:06)
+man(200523095:27.@entry.@past, 600000023:2D)
+mod(105861067:0E.@def, 303161105:06)
+mod(100873381:1Q.@topic, 600000301:1K)
+mod(115689586:2X.@def, 100260051:2K)
+obj(200045817:0P, 115689361:14.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12800]
+{org:en}
+where HTM1 is reduced annual expenditures for exploiting the main modules (constructions of the station)
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(115689361:0V.@entry.@pl, 115689346:02)
+obj(201162754:1C.@progress, 103778600:1W.@pl)
+obj(200045817:0G, 115689361:0V.@entry.@pl)
+plc(115689361:0V.@entry.@pl, 115689346:02)
+obj(201162754:1C.@progress, 103778600:1W.@pl)
+obj(200045817:0G, 115689361:0V.@entry.@pl)
+mod:01(100873381:25.@entry.@pl, 104306080:2Q.@def)
+pur(115689361:0V.@entry.@pl, 201162754:1C.@progress)
+mod(103778600:1W.@pl, 301512527:1R)
+aoj(115689361:0V.@entry.@pl, HTM1:08.@topic)
+aoj(115689361:0V.@entry.@pl, HTM1:08.@topic)
+cnt(103778600:1W.@pl, :01.@parenthesis)
+aoj(300678024:0O, 115689361:0V.@entry.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12801]
+{org:en}
+N is a number of construction at the station.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(103835412:09.@entry.@indef, 106832572:02.@topic)
+aoj(103835412:09.@entry.@indef, 106832572:02.@topic)
+plc(100873381:0J, 104306080:13.@def)
+mod(103835412:09.@entry.@indef, 100873381:0J)
+mod(103835412:09.@entry.@indef, 100873381:0J)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12802]
+{org:en}
+The mathematical model of the complex of technological processes proceeding in the constructions of the water purification stations in accordance with problem formulation is the dependence of the water quality characteristics at the outlet of the constructions on the quality characteristics at the inlet and on the parameters to be optimized.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(114001348:50.@entry.@def, 100898804:0J.@topic.@def)
+mod(104306080:3H.@def.@pl, 107935504:2Y)
+mod:01(104731497:7Q.@def.@pl, 104723816:7I)
+mod(104731497:5W.@def.@pl, 104723816:5O)
+aoj(302084979:17, 100029677:1L.@pl)
+plc(104731497:5W.@def.@pl, 103748162:6J.@def)
+mod(107069948:4H, 105687338:49)
+mod(105870365:0W.@def, 100029677:1L.@pl)
+aoj(114001348:50.@entry.@def, 100898804:0J.@topic.@def)
+mod(104306080:3H.@def.@pl, 107935504:2Y)
+mod:01(104731497:7Q.@def.@pl, 104723816:7I)
+mod(104731497:5W.@def.@pl, 104723816:5O)
+aoj(302084979:17, 100029677:1L.@pl)
+plc(104731497:5W.@def.@pl, 103748162:6J.@def)
+mod(107069948:4H, 105687338:49)
+mod(105870365:0W.@def, 100029677:1L.@pl)
+obj:01(200011852:9B, 105859071:8U.@entry.@def.@pl)
+mod(100873381:2D.@def.@pl, 104306080:3H.@def.@pl)
+plc(104731497:5W.@def.@pl, :01:01)
+obj(600000133:3Q, 107069948:4H)
+aoj(300915141:06, 100898804:0J.@topic.@def)
+and:01(105859071:8U.@entry.@def.@pl, 104731497:7Q.@def.@pl)
+plc(200341560:1V.@progress, 100873381:2D.@def.@pl)
+obj(114001348:50.@entry.@def, 104731497:5W.@def.@pl)
+mod(104306080:3H.@def.@pl, 100252894:34)
+mod(100898804:0J.@topic.@def, 105870365:0W.@def)
+obj(114001348:50.@entry.@def, 104731497:5W.@def.@pl)
+mod(104306080:3H.@def.@pl, 100252894:34)
+mod(100898804:0J.@topic.@def, 105870365:0W.@def)
+mod(103748162:6J.@def, 100873381:6X.@def.@pl)
+man(200341560:1V.@progress, 600000133:3Q)
+mod(104731497:5W.@def.@pl, 107935504:5I)
+obj(200341560:1V.@progress, 100029677:1L.@pl)
+plc:01(104731497:7Q.@def.@pl, 109313716:8D.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12803]
+{org:en}
+It is also supposed that the quality characteristics at the outlet correspond to the requirements to the quality of potable water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200917300:0D.@entry, 201006810:20.@topic)
+mod(104723816:32.@def, 107935504:3L)
+gol(201006810:20.@topic, 115669633:2I.@def.@pl)
+obj(200917300:0D.@entry, 201006810:20.@topic)
+mod(104723816:32.@def, 107935504:3L)
+gol(201006810:20.@topic, 115669633:2I.@def.@pl)
+mod(104731497:16.@topic.@def.@pl, 104723816:0Y)
+aoj(201006810:20.@topic, 104731497:16.@topic.@def.@pl)
+plc(104731497:16.@topic.@def.@pl, 103748162:1T.@def)
+man(200917300:0D.@entry, 400047534:08)
+man(200917300:0D.@entry, 400047534:08)
+aoj(303160899:3D, 107935504:3L)
+to(115669633:2I.@def.@pl, 104723816:32.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12804]
+{org:en}
+where n is the number of the quality characteristics of water taken into consideration, and m is the number of the optimized parameters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(103835412:0H.@entry.@def, 115689346:02)
+mod(104731497:13.@def.@pl, 104723816:0V)
+obj(202774407:1Y, 107935504:1M)
+plc(103835412:0H.@entry.@def, 115689346:02)
+mod(104731497:13.@def.@pl, 104723816:0V)
+obj(202774407:1Y, 107935504:1M)
+obj(200011852:39, 105859071:3J.@def.@pl)
+mod(103835412:0H.@entry.@def, 107935504:1M)
+mod(103835412:2V.@entry.@def, 105859071:3J.@def.@pl)
+aoj(103835412:0H.@entry.@def, 106832572:08.@topic)
+aoj(103835412:0H.@entry.@def, 106832572:08.@topic)
+aoj(103835412:2V.@entry.@def, 106832464:2M.@topic)
+mod(107935504:1M, 104731497:13.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12805]
+{org:en}
+These relationships demonstrate the dependence of the most important limiting characteristics of water quality on the optimized parameters selected.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202521816:0M.@entry, 113780719:08.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202774500:3X, 105859071:3M.@def.@pl)
+mod(104723816:2X, 104731497:28.@pl)
+plc(:5X, 105859071:3M.@def.@pl)
+agt(202521816:0M.@entry, 113780719:08.@topic.@pl)
+obj(202774500:3X, 105859071:3M.@def.@pl)
+mod(104723816:2X, 104731497:28.@pl)
+plc(:5X, 105859071:3M.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302004385:1Z, 104731497:28.@pl)
+obj(114001348:12.@def, :5X)
+mod(113780719:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+aoj(301275562:1P, 104731497:28.@pl)
+obj(202521816:0M.@entry, 114001348:12.@def)
+obj(200011852:3C, 105859071:3M.@def.@pl)
+obj(202521816:0M.@entry, 114001348:12.@def)
+obj(200011852:3C, 105859071:3M.@def.@pl)
+mod(104723816:2X, 107935504:2R)
+mod(:5X, 104723816:2X)
+man(301275562:1P, 400536271:1K)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12806]
+{org:en}
+;The easiest method for searching such dependencies is the statistic method of treatment the experimental data obtained in the process of exploitation of the actually operating stations.The easiest method for searching such dependencies is the statistical method of treatment the experimental data obtained in the process of exploitation of the actually operating stations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105660268:1Y.@entry.@def, 105660268:0E.@topic)
+man(202238085:34, 600000149:3D)
+man(300015097:06, 400536271:55)
+pur(105660268:0E.@topic, 201315613:0P.@progress)
+obj(200341285:4O.@progress, 104306080:4Y.@pl)
+aoj(105660268:1Y.@entry.@def, 105660268:0E.@topic)
+man(202238085:34, 600000149:3D)
+man(300015097:06, 400536271:55)
+pur(105660268:0E.@topic, 201315613:0P.@progress)
+obj(200341285:4O.@progress, 104306080:4Y.@pl)
+obj(202238085:34, 108462320:2Z.@entry.@def)
+aoj(302911627:1O, 105660268:1Y.@entry.@def)
+obj(100418903:3V, 104306080:4Y.@pl)
+mod(115690067:14.@pl, 600001411:0Z)
+mod(105660268:1Y.@entry.@def, 100658082:28)
+obj(600000149:3D, 100418903:3V)
+mod(105660268:1Y.@entry.@def, 100658082:28)
+obj(600000149:3D, 100418903:3V)
+obj(201315613:0P.@progress, 115690067:14.@pl)
+aoj(300015097:06, 105660268:0E.@topic)
+man(200341285:4O.@progress, 400149138:4F.@def)
+aoj(300859949:2M, 108462320:2Z.@entry.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12807]
+{org:en}
+Let some function HTM1 depends on a few parameters, but analytical expression of this function is unknown.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+gol(200496673:02.@entry, 202663848:0P)
+qua(105859071:15.@pl, 600000101:0Z)
+qua(100720565:0B, 600000277:06)
+gol(200496673:02.@entry, 202663848:0P)
+qua(105859071:15.@pl, 600000101:0Z)
+qua(100720565:0B, 600000277:06)
+aoj(303161396:1L, 100358528:1W.@topic)
+cnt(100720565:0B, HTM1:0K)
+mod(100358528:1W.@topic, 100720565:2F)
+obj(200496673:02.@entry, 100720565:0B)
+obj(200496673:02.@entry, 100720565:0B)
+aoj(301376894:2R.@entry, 100358528:1W.@topic)
+obj(202663848:0P, 105859071:15.@pl)
+mod(100720565:2F, 600000017:2A)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12808]
+{org:en}
+Following results presented in the coded form in the Table 13 would be obtained as a result of the series of experiments carried out for the technological layout presented in the Fig. 2 at various values of the parameters HTM1.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202238085:21.@entry.@will.@past, 115698567:0C.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104379243:1J.@def, "13":1P)
+mod(115690679:4X.@def, "2":52)
+pur(202774207:3B, 101010901:49.@def)
+mod(115698567:0C.@topic.@pl, 300127815:02)
+obj(202774207:3B, 100639556:2Z.@pl)
+cnt(105859071:5T.@def.@pl, HTM1:64)
+obj(202238085:21.@entry.@will.@past, 115698567:0C.@topic.@pl)
+mod(104379243:1J.@def, "13":1P)
+mod(115690679:4X.@def, "2":52)
+pur(202774207:3B, 101010901:49.@def)
+mod(115698567:0C.@topic.@pl, 300127815:02)
+obj(202774207:3B, 100639556:2Z.@pl)
+cnt(105859071:5T.@def.@pl, HTM1:64)
+plc(200772967:4G, 104979425:5F.@pl)
+obj(200994076:11, 103384535:17.@def)
+obj(600000056:2A, 100639556:2Z.@pl)
+aoj(303160904:57, 104979425:5F.@pl)
+aoj(302084979:3V, 101010901:49.@def)
+plc(200772967:0K, 103384535:17.@def)
+man(202238085:21.@entry.@will.@past, 600000056:2A)
+mod(104979425:5F.@pl, 105859071:5T.@def.@pl)
+man(202238085:21.@entry.@will.@past, 600000056:2A)
+mod(104979425:5F.@pl, 105859071:5T.@def.@pl)
+obj(200772967:4G, 101010901:49.@def)
+plc(200772967:0K, 104379243:1J.@def)
+qua(100639556:2Z.@pl, 105862721:2P)
+obj(200772967:0K, 115698567:0C.@topic.@pl)
+plc(200772967:4G, 115690679:4X.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12809]
+{org:en}
+Table 13.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "13":08)
+mod(104379243:02.@entry, "13":08)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12810]
+{org:en}
+Plan-matrix of the experiments with the technological layout of the water purification
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103730655:07.@entry, 100639556:0L.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302084979:16, 101010901:1K.@def)
+obj(600000019:0X, 101010901:1K.@def)
+mod(103730655:07.@entry, 100639556:0L.@def.@pl)
+aoj(302084979:16, 101010901:1K.@def)
+obj(600000019:0X, 101010901:1K.@def)
+aoj(600000019:0X, 100639556:0L.@def.@pl)
+cnt(103954199:02, 103730655:07.@entry)
+cnt(103954199:02, 103730655:07.@entry)
+mod(100252894:24.@def, 107935504:1Y)
+mod(101010901:1K.@def, 100252894:24.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12811]
+{org:en}
+The dependence of the function y on the parameters can be represented by the linear regression equation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200825447:1O.@entry.@ability, 114001348:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(114001348:06.@topic.@def, 100720565:0O.@def)
+mod(100185307:2P.@def, 100235208:2E)
+obj(200825447:1O.@entry.@ability, 114001348:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(114001348:06.@topic.@def, 100720565:0O.@def)
+mod(100185307:2P.@def, 100235208:2E)
+aoj(300658259:27, 100185307:2P.@def)
+agt(200825447:1O.@entry.@ability, 100185307:2P.@def)
+agt(200825447:1O.@entry.@ability, 100185307:2P.@def)
+cnt(100720565:0O.@def, 106833776:0X)
+plc(114001348:06.@topic.@def, 105859071:16.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12812]
+{org:en}
+where HTM1 are the coefficients of the regression determined on the basis of the experimental data.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+plc(113586122:0L.@entry.@def.@pl, 115689346:02)
+obj(600000085:1R, 108462320:2O.@def)
+obj(200699815:1G, 100235208:15.@def)
+plc(113586122:0L.@entry.@def.@pl, 115689346:02)
+obj(600000085:1R, 108462320:2O.@def)
+obj(200699815:1G, 100235208:15.@def)
+mod(113586122:0L.@entry.@def.@pl, 100235208:15.@def)
+aoj(113586122:0L.@entry.@def.@pl, HTM1:08.@topic)
+aoj(113586122:0L.@entry.@def.@pl, HTM1:08.@topic)
+aoj(300859949:2B, 108462320:2O.@def)
+man(200699815:1G, 600000085:1R)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12813]
+{org:en}
+Vector of the unknown coefficients HTM1 can be calculated by the method of the least squares, while
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200637259:1D.@entry.@ability, 101372038:02.@topic)
+mod(101372038:02.@topic, 113586122:0O.@def.@pl)
+mod(104291242:2F.@pl, 600001374:29)
+obj(200637259:1D.@entry.@ability, 101372038:02.@topic)
+mod(101372038:02.@topic, 113586122:0O.@def.@pl)
+mod(104291242:2F.@pl, 600001374:29)
+mod(105660268:1V.@def, 104291242:2F.@pl)
+aoj(301376894:0G, 113586122:0O.@def.@pl)
+agt(200637259:1D.@entry.@ability, 105660268:1V.@def)
+agt(200637259:1D.@entry.@ability, 105660268:1V.@def)
+cnt(113586122:0O.@def.@pl, HTM1:11)
+man(600001374:29, 400536271:3U)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12814]
+{org:en}
+where HTM1 is the matrix of the plan and HTM2 is the vector of the dimensions of the function
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689346:02.@entry
+[/W]
+mod(105093581:0N.@def.@pl, 100720565:15.@def)
+aoj(101372038:09.@entry.@def, HTM2:2O.@topic)
+[W]
+115689346:02.@entry
+[/W]
+mod(105093581:0N.@def.@pl, 100720565:15.@def)
+aoj(101372038:09.@entry.@def, HTM2:2O.@topic)
+mod(103730655:09.@def, 103954199:0N.@def)
+aoj(103730655:09.@def, HTM1:10.@topic)
+aoj(103730655:09.@def, HTM1:10.@topic)
+mod(101372038:09.@entry.@def, 105093581:0N.@def.@pl)
+and(101372038:09.@entry.@def, 103730655:09.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12815]
+{org:en}
+This method for obtaining mathematical model can be utilized also in case of the nonlinear parameter function, if the function could be reduced to the form (9) by the corresponding transformations.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+con(200161872:1I.@entry.@ability, 200045817:3U.@ability.@past)
+aoj(300915141:0S, 100898804:15)
+aoj(301417790:2B, 100720565:2V.@def)
+aoj(301974451:4P, 100398704:53.@def.@pl)
+man(200161872:1I.@entry.@ability, 400047534:1R)
+gol(200045817:3U.@ability.@past, 103384535:49.@def)
+con(200161872:1I.@entry.@ability, 200045817:3U.@ability.@past)
+aoj(300915141:0S, 100898804:15)
+aoj(301417790:2B, 100720565:2V.@def)
+aoj(301974451:4P, 100398704:53.@def.@pl)
+man(200161872:1I.@entry.@ability, 400047534:1R)
+gol(200045817:3U.@ability.@past, 103384535:49.@def)
+mod(105660268:07.@topic, 600000017:02)
+man(200161872:1I.@entry.@ability, 600000265:1W)
+agt(200045817:3U.@ability.@past, 100398704:53.@def.@pl)
+pur(105660268:07.@topic, 202238085:0I.@progress)
+obj(200161872:1I.@entry.@ability, 105660268:07.@topic)
+obj(200045817:3U.@ability.@past, 100720565:3C.@def)
+obj(200161872:1I.@entry.@ability, 105660268:07.@topic)
+obj(200045817:3U.@ability.@past, 100720565:3C.@def)
+mod(100720565:2V.@def, 105859071:2L)
+obj(600000265:1W, 100720565:2V.@def)
+tim(103384535:49.@def, "9":4F.@parenthesis)
+obj(202238085:0I.@progress, 100898804:15)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12816]
+{org:en}
+In particular, the equation of the form HTM1 can be transformed in such form by taking logarithms and replacement
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200381601:09.@entry.@ability, 100185307:0L.@def.@topic)
+and:01(100197772:1N.@entry, 106812631:18.@pl)
+mod(103384535:0T, 600001411:0O)
+obj(200381601:09.@entry.@ability, 100185307:0L.@def.@topic)
+and:01(100197772:1N.@entry, 106812631:18.@pl)
+mod(103384535:0T, 600001411:0O)
+cnt(103384535:11.@def, HTM1:12)
+gol(200381601:09.@entry.@ability, 103384535:0T)
+aoj(600000396:02, 100185307:0L.@def.@topic)
+agt(200381601:09.@entry.@ability, :01)
+agt(200381601:09.@entry.@ability, :01)
+mod(100185307:0L.@def.@topic, 103384535:11.@def)
+obj(200523095:11.@progress, :01:01)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12817]
+{org:en}
+The equation HTM1 will be obtained.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202238085:0S.@entry.@will, 100185307:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(202238085:0S.@entry.@will, 100185307:06.@topic.@def)
+cnt(100185307:06.@topic.@def, HTM1:0F)
+cnt(100185307:06.@topic.@def, HTM1:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12818]
+{org:en}
+It is assumed in our case, that
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200524682:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+obj(200524682:08.@entry, 600000016:02.@topic)
+mod(102974697:0N, 600000005:0J)
+scn(200524682:08.@entry, 102974697:0N)
+scn(200524682:08.@entry, 102974697:0N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12819]
+{org:en}
+It is necessary to obtain the vector of the regression coefficient on the basis of experimental data by formula (18) for each characteristic of the water quality.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300343552:08.@entry, 202238085:0L)
+tim(106731802:2Y, "18":37.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000085:1X, 108462320:2Q)
+mod(101372038:0W.@def, 113586122:1L.@def)
+mod(104731497:3K, 600000848:3F)
+aoj(300343552:08.@entry, 202238085:0L)
+tim(106731802:2Y, "18":37.@parenthesis)
+obj(600000085:1X, 108462320:2Q)
+mod(101372038:0W.@def, 113586122:1L.@def)
+mod(104731497:3K, 600000848:3F)
+obj(600000035:5Y, 106731802:2Y)
+obj(202238085:0L, 101372038:0W.@def)
+mod(104723816:4C.@def, 107935504:46)
+aoj(300859949:2D, 108462320:2Q)
+man(202238085:0L, 600000085:1X)
+mod(104723816:4C.@def, 104731497:3K)
+man(202238085:0L, 600000085:1X)
+mod(104723816:4C.@def, 104731497:3K)
+aoj(600000035:5Y, 108462320:2Q)
+mod(113586122:1L.@def, 100235208:1A)
+pur(106731802:2Y, 104723816:4C.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12820]
+{org:en}
+The last step of the formation of the mathematical model is the verification of adequacy of solutions.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(106736769:1U.@entry.@def, 100925207:0N.@topic.@def)
+mod(100285557:0B, 300004296:06)
+obj(100925207:0N.@topic.@def, 100898804:1H.@def)
+aoj(106736769:1U.@entry.@def, 100925207:0N.@topic.@def)
+mod(100285557:0B, 300004296:06)
+obj(100925207:0N.@topic.@def, 100898804:1H.@def)
+obj(104792357:2A, 100190783:2M.@pl)
+obj(106736769:1U.@entry.@def, 104792357:2A)
+obj(106736769:1U.@entry.@def, 104792357:2A)
+aoj(300915141:14, 100898804:1H.@def)
+tim(100925207:0N.@topic.@def, 100285557:0B)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12821]
+{org:en}
+The minimum of the functional (15) is achieved at optimum values of the optimized parameters in the field of the boundaries of its absolute values dictated by the actual practice of exploitation of one or other constructions
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(202526085:14.@entry, 108600274:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300005205:3P, 104979425:3Y.@pl)
+obj(200011852:22, 105859071:2C.@def.@pl)
+mod(100873381:5X.@pl, :01)
+mod(104979425:1O.@pl, 300228645:1G)
+mod(100410247:4S.@def, 300043765:4L)
+obj(202526085:14.@entry, 108600274:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300005205:3P, 104979425:3Y.@pl)
+obj(200011852:22, 105859071:2C.@def.@pl)
+mod(100873381:5X.@pl, :01)
+mod(104979425:1O.@pl, 300228645:1G)
+mod(100410247:4S.@def, 300043765:4L)
+obj(200626890:45, 104979425:3Y.@pl)
+aoj(301090308:0L, "15":0X.@def.@parenthesis)
+mod(104979425:1O.@pl, 105859071:2C.@def.@pl)
+obj(100410247:4S.@def, 100418903:54)
+mod(108512259:37.@def.@pl, 104979425:3Y.@pl)
+mod(108600274:06.@topic.@def, "15":0X.@def.@parenthesis)
+plc(202526085:14.@entry, 104979425:1O.@pl)
+agt(200626890:45, 100410247:4S.@def)
+plc(202526085:14.@entry, 104979425:1O.@pl)
+agt(200626890:45, 100410247:4S.@def)
+obj(600000233:2N, 108512259:37.@def.@pl)
+or:01(600000031:5R.@entry, 600000089:5K)
+aoj(600000233:2N, 105859071:2C.@def.@pl)
+obj(100418903:54, 100873381:5X.@pl)
+mod(104979425:3Y.@pl, 600000016:3L)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12822]
+{org:en}
+The one of the most widely used methods is the method of the penalty functions for finding the minimum values of the functional, when there are limitations if the form of inequalities.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105660268:1D.@entry.@def, 600000027:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(100808182:42.@pl, 104752221:4T.@pl)
+obj(200715239:2D.@progress, 104979425:2X.@def.@pl)
+man(400495663:0M, 400536271:0H)
+mod(100720565:1Z.@def.@pl, 105163189:1R)
+obj(201158572:0T, 105660268:0Y.@pl)
+aoj(105660268:1D.@entry.@def, 600000027:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(100808182:42.@pl, 104752221:4T.@pl)
+obj(200715239:2D.@progress, 104979425:2X.@def.@pl)
+man(400495663:0M, 400536271:0H)
+mod(100720565:1Z.@def.@pl, 105163189:1R)
+obj(201158572:0T, 105660268:0Y.@pl)
+aoj(301090308:3B, :78.@def)
+pur(100720565:1Z.@def.@pl, 200715239:2D.@progress)
+pof(600000027:06.@topic.@def, 105660268:0Y.@pl)
+mod(104979425:2X.@def.@pl, 303161105:2P)
+mod(105660268:1D.@entry.@def, 100720565:1Z.@def.@pl)
+mod(104752221:4T.@pl, 103384535:4L.@def)
+mod(105660268:1D.@entry.@def, 100720565:1Z.@def.@pl)
+mod(104752221:4T.@pl, 103384535:4L.@def)
+mod(104979425:2X.@def.@pl, :78.@def)
+tim(200715239:2D.@progress, 202603699:3Y)
+man(201158572:0T, 400495663:0M)
+aoj(202603699:3Y, 100808182:42.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12823]
+{org:en}
+The basis of well approved software system MatLab was utilized for the solution of this problem.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200161872:1R.@entry.@past, 105793554:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(200673983:0K, 104377057:1G)
+mod(105687338:2P, 600000017:2K)
+obj(200161872:1R.@entry.@past, 105793554:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(200673983:0K, 104377057:1G)
+mod(105687338:2P, 600000017:2K)
+mod(104377057:12, 106566077:0T)
+mod(100190783:28.@def, 105687338:2P)
+mod(500323869:19, 104377057:12)
+pur(200161872:1R.@entry.@past, 100190783:28.@def)
+pur(200161872:1R.@entry.@past, 100190783:28.@def)
+mod(104377057:1G, 500323869:19)
+mod(105793554:06.@topic.@def, 104377057:1G)
+man(200673983:0K, 400011093:0F)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12824]
+{org:en}
+The proposed methodology of optimization of the complex of water purification technological processes at the water purification stations was approved on the technological layout presented in the Figure 2.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200673983:3Z.@entry.@past, 105661400:0F.@topic.@def)
+plc(100029677:2M.@pl, 104306080:3M.@def.@pl)
+mod(100556992:5H.@def, "2":5O)
+mod(104306080:3M.@def.@pl, 100252894:39)
+aoj(302084979:4F, 101010901:4T.@def)
+mod(100252894:1V, 107935504:1P)
+obj(200673983:3Z.@entry.@past, 105661400:0F.@topic.@def)
+plc(100029677:2M.@pl, 104306080:3M.@def.@pl)
+mod(100556992:5H.@def, "2":5O)
+mod(104306080:3M.@def.@pl, 100252894:39)
+aoj(302084979:4F, 101010901:4T.@def)
+mod(100252894:1V, 107935504:1P)
+obj(100260051:0U, 105870365:1E.@def)
+obj(200772967:50, 101010901:4T.@def)
+aoj(302084979:28, 100029677:2M.@pl)
+obj(200875394:06, 105661400:0F.@topic.@def)
+plc(200673983:3Z.@entry.@past, 101010901:4T.@def)
+mod(100029677:2M.@pl, 100252894:1V)
+plc(200673983:3Z.@entry.@past, 101010901:4T.@def)
+mod(100029677:2M.@pl, 100252894:1V)
+mod(105661400:0F.@topic.@def, 100260051:0U)
+plc(200772967:50, 100556992:5H.@def)
+mod(104306080:3M.@def.@pl, 107935504:33)
+mod(105870365:1E.@def, 100029677:2M.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12825]
+{org:en}
+The dependencies of the type of HTM1 expressed through the selected optimized parameters were found for every module.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(115690067:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 200715239:2O.@past)
+obj(600000026:1D, 105859071:28.@def.@pl)
+mod(HTM1:0Y, 104504486:0Q.@def)
+obj(115690067:06.@entry.@def.@pl, 200715239:2O.@past)
+obj(600000026:1D, 105859071:28.@def.@pl)
+mod(HTM1:0Y, 104504486:0Q.@def)
+pur(200715239:2O.@past, 103778600:34)
+obj(200940384:13, HTM1:0Y)
+obj(200011852:1Y, 105859071:28.@def.@pl)
+cnt(115690067:06.@entry.@def.@pl, HTM1:0Y)
+cnt(115690067:06.@entry.@def.@pl, HTM1:0Y)
+obj(202774500:1P, 105859071:28.@def.@pl)
+man(200940384:13, 600000026:1D)
+mod(103778600:34, 600000301:2Y)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12826]
+{org:en}
+After simplifying and exclusion of the components of low significance, these dependencies were expressed in the following form
+{/org}
+{unl}
+man(200940384:2P.@entry.@past, 600000002:02)
+obj(600000002:02, :01:01)
+mod(103384535:3G, 300127815:36)
+man(200940384:2P.@entry.@past, 600000002:02)
+obj(600000002:02, :01:01)
+mod(103384535:3G, 300127815:36)
+mod(103081021:15.@def.@pl, 105169813:1N)
+plc(200940384:2P.@entry.@past, 103384535:3G)
+and:01(113935227:0O.@entry, 200400427:08.@progress)
+obj(200940384:2P.@entry.@past, 115690067:27.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200940384:2P.@entry.@past, 115690067:27.@topic.@pl)
+obj(:01, 103081021:15.@def.@pl)
+mod(115690067:27.@topic.@pl, 600000017:21)
+aoj(301206474:1J, 105169813:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12827]
+{org:en}
+Bioreactor
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115669725:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115669725:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12828]
+{org:en}
+Ozonation
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+115689966:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+115689966:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12829]
+{org:en}
+Reagent management
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(101133281:0A.@entry, 114778982:02)
+mod(101133281:0A.@entry, 114778982:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12830]
+{org:en}
+Clarifying and adsorption filter
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103339643:0S.@entry, :01)
+mod(103339643:0S.@entry, :01)
+and:01(113427789:0H.@entry, 200505151:02.@progress)
+and:01(113427789:0H.@entry, 200505151:02.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12831]
+{org:en}
+Designations in the formulas HTM1 are following
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200150776:14.@progress.@entry, 100152018:02.@topic.@pl)
+obj(200150776:14.@progress.@entry, 100152018:02.@topic.@pl)
+cnt(106731802:0M.@def.@pl, HTM1:0V)
+plc(100152018:02.@topic.@pl, 106731802:0M.@def.@pl)
+plc(100152018:02.@topic.@pl, 106731802:0M.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12832]
+{org:en}
+Q is the water flow rate at the station
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(113325010:0M.@entry.@def, 106832896:02.@topic)
+mod(100329227:0H, 107935504:0B)
+aoj(113325010:0M.@entry.@def, 106832896:02.@topic)
+mod(100329227:0H, 107935504:0B)
+mod(113325010:0M.@entry.@def, 100329227:0H)
+plc(113325010:0M.@entry.@def, 104306080:0Y.@def)
+plc(113325010:0M.@entry.@def, 104306080:0Y.@def)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12833]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 and HTM2 are the height and specific surface of the bioreactor load
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(:02.@entry, :01)
+and:01(HTM2:0B.@entry.@topic, HTM1:02.@topic)
+aoj:02(301099951:0Z, 104362025:18.@entry)
+aoj(:02.@entry, :01)
+and:01(HTM2:0B.@entry.@topic, HTM1:02.@topic)
+aoj:02(301099951:0Z, 104362025:18.@entry)
+mod:02(104362025:18.@entry, 103679986:1Y.@def)
+and:02(104362025:18.@entry, 105137165:0O.@def)
+and:02(104362025:18.@entry, 105137165:0O.@def)
+mod:02(103679986:1Y.@def, 115669725:1N)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12834]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 and HTM2 are costs of HTM3 of ozone, HTM4 of the contact reservoir, HTM5 of electrical power, and 1000 kg of adsorbent, respectively
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(113275847:0M.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod:02(HTM4:1A, 104078574:1U.@def)
+qua:02(115669290:34, "1000":2Z)
+and:02(114598525:3A.@entry, HTM5:25)
+and:01(HTM2:0D.@entry.@topic, HTM1:02.@topic)
+aoj(113275847:0M.@entry.@pl, :01)
+mod:02(HTM4:1A, 104078574:1U.@def)
+qua:02(115669290:34, "1000":2Z)
+and:02(114598525:3A.@entry, HTM5:25)
+and:01(HTM2:0D.@entry.@topic, HTM1:02.@topic)
+mod:02(105190804:2O, 302826701:2D)
+man(:02, 400137915:3L)
+mod:02(HTM3:0V, 114972807:13)
+mod:02(HTM5:25, 105190804:2O)
+mod(113275847:0M.@entry.@pl, :02)
+mod:02(104078574:1U.@def, 100039297:1M)
+mod(113275847:0M.@entry.@pl, :02)
+mod:02(104078574:1U.@def, 100039297:1M)
+and:02(HTM5:25, HTM4:1A)
+qua:02(114598525:3A.@entry, 115669290:34)
+and:02(HTM4:1A, HTM3:0V)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12835]
+{org:en}
+HTM1 are the optimized parameters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(105859071:0P.@entry.@def.@pl, HTM1:02.@topic)
+aoj(105859071:0P.@entry.@def.@pl, HTM1:02.@topic)
+obj(200011852:0F, 105859071:0P.@entry.@def.@pl)
+obj(200011852:0F, 105859071:0P.@entry.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12836]
+{org:en}
+Following boundary regions were accepted for optimized parameters
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200668805:0Y.@entry.@past, 105221895:0L.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105221895:0L.@topic.@pl, 300127815:02)
+obj(200668805:0Y.@entry.@past, 105221895:0L.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105221895:0L.@topic.@pl, 300127815:02)
+obj(200011852:1B, 105859071:1L.@pl)
+pur(200668805:0Y.@entry.@past, 105859071:1L.@pl)
+pur(200668805:0Y.@entry.@past, 105859071:1L.@pl)
+mod(105221895:0L.@topic.@pl, 108512259:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12837]
+{org:en}
+degree of bioreactor filling with the fibrous packing
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105094565:02.@entry, 115669725:0C)
+aoj(302446239:14, 100319312:1C.@def)
+mod(105094565:02.@entry, 115669725:0C)
+aoj(302446239:14, 100319312:1C.@def)
+gol(200261533:0N.@progress, 100319312:1C.@def)
+obj(200261533:0N.@progress, 115669725:0C)
+obj(200261533:0N.@progress, 115669725:0C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12838]
+{org:en}
+contact time of ozone-air mixture with water
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(600000019:10, 100380083:0S.@entry)
+obj(600000019:10, 107935504:15)
+mod(100380083:0S.@entry, 104727214:0O)
+aoj(600000019:10, 100380083:0S.@entry)
+obj(600000019:10, 107935504:15)
+mod(100380083:0S.@entry, 104727214:0O)
+mod(100380083:0S.@entry, 114972807:0I)
+tim(100380083:0S.@entry, 100028270:0A)
+tim(100380083:0S.@entry, 100028270:0A)
+mod(100028270:0A, 100039297:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12839]
+{org:en}
+ozone dose HTM1
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103225238:08.@entry, 114972807:02)
+mod(103225238:08.@entry, 114972807:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12840]
+{org:en}
+dose of the coagulant solution
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(103225238:02.@entry, 100190783:0O.@def)
+mod(103225238:02.@entry, 100190783:0O.@def)
+mod(100190783:0O.@def, 114815728:0E)
+cnt(100190783:0O.@def, HTM1:0X)
+cnt(100190783:0O.@def, HTM1:0X)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12841]
+{org:en}
+and dose of the adsorbent introduced into the upper layer of the packing of the clarifying-adsorption filter
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200706693:0S, 114598525:0I.@entry.@def)
+mod(100319312:1V.@def, 103339643:2W)
+mod(101463259:1I.@def, 100319312:1V.@def)
+obj(200706693:0S, 114598525:0I.@entry.@def)
+mod(100319312:1V.@def, 103339643:2W)
+mod(101463259:1I.@def, 100319312:1V.@def)
+gol(200706693:0S, 101463259:1I.@def)
+mod(103339643:2W, 113427789:2L)
+mod(114598525:0I.@entry.@def, 103225238:06)
+mod(114598525:0I.@entry.@def, 103225238:06)
+obj(200505151:2A.@progress.@def, 103339643:2W)
+mod(101463259:1I.@def, 301206318:1C)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12842]
+{org:en}
+The criterion of the optimum conditions is equal to
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300889831:19.@entry, 115689586:06.@topic.@def)
+aoj(300889831:19.@entry, 115689586:06.@topic.@def)
+mod(105798863:0V.@def.@pl, 300228645:0N)
+mod(115689586:06.@topic.@def, 105798863:0V.@def.@pl)
+mod(115689586:06.@topic.@def, 105798863:0V.@def.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12843]
+{org:en}
+The optimum values of the optimized parameters turned out to be equal as follows
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200425522:1D.@entry, 104979425:0E.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200011852:0S, 105859071:12.@def.@pl)
+mod(104979425:0E.@topic.@def.@pl, 105859071:12.@def.@pl)
+obj(200425522:1D.@entry, 104979425:0E.@topic.@def.@pl)
+obj(200011852:0S, 105859071:12.@def.@pl)
+mod(104979425:0E.@topic.@def.@pl, 105859071:12.@def.@pl)
+man(300889831:1S, 600000181:1Y)
+pur(200425522:1D.@entry, 300889831:1S)
+pur(200425522:1D.@entry, 300889831:1S)
+mod(104979425:0E.@topic.@def.@pl, 300228645:06)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12844]
+{org:en}
+These values are valid for the considered example (Figure 2) and assumed initial data, cost values and limitations of the optimized parameters.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300938659:0J.@entry, 104979425:08.@topic.@pl)
+obj:02(200691312:0X, 105820620:18.@def)
+mod:03(104979425:2M.@pl, 113275847:2H)
+and:03(100808182:2X.@entry.@pl, 104979425:2M.@pl)
+mod(104979425:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+aoj(300938659:0J.@entry, 104979425:08.@topic.@pl)
+obj:02(200691312:0X, 105820620:18.@def)
+mod:03(104979425:2M.@pl, 113275847:2H)
+and:03(100808182:2X.@entry.@pl, 104979425:2M.@pl)
+mod(104979425:08.@topic.@pl, 600000017:02)
+mod:02(108462320:2B.@entry, 301011973:23)
+obj(:03, 105859071:3Q.@def.@pl)
+obj(200011852:3G, 105859071:3Q.@def.@pl)
+mod:02(108462320:2B.@entry, 301116857:1V)
+obj(300938659:0J.@entry, :03:03)
+mod:01(100556992:1H.@entry, "2":1O)
+obj(300938659:0J.@entry, :03:03)
+mod:01(100556992:1H.@entry, "2":1O)
+and:02(108462320:2B.@entry, 105820620:18.@def)
+and:03(104979425:2M.@pl, :02)
+cnt:02(105820620:18.@def, :01.@parenthesis)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12845]
+{org:en}
+The concentrations of the analyzed components in the water at the outlet of the water purification station at these conditions were equal as follows
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(300889831:3Q.@entry.@past, 100375071:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(105798863:3A.@pl, 600000017:34)
+plc(107935504:1J.@def, 103748162:1W.@def)
+plc(103081021:11.@def.@pl, 107935504:1J.@def)
+aoj(300889831:3Q.@entry.@past, 100375071:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(105798863:3A.@pl, 600000017:34)
+plc(107935504:1J.@def, 103748162:1W.@def)
+plc(103081021:11.@def.@pl, 107935504:1J.@def)
+mod(104306080:2T.@def, 107935504:2A)
+mod(100375071:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 103081021:11.@def.@pl)
+plc(104306080:2T.@def, 105798863:3A.@pl)
+man(300889831:3Q.@entry.@past, 600000181:3W)
+man(300889831:3Q.@entry.@past, 600000181:3W)
+mod(103748162:1W.@def, 104306080:2T.@def)
+obj(200643197:0S, 103081021:11.@def.@pl)
+mod(104306080:2T.@def, 100252894:2G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12846]
+{org:en}
+turbidity
+{/org}
+{unl}
+[W]
+104703932:02.@entry
+[/W]
+[W]
+104703932:02.@entry
+[/W]
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12847]
+{org:en}
+color index
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105567381:08.@entry, 104674968:02)
+mod(105567381:08.@entry, 104674968:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12848]
+{org:en}
+oxidation capability
+{/org}
+{unl}
+mod(105202497:0C.@entry, 113530408:02)
+mod(105202497:0C.@entry, 113530408:02)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12849]
+{org:en}
+The developed methodology and structure and mathematical models of the optimization of technological layouts of the water purification processes allow to formulate the software for operative control technological processes with the aid of computer at the actually function water supply stations in the conditions with changing water quality at their inlets.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(200723545:43.@entry, :02)
+mod(104723816:9B, 107935504:95)
+plc(103082979:6P, 104306080:80.@pl)
+obj:02(200234057:06, :01:01)
+mod(100029677:5Z.@pl, 100803617:5D)
+obj:02(100260051:21.@def, 101010901:2V.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:8R, 105798863:8G.@def.@pl)
+pur(106566077:4Q.@def, 100029677:5Z.@pl)
+mod:02(100898804:1N.@entry.@pl.@topic, 100260051:21.@def)
+mod(104306080:80.@pl, 115669704:7N)
+agt(200723545:43.@entry, :02)
+mod(104723816:9B, 107935504:95)
+plc(103082979:6P, 104306080:80.@pl)
+obj:02(200234057:06, :01:01)
+mod(100029677:5Z.@pl, 100803617:5D)
+obj:02(100260051:21.@def, 101010901:2V.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:8R, 105798863:8G.@def.@pl)
+pur(106566077:4Q.@def, 100029677:5Z.@pl)
+mod:02(100898804:1N.@entry.@pl.@topic, 100260051:21.@def)
+mod(104306080:80.@pl, 115669704:7N)
+obj(600000019:69, 113265904:6I.@def)
+mod:02(100029677:3T.@def.@pl, 107935504:3A)
+obj(200109660:8W.@progress, 104723816:9B)
+obj(201633173:4C, 106566077:4Q.@def)
+and:02(100898804:1N.@entry.@pl.@topic, :01)
+man(104306080:80.@pl, 400149138:75.@def)
+aoj(300832347:53, 100803617:5D)
+aoj:02(302084979:2H, 101010901:2V.@pl)
+plc(104723816:9B, 109313716:9S.@pl)
+obj(200723545:43.@entry, 201633173:4C)
+mod(109313716:9S.@pl, 600000020:9M.@pl)
+scn(104306080:80.@pl, 105798863:8G.@def.@pl)
+and:01(104931965:0W.@entry.@def, 105661400:0G.@def)
+obj(200723545:43.@entry, 201633173:4C)
+mod(109313716:9S.@pl, 600000020:9M.@pl)
+scn(104306080:80.@pl, 105798863:8G.@def.@pl)
+and:01(104931965:0W.@entry.@def, 105661400:0G.@def)
+aoj(302084979:5L, 100029677:5Z.@pl)
+mod:02(101010901:2V.@pl, 100029677:3T.@def.@pl)
+obj(600000019:8R, 104723816:9B)
+aoj:02(300915141:1A, 100898804:1N.@entry.@pl)
+aoj(600000019:69, 100029677:5Z.@pl)
+mod(115669704:7N, 100720565:7E)
+obj(113265904:6I.@def, 103082979:6P)
+mod:02(100029677:3T.@def.@pl, 100252894:3G)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12850]
+{org:en}
+The introduction of such software requires in practice preliminary analysis and treatment of perennial and season data on the efficiency of functioning each construction with changing quality of the initial water in line of particular water intake and at the station inlet.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+agt(202774169:10.@entry, 100238022:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(400226458:5Z, 103576617:6R)
+plc(201525666:3Y.@progress, 109313716:7H.@def)
+and:01(100658082:2A.@entry, 100634276:1X)
+mod(106566077:0R, 600001411:0M)
+obj(600000018:4S, 104723816:56)
+obj(:01, 108462320:38)
+mod(109313716:7H.@def, 104306080:79)
+obj(201525666:3Y.@progress, 100873381:4F)
+agt(202774169:10.@entry, 100238022:06.@topic.@def)
+obj(400226458:5Z, 103576617:6R)
+plc(201525666:3Y.@progress, 109313716:7H.@def)
+and:01(100658082:2A.@entry, 100634276:1X)
+mod(106566077:0R, 600001411:0M)
+obj(600000018:4S, 104723816:56)
+obj(:01, 108462320:38)
+mod(109313716:7H.@def, 104306080:79)
+obj(201525666:3Y.@progress, 100873381:4F)
+and:02(115236475:31.@entry, 300592880:2N)
+mod(107935504:5T.@def, 301011973:5L)
+man(202774169:10.@entry, 400166512:19)
+mod(103576617:6R, 107935504:6L)
+man(201525666:3Y.@progress, 600000018:4S)
+mod(108462320:38, :02)
+obj(200109660:4X.@progress, 104723816:56)
+obj(202774169:10.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(103576617:6R, 300311044:6A)
+man(201525666:3Y.@progress, 400226458:5Z)
+obj(202774169:10.@entry, :01:01)
+mod(103576617:6R, 300311044:6A)
+man(201525666:3Y.@progress, 400226458:5Z)
+plc(108462320:38, 105644527:3K.@def)
+mod(104723816:56, 107935504:5T.@def)
+obj(100238022:06.@topic.@def, 106566077:0R)
+mod(:01, 300878086:1L)
+mod(100873381:4F, 600000848:4A)
+mod(105644527:3K.@def, 201525666:3Y.@progress)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12851]
+{org:en}
+The most important optimized parameters of construction functioning should be brought out and specialized.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+and(302277607:2O.@entry, 200514463:28.@should.@past)
+obj(200011852:0L, 105859071:0V.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105859071:0V.@topic.@pl, 100873381:19)
+and(302277607:2O.@entry, 200514463:28.@should.@past)
+obj(200011852:0L, 105859071:0V.@topic.@pl)
+mod(105859071:0V.@topic.@pl, 100873381:19)
+obj(200514463:28.@should.@past, 105859071:0V.@topic.@pl)
+agt(201525666:1M.@progress, 100873381:19)
+aoj(302277607:2O.@entry, 105859071:0V.@topic.@pl)
+aoj(302277607:2O.@entry, 105859071:0V.@topic.@pl)
+man(301275562:0B, 400536271:06)
+aoj(301275562:0B, 105859071:0V.@topic.@pl)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12852]
+{org:en}
+The limits of their alteration should be also established.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+obj(200636888:1C.@entry.@should.@past, 105124057:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(100199707:0M, 600000020:0G.@pl)
+obj(200636888:1C.@entry.@should.@past, 105124057:06.@topic.@def.@pl)
+mod(100199707:0M, 600000020:0G.@pl)
+mod(105124057:06.@topic.@def.@pl, 100199707:0M)
+man(200636888:1C.@entry.@should.@past, 400047534:17)
+man(200636888:1C.@entry.@should.@past, 400047534:17)
+{/unl}
+[/S]
+
+[S:12853]
+{org:en}
+The developed and approved methodology of optimizing complex of the technological processes of purifying water from surface sources permits to solve the analogues problems also for stations of conditioning underground water, for purification of household and industrial waste water, and for water purification systems of the circulation water supply.
+{/org}
+{unl}
+aoj(200802318:3Q.@entry, 105661400:0T.@topic.@def)
+obj(:01, 105661400:0T.@topic.@def)
+and:03(104377057:8V.@entry.@pl, 100252894:6M)
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+aoj(302084979:1Y, 100029677:2C.@def.@pl)
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+obj(200011852:18.@progress, 105870365:1J)
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+SanPin (Sanitary Rules and Norms of HTM1 Russian Federation HTM2 )
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+State Committee on Sanitary and Epidemiological Control of HTM1 Russian Federation HTM2
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+in Russian
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+Hygienic requirements for quality of water of centralized systems of potable water supply in HTM1 Russia HTM2.
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+Control Processes of Water Treatment
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+{org:en}
+Cox Ch. R., Ed.
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+[W]
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+The collective work of twenty-four specialists of the World Community about all aspects of physical-chemical and sanitary and hygienic control of water quality.
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+Strategies and Technologies for Meeting SDWA Requirements
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+Clark R.M. and Summers R.S., Eds.
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+Lancaster
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+[W]
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+Technomic.
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+[W]
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+[/W]
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+The experience of American scientists in the development of the technology and methods of control of water treatment in accordance with the standards of the HTM1 USA HTM2.
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+Klyachko V.A. and Apel'tsin I.E.
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+Purification of Natural Water
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+Technological layouts, design of constructions and calculations on the purification of the surface and underground water are considered.
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+NIIVODGEO, Vologodskii Gos. Tekhn. Univ.
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+The physical-chemical and biological fundamentals of the water purification processes and methods of designing systems and constructions for water supply are enounced in the three-volume reference manual.
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+Classifiers of the Technologies of the Natural Water Purification
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+The new methodology is presented for selection of the technological layouts and complexes for treatment of natural, surface and underground waters for potable purposes.
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